• DESIGN PRINCIPLES

1. FOUNDATIONS
2. THE BUILDING NEEDS A COHERENT STRUCTURE
3. JOINING WALLS TO ROOF STRUCTURE
4. TYING WALLS TO BUILDING STRUCTURE
5. ROOF TRUSS TIES
6. CROSS BRACING OF WALLS AND ROOF
7. DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES

Structural 8. HOUSE ELEVATION AND LOCATION

• CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS PRINCIPLES

Methodology 1. FOUNDATIONS
2. SAND AND GRAVEL
3. MIXING CONCRETE
4. MAKING COLUMNS
5. REINFORCEMENT
6. ROOFING
7. TYING WALLS TO STRUCTURE
8. WELLS, SEPTIC TANKS, PLUMBING

• CODE OF MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR HOUSE BUILDING

• HOUSE BUILDING CHECKLIST
INSPECT ME!!!
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 Design Principles
The following aspects of a house or a structure must be considered in the design:

1. Foundations
• A safe house must be based on a strong foundation and therefore this must be given primary attention.
• The ground under the building has to bear the weight of a house. If it is a weak soil, the foundations
must be made stronger. If the house has more than one floor the foundation must also be made
stronger. Foundations are best when continuous under the house.

• Is the building built on sand, rock, clay? Design foundations appropriately.

• Soil for a good foundation that can carry the weight of a house must be well
drained so that it is dry and not waterlogged.

• Waterlogged soil can become liquefied in an earthquake—turn to a semi-liquid--so

that structures sink into the ground.
INSPECT ME!!!
Example of bad foundations.

This house is being built in a swampy,

waterlogged area. As the foundations and the
foundation trench was dug, it filled with water
so the builders dropped dry sand and cement
into it and then the first row of blocks were
located on top of this mixture. These
foundations in permanently wet soil are
inadequate and will also be weak when
impacted by any external hazard.
INSPECT ME!!!
This house is located on a river
bed, close to running water,
where it is very vulnerable to
flooding. Not only the house, but
also its contents are vulnerable to
destruction due to heavy rains.
Houses should not be built in
such obviously vulnerable
locations, or if they are, they
should be designed to resist the
hazards of their location.

Example of bad
location
Liquefaction. Example of a well built
and well structured house that was
not quite finished when a major
hazard struck. The house was
structurally good but the foundations
were poor for this location. Due to a
major earthquake the foundations
suffered from liquefaction of the
ground, and due to the weight of the
house, it subsided unevenly into the
ground.
2. The building needs a
coherent structure. If the
structure is coherent and
strong, it protects the whole
house.
 • A regular structure

This regularly structured building is able to

withstand the impact of hazards. Notice the
structure of columns and floors which are all
joined to each other in a regular format.
Overhanging parts of the building are all
well supported by continuous columns to
the foundations.
• An integrated structural
ring beam around tops of
doors and windows
connected to columns
 Good Structure.

An integrated
structural ring beam
around top of walls
connected to columns
Bad Structural
Practice
• This house has no structural
columns and no ring beams to hold
the structure together. There are no
columns at the corners, or within
the walls, and there are no ring
beams at the top of doors and
windows or at the top of the walls.
This building will have little
resistance to being destroyed by
any impact from nature, like an
earthquake or a storm.
 Poor
Structuring
of a house
Not good
structure
 Good structural practice

A good pattern of reinforced

concrete columns and beams to
strengthen all aspects of the
building including support to
strengthen the triangular gable
end wall so that it will not fall
when a lateral force strikes the
building. All end walls of this
nature need a reinforced column
to strengthen them, or they are
liable to fall when the building is
subjected to a major lateral force.
It also has a reinforced concrete
beam to top to all walls.
Connection of wood
frame building to
concrete frame/brick
stub walls.
It is essential that a wood
frame structure mounted on
a concrete frame/brick stub
wall must be fully anchored
together. A bracket, as shown
above left, made of
noncorrodible metal, must
be cast into the bearing
structure to provide a
structural connection for the
whole wall through to the
foundation. The wood
column must be bolted to
the bracket as shown, and
the bracket must be fully
secured into the concrete as
shown on the right.
3. Joining walls to roof
structure. Join walls and roof
to strengthen each other.
 • Column reinforcement should
protrude from the top of concrete
columns and be bent around roof
trusses for structural strength, or
roof trusses should be strapped
with metal ties to the wall
structure.

An illustration of binding roof trusses to

building structure. Roof trusses should be
constructed over columns, and for a
concrete column the reinforcement
should protrude at the top and be bent
over roof trusses to join the roof
structure with the wall structure. Metal
straps or plates can be used for this role,
particularly where the building structure
is made of wood.
• A good roofing example of
column steel reinforcement bent
over roof truss to tie house
structure to the roof structure.
This is an essential detail in areas
subject to earthquake and to
winds, to keep the roof on the
house when a natural hazard
strikes the structure. Such
exposed steel should be painted
with rust-proof paint to minimize
corrosion.
• Example of good roofing
practice. Steel roof trusses
are connected to columns
through welding of truss
members to column
reinforcing steel and purlins
are welded with ties to roof
trusses. This will hold the
roof firmly on the house in
storms or other hazards
from nature.
• Example of incorrect
roofing practice. The roof
structure is good, but no
connection is made between
roof trusses and the building
structure. The roof is resting
on the top of the house walls
and is subject to moving with
high winds or other forces of
nature.
4. Tying walls to building
structure Walls tied to
columns protect them from
falling.
 • Walls must be tied into the building
structure so that they do not move
separately when the forces of nature
impact them.

Good tying practice. An illustration for a

wooden frame building, where metal
ties are used to tie wall materials to the
main structure of the building. Steel wall
ties are to be at a maximum of 40cm
spacing.
• Good tying practice. An illustration
for a reinforced concrete frame
building, where metal ties are used to
tie walls to the main building
structure. Steel wall ties are to be at
maximum of 40cm spacing and a
minimum of 8mm diameter, and bent
at the end. They are for all openings in
the walls.
 • Walls must be tied into the
building structure so that they
do not move separately when
the forces of nature impact
them.

A good example of wall ties cast into columns to

connect the walls with the building structure.
Ties are to be at maximum 40cm spacing from
bottom to top of the wall. However, in this
illustration they lack hooks at the ends at this
point in construction.

Wall ties should be hooked into the wall structure.

Result of no ties. This is an example of
what happens when walls are not tied
to columns. The main part of this
building (2 floors on the left) withstood
the forces of nature striking it, but the
one floor extension collapsed. The
columns could not help resist the force
of nature on the walls of this house
extension because of the lack of ties
between the walls and the columns. The
one floor part also lacked a strong
structure.
Result of lack of ties.
Another example of what
happens when the walls
are not tied to the
columns. The wall panel
on the left is moving away
from the column because
it has not been tied into
the column.
 • The joints of wooden roof
trusses need to be bolted
together and tied with metal
straps to provide flexibility but
not collapse under the forces of
nature.

This illustration shows the metal straps

tying together the different elements
of the roof structure at this joint in
roofing, so that they will be held
together when affected by extreme
forces of nature. A metal plate may
also be used.
• This illustration shows a strap or
plate across the joint at the apex
of the roof structure. This is
always good jointing practice.
Notice also that for a wooden
roof structure, wooden blocks
should be used for support of
purlins, not a single nail through
the purlin into the truss.
 Metal roof trusses must be
welded together, welded to
purlins, and welded to wall
reinforcement for strength.

• Good roofing practice with metal

roof trusses, where the roof is
strongly connected to the reinforcing
in the wall columns by welding, and
the purlins are welded to the roof
trusses with small brackets to make a
strong roof structure.
• 6. Cross bracing of
walls and roof. The walls
and roof need bracing
against lateral
movement.
 • In order to resist lateral
forces, walls and roof
structure need cross
bracing at all levels,
particularly if it is a
wooden structure.

Example of a cross bracing system for the walls,

roof, and also for the columns under the house for a
wooden house structure. The cross bracing system
provides strength against lateral forces so that the
building does not collapse sideways but is held
together. This is a system used in traditional houses
and needs to be continued in modern houses.
• Good Practice. Traditional Batanes
houses, which have stood through
many storms and earthquakes, are
well structured and supported, with
good corner columns, and have good
arches over doors and windows to
bear weight down their sides. The
solid stone wall on a good
foundation provides resistance to
lateral movement.
7. Drainage Principles
Drainage plans are
essential to good house
design.
• A high rainfall area requires a drainage plan for roof water
to a common drain. Levels of the drainage system need to
be included on plans so that rain water flows away and
does not form puddles that breed insects around houses.

• Drains should be covered or bridged where necessary to

allow access over them for people and vehicles.

• Drains should have a V form at the bottom to reduce

accumulation of water if levels are incorrect.
8. House elevation and location
Safeguards house and contents from
flooding, landslides, flashfloods.
• The house floor should be elevated above the
surrounding ground level, and extra height is
needed in vulnerable situations such as locations
close to a floodable waterway or a swampy area, or
in a tsunami or wave prone area near the sea. Extra
height is best provided through stilts.

Good house elevation. This house is being built in a

low lying area vulnerable to flooding. Concrete stilts
are being cast on pad footings to raise the floor level of
the house so that it will not be flooded or subject to
dampness.
Houses must be located away from places subject
to landslides where soil may move down a steep
slope, debris flows where soil gravel and rocks
may be washed rapidly down by heavy rainfall,
and flashfloods.

• Guidelines on where to build. These

illustrate principles for locating houses in
safer places so that house and contents will
be less likely to suffer disaster.
Where not to build. Examples of
places where it is dangerous to build
and where houses may easily be
destroyed.
 Construction and
Materials Principles
 • Make a strong base for • Foundations must be
the house to be built on. founded on solid
1. Foundations ground.
• Only broken rock • Sufficient mortar is
should be used in needed to join
foundations, not stones used in the
unbroken rounded foundation into one
river stone or rounded
seashore stone. River solid foundation
stone can be used if that will not
broken. subside unequally.

• Reinforcement is needed to connect the bases

of column reinforcing steel in the foundations.
• Poor material for foundations. Rounded
river or beach rocks do not make good
foundations unless they are broken,
because they are liable to slip between
each other. They need to be broken to
avoid slipping, and they need to be
carefully cemented between each other.
Too many rounded stones, not properly
laid and are not adequately bonded
together with cement, give a weak
foundation. The result is often that the
floor and walls will crack as the
foundations settle or move unequally.
• Good concrete foundations. The
foundations of these houses have
been constructed in a dry trench
using good materials, and the first
row of blocks was laid while the
concrete was still wet. Starter bars
to reinforce the hollow block walls
are inserted while concrete is wet.
 • Choice of materials • Coral sand should
2. Sand and affects strength of the never be used in any
Gravel building. construction.

• Coarse sand should • If the sand comes

be sieved to remove from a dirty or sea
stones, fine particles water source, it must
and dust. be washed.
• Bad example of concrete using coral
sand. Example of the disintegration
of concrete due to the use of coral
sand. This concrete is returning to
powder. The only action possible at
this point is to dig it out and to start
again, wasting time, money and
resources.
• Example of good quality sand.
This sand is all of about the same
coarse texture and does not have
larger stones in it or a lot of dust.
Sand can be tested by lifting up a
handful and letting it fall back to
the ground. If a significant
portion of it blows away instead
of falling straight down, it has
too much dust and needs to be
sieved.
• Example of poorly graded sand.
This sand is mixed with larger stones
so that it is already a sand/gravel
mixture. If gravel is now added to
this mixture, it will not be suitable
for making concrete because there
will be too little fine material in it to
bind it together.
• Bad practice for materials. Debris should
not be allowed to be mixed with any of the
ingredients for making concrete. Such debris
seriously weakens the strength of concrete.
This sand will need to be cleaned before it is
used for mixing into concrete. All plastic,
leaves, grass, roots, shells and other debris
must be removed before using sand or
gravel for making concrete. Harmful debris
particularly enters the concrete when it is
mixed by hand on the ground.
 Gravel is best made of crushed rock, not
of river rounded stones

• Good gravel made of crushed rock, with no larger

stones. Gravel should have maximum size 20mm in
order for it to fit within and around reinforcement
and to strengthen concrete and have few smaller
stones.
 3. Mixing of concrete.
Good clean ingredients
with limited water makes
strong concrete.
 • Ensure adequate cement is added.

• Mix ingredients well.

• Limit water, and use only clean water.

Concrete should stand up when mixed, not
flow away due to excessive water. 3. Mixing of concrete
• Do not use any water that is salty. This Good clean ingredients
destroys concrete strength. with limited water
• Use only properly selected, clean ingredients. makes strong concrete.
• If the sand contains stones, reduce the
amount of gravel added.
 4. Making columns.
Strong columns provide
strength to the building.
• All reinforced concrete columns should be made in one part before walls are
built up. They should not be made in small steps as walls are built up. They
should contain bars for wall ties and ring beams when constructed.

• Column reinforcement should be 4 vertical bars with hoops holding them

together, spaced at approximately the same as the width of the column.
Bars should be anchored in the foundation.

• End of hoop steel should be bent 135º into the center of the column.

• Column steel must be covered with a minimum of 2cm of concrete all

round.
• Do not put pipes down the centre of columns.
• Columns being constructed
before walls on a base to raise the
house above surrounding low lying
land. Reinforcement of columns
continues from the footings
through the floor to provide
structural strength.
• Poor concreting of corner column in a
particularly important area. It will gradually
rust and deteriorate even when covered
over with mortar. The column steel is not
properly covered because the steel cage
was wider than the width of the bricks
making up the wall. The result is that the
formwork for the concrete was against the
steel, and when concrete was poured, the
steel was not within the column, but on its
edge. The windows have been placed in the
walls in a very weak way. All of this wall is
weak and will be subject to collapse when
under stress.
 5. Reinforcement This
strengthens concrete
like bones in the body.
• Reinforcement steel is best made of
twisted deformed steel bar, or
deformed bar, rather than plain round
bar. Plain round bar is significantly
weaker, and can pull through
surrounding concrete and hence has a
weaker effect.
6. Roofing
A strong roof provides
lasting weather protection.
• Roof trusses of wood should be
made with a triangular frame,
placed over columns and tied to
them.
Roofing supports for
wooden trusses must be
made of a block of wood
• Roofing structure should not be rather than just a nail.
joined near the middle of a span,
and not joined with a 45º cut.
• Not good practice. Roof trusses
are near but not over the
columns, and column steel is not
long enough and not bent over
roof structure to connect
between roof structure and
column structure. This is a weak
building method.
• Illustration of wood blocks for
securing roof structure. Do not use a
single nail, which is a weak support,
and may corrode and cease its
function quickly in the Philippines
climate. Nails through the wood
structure itself also are a weak
support.
• Bad jointing practice. Roof
structure joined near mid span with
a 45º joint. This is a weak joint, not
properly made, and it will gradually
give way, leading to a sagging roof.
It will not support workers building
or working on the roof.
7. Tying wall to structure
Good connections
strengthen the walls
• Wall ties to connect walls with the building’s structure are
to be at regular intervals of 40cm and extend from the
bottom to the top of the wall.

• Wall ties must be cast into reinforced concrete columns,

along with reinforcement for ring beams.

• Wall ties must be bent at the end to hook into the wall
material.

• Hollow block walls should be reinforced.

• A good example of how to insert
wall ties into columns before they
were constructed, so that walls
will be well tied in to the
structural columns.
• Hollow block walls should have a
reinforcing bar every 80cm which is
concreted into the blocks throughout
the height of the wall and is inserted
into the floor or foundation when it is
cast. It is good practice to fill all holes
in hollow blocks to provide further
strengthening to the walls.
 Code of Minimum
Standards for House
Construction
1. Foundations
2. House
Elevation
3. Building Materials
4. Structural
Columns
5. Building Structure
a. The building must have a regular structure.
b. The structure must be strongly connected from foundation through walls to
the roof trusses.
c. For a reinforced concrete structured house, an integrated ring beam around
the top of doors and windows must connect between and into the columns.
d. A second reinforced concrete beam must connect the top of all walls with
the columns.
e. Ends of hoop steel must be bent 135º, as shown in the Handbook.
f. Triangular gable end walls of houses must be structurally supported.
g. For a wood structure, wood posts must either be connected directly to the
foundation, or if above stub walls, must be securely bolted to a metal bracket
concreted into stub walls.
6. Tying wall
material to
structural columns
7. Joining walls
and roof
8. Roofing and
roof truss joints
9. Cross bracing of walls and roof
10. Drainage
11. Well and
septic tank
• Let us ensure that our buildings are
constructed more safely, so that the
people inside them, and their property,
will be better protected in the event of a
major hazard impact. Even in more minor
hazard events, the effects can be
cumulative. Each one of the principles in
this Handbook will have an added effect in
reducing the vulnerability of the house to
collapse when the forces of nature impact
it.
• Monitoring house design and
construction will enable you to
correct poor practices as they
happen so that your house will
better protect your family and
belongings in an emergency. The
expense involved in building a
stronger house is little compared
to the added security and
protection it gives to you and
your family.
References:
HANDBOOK ON Good Building Design and Construction In the
Philippines

National Building Code of the Philippines

Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)