CONCEPT AND NATURE OF LEARNING

Definition of learning
The definition of learning provided by Driscoll (2005,) “as a persisting change in human
performance or performance potential,” adding that the change “must come about as a result of
the learner’s experience and interaction with the world.” Note that the:
 first part of this definition emphasizes outcomes of the learning experience in terms of
purposeful and intentional change occurring within the learner as a consequence of the
learning experience provided via the learning setting.
 The second part recognizes that learning is inherently social and that authentic learning is
achieved only through interaction with the world.
Principles of Learning
According to Henschel, in (2001) the “Seven Principles of Learning” are:
1. Learning is fundamentally social.
2. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities.
3. Learning is an act of participation.
4. Knowing depends on engagement in practice.
5. Engagement is inseparable from empowerment.
6. Failure to Learn is often the result of exclusion from participation.
7. We are all lifelong learners.
Classification of learning
Learning may also be described using different classifications linked to the setting or
circumstances in which the learning is most likely to occur,
Formal learning: , formal learning implies learning settings provided by educational institutions
where the primary mission is the construction of new knowledge.
Non-formal learning settings may be found in organizations and businesses within the
community where the primary mission is not necessarily educational. However, formal learning
activities are present such as in the delivery of specialized training that is linked to achieving the
goals of the organization (Coombs, Prosser, & Ahmed, 1973). Informal learning, on the other
hand, refers to embedded learning activities that are linked to performance, in the setting of one’s
everyday life. Within each category, there are identifiable subcategories representing different
learning taxonomies. Merriam and Bierema (2014) identified four sub-types of learning specific
to informal learning, which can be summarized as:
Self-directed learning – learner-initiated and -guided learning activity including goal setting,
resource identification, strategy selection, and evaluation of outcomes.
Incidental learning – an accidental by-product of another learning activity that occurs outside of
the learner’s direct stream of consciousness as an unplanned or unintended consequence of doing
something else.

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Tacit learning – the most subtle form of informal learning, which occurs at the subconscious
level based on intuition, personal experience, or emotion that is unique to the individual learner.
Integrative learning – integration of non-conscious tacit knowledge with conscious learning
activities providing creative insight through non-linear implicit processing.

Informal Learning context

Informal learning is often discussed in the context of the “70:20:10 Rule” In the training
industry, informal learning is often discussed in the context of the “70:20:10 Rule”. Generally
speaking, this suggests that: 70% of learning occurs through informal or on-the-job learning;
20% through mentoring and other specialized developmental relationships; and the remaining
10% through formal learning including course work and associated reading. There are two
important takeaways from the assertion of the so-called 70:20:10 Rule, as it relates to workplace
learning.

 First, there is a growing body of research providing insight into just how widespread and
embedded informal learning is in the lives of adult learners, with estimates of as high as
70-90% of all learning over the course of a lifetime, occurring via informal learning
activity (Merriam & Bierema, 2014).

 The second takeaway is the recognition that formal and informal learning occurs along a
continuum—comprised of both formal and informal learning activities, depending on the
type of learning and level of mastery required, as well as the characteristics and prior
experience of the learner—as opposed to dichotomous categories of formal vs. informal
learning (Sawchuk, 2008).

Learning Spectrum

In the following illustration, Cross (2007) presented what he referred to as the spending/outcome
paradox of learning. The suggested paradox is that while formal learning represents 80% of an
organization’s training budget, it provides a mere 20% return on learning in terms of
performance outcomes. Conversely, informal learning on average represents 20% of training
resources, yet delivers 80% of the learning occurring within the organization, measured in terms
of performance or potential performance. The spending/outcome paradox remains a global
challenge as noted by De Grip (2015), “Policies tend to emphasize education and formal training,
and most firms do not have strategies to optimize the gains from informal learning at work.”

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Figure 1. Learning spectrum

This leads us to a definition of informal learning as “the unofficial, unscheduled, impromptu way
people learn to do their jobs . . . Informal learning is like riding a bike; the rider [learner] chooses
the destination, the speed, and the route.” (Cross, 2007). In other words, learners decide what
they need to learn and then establish their own learning objectives and agenda. In addition,
learners determine when they should learn, and select the format and modality that best meets
their needs. Perhaps most importantly, the learner is responsible for organizing and managing his
or her own learning-related activities. To fully engage learners and to ensure that a transfer of
knowledge occurs, informal learning should be authentic and ideally occur in the workplace or
other performance setting, be situated in a meaningful context that builds on prior knowledge,
and employ strategies and activities to promote transfer of knowledge (Boileau, 2011). In
informal learning, learners are “pulled” into the learning experience based on a problem, or
identified knowledge and skills gap, which is determined by the learner who then engages in
learning activities intended to close the knowledge gap or otherwise mitigate the performance
challenge or problem.

In contrast, in formal learning, learning objectives and curricula are determined by someone else.
Formal learning or “book learning” is what most people in western culture think of when they
envision learning in terms of schools, classrooms, and instructors who decide what, when, and
how learning is to take place. “Formal learning is like riding a bus: the driver [instructor] decides
where the bus is going; the passengers [learners] are along for the ride” (Cross, 2007, p. 236). In
formal learning, learning is “pushed” to the learners according to a set of needs or predetermined
curricula that are established by someone other than the learner.

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In this section, I have discussed informal and formal learning as co-existing in a spectrum or
continuum of learning activities linked to experience and performance context over the course of
a lifetime, as opposed to dichotomous branches of learning that are fixed in time and space. This
is an important precept to keep in mind because increasingly, blended learning experiences may
include elements or activities associated with formal learning settings such as lectures or media-
based presentations, along with informal learning activities such as discussions with peers, Web-
based searches for examples, and practice experimenting with new techniques and tools

INFORMAL LEARNING AND ISSUES

This section examines some of the trends and issues associated with informal learning from an
individual and organizational perspective. In previous generations, learning was (and still is)
often viewed as separate from performance, and linked to identifiable stages of human social-
cultural development. In terms of formal learning, this includes primary and secondary education
to prepare an individual for participation in society, whereas post-secondary education has
historically provided additional preparation for a career with increased earnings potential.
Informal learning, as discussed in the preceding sections, addresses learning in terms of a series
of non-linear episodic events, experiences, and activities occurring in the real world over the
course of a lifetime, having financial and social consequences for individuals and organizations.

Science learning. There is increased recognition of the need to support lifelong science learning
in order to meet the growing demand for science and engineering jobs in a modern global
economy. It can be argued that science literacy, acquired through informal learning, is essential
to economic growth (as discussed in the next topic), and to promoting the shared cultural values
of a democratic society. According to Falk et al. (2007), “the majority of the public constructs
much of its understanding of science over the course of their lives, gathering information from
many places and contexts, and for a diversity of reasons.” Evidence of this trend can be seen in
new standards for compulsory testing and curriculum changes, placing greater emphasis on
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) Yet, the average adult spends a
small fraction of their life (1-3 percent) in formal education related to science learning (Falk,
Storksdieck, & Dierking, 2007). Indeed, the research literature suggests that most science
learning, as with other domains of learning, occurs informally and is driven by self-identified
needs and interests of learners. This suggests that informal learning activities within the
workplace, personal investigation using internet-based tools and resources, and active leisure
pursuits such as visits to museums, zoos and aquariums, and national parks account for the
majority of science learning in America (Falk & Dierking, 2010).

Other forms of informal science learning include hobbies such as model rockets and drones,
organic and sustainable farming, beekeeping, mineralogy, and amateur astronomy. Life events
may also trigger a personal need for informal science learning via the web such as when
individuals are diagnosed with an illness like cancer or heart disease, or in the wake of
environmental disasters such as oil spills, the discovery of radon gas in rock, or tracking the path
of a hurricane. The Internet now represents the major source of science information for adults
and children, with the tipping point occurring in 2006, when the Internet surpassed broadcast
media as a source for public science information). In a similar fashion, more people now turn to

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 the Internet for medical diagnostic information using services like WebMD.com, before
scheduling an appointment with their physician.

INFORMAL LEARNING AND CULTURE

The paradigm used to understand informal learning is influenced by a set of assumptions around
learning that are firmly rooted in culture. For example, the concept of informal learning in the
West is inevitably linked to Western philosophies such as liberalism, progressivism, humanism,
behaviorism, and radicalism (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). This provides a unique cultural lens
through which learning events and activities are perceived that is further shaped by personal
experience and access to information surrounding global events, which may vastly differ from
the view of education and learning held by people living in different cultural settings from our
own. Ironically, while informal or experiential learning is clearly evident in all cultures, “it is
less valued in the West where formal book knowledge predominates.” (Merriam & Bierema,
2014, p. 243). It is also interesting to note that this is consistent with the “spending/outcome
paradox” noted by Cross (2007) that was discussed earlier.

Merriam and Bierema (2014) identified three themes in knowing and learning that are more
prevalent among non-Western cultures, characterized as communal, lifelong and informal, and
holistic. To say that learning is communal implies that it is situated within the community as a
means for collaborative knowledge development that benefits from, and exists within, the entire
community through strong interdependency and relationships among the members. This stands in
contrast with Western culture in which the learner is more typically viewed from an
individualistic and independent perspective. The second theme is that informal learning is
a lifelong pursuit that is also situated within the communal ethic (Merriam & Kim, 2011). The
concept of informal lifelong learning is evident in the Buddhist principles of mindfulness; can be
seen in the African cultural expectation that members of the community share their knowledge
with each other for the benefit of the community at large; and may be found in the words of the
Prophet Muhammad: to “Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave.” Finally, the culturally-
based theme of informal learning as holistic represents a clear shift from a Western emphasis on
cognitive knowing, to alternative types of learning that include: somatic, spiritual, emotional,
moral, experiential and social learning (Merriam & Kim, 2011).

Approaching informal learning from a more culturally holistic perspective creates new
opportunities to increase cultural sensitivity among increasingly diverse learner and worker
populations, by recognizing that learning is embedded in performance activities and in the
experiences of everyday life.

Application Exercises

 Take five minutes and think about your own experiences with informal learning. How has
technology influenced your informal learning? Give your best assumption of how much
informal learning occurs outside of a technological medium vs. how much informal
learning occurs through a technological medium.

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  Think of a work or school situation where learning was formal. Knowing that there is a
better chance of meeting learning outcomes with informal learning, what adjustments
would you make to create a more informal learning experience?

THEORIES OF LEARNING

 This definition encompasses many of the attributes commonly associated with behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism—namely, learning as a lasting changed state (emotional, mental,
physiological (i.e., skills)) brought about as a result of experiences and interactions with content
or other people.

Driscoll (2000, p14–17) explores some of the complexities of defining learning. Debate centers
on:

 Valid sources of knowledge—Do we gain knowledge through experiences? Is it innate

(present at birth)? Do we acquire it through thinking and reasoning?
 Content of knowledge—Is knowledge actually knowable? Is it directly knowable through
human experience?
 The final consideration focuses on three epistemological traditions in relation to learning:
Objectivism, Pragmatism, and Interpretivism
o Objectivism (similar to behaviorism) states that reality is external and is objective,
and knowledge is gained through experiences.
o Pragmatism (similar to cognitivism) states that reality is interpreted, and
knowledge is negotiated through experience and thinking.
o Interpretivism (similar to constructivism) states that reality is internal, and
knowledge is constructed.

All of these learning theories hold the notion that knowledge is an objective (or a state) that is
attainable (if not already innate) through either reasoning or experiences. Behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism (built on the epistemological traditions) attempt to address how
it is that a person learns.

Behaviorism states that learning is largely unknowable, that is, we can’t possibly understand
what goes on inside a person (the “black box theory”). Gredler (2001) expresses behaviorism as
being comprised of several theories that make three assumptions about learning:

1. Observable behaviour is more important than understanding internal activities

2. Behaviour should be focused on simple elements: specific stimuli and responses
3. Learning is about behaviour change

Cognitivism often takes a computer information processing model. Learning is viewed as a

process of inputs, managed in short term memory, and coded for long-term recall. Cindy Buell
details this process: “In cognitive theories, knowledge is viewed as symbolic mental constructs in

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the learner’s mind, and the learning process is the means by which these symbolic
representations are committed to memory.”

Constructivism suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand their
experiences (Driscoll, 2000, p. 376). Behaviorism and cognitivism view knowledge as external
to the learner and the learning process as the act of internalizing knowledge. Constructivism
assumes that learners are not empty vessels to be filled with knowledge. Instead, learners are
actively attempting to create meaning. Learners often select and pursue their own learning.
Constructivist principles acknowledge that real-life learning is messy and complex. Classrooms
which emulate the “fuzziness” of this learning will be more effective in preparing learners for
life-long learning.

LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, AND

CONSTRUCTIVISM

A central tenet of most learning theories is that learning occurs inside a person. Even social
constructivist views, which hold that learning is a socially enacted process, promotes the
principality of the individual (and her/his physical presence—i.e., brain-based) in learning. These
theories do not address learning that occurs outside of people (i.e., learning that is stored and
manipulated by technology). They also fail to describe how learning happens within
organizations.

Learning theories are concerned with the actual process of learning, not with the value of what is
being learned. In a networked world, the very manner of information that we acquire is worth
exploring. The need to evaluate the worthiness of learning something is a meta-skill that is
applied before learning itself begins. When knowledge is subject to paucity, the process of
assessing worthiness is assumed to be intrinsic to learning. When knowledge is abundant, the
rapid evaluation of knowledge is important. Additional concerns arise from the rapid increase in
information. In today’s environment, action is often needed without personal learning—that is,
we need to act by drawing information outside of our primary knowledge. The ability to
synthesize and recognize connections and patterns is a valuable skill.

Many important questions are raised when established learning theories are seen through
technology. The natural attempt of theorists is to continue to revise and evolve theories as
conditions change. At some point, however, the underlying conditions have altered so
significantly, that further modification is no longer sensible. An entirely new approach is needed.

Some questions to explore in relation to learning theories and the impact of technology and new
sciences (chaos and networks) on learning:

 How are learning theories impacted when knowledge is no longer acquired in the linear
manner?

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  What adjustments need to be made with learning theories when technology performs
many of the cognitive operations previously performed by learners (information storage
and retrieval).
 How can we continue to stay current in a rapidly evolving information ecology?
 How do learning theories address moments where performance is needed in the absence
of complete understanding?
 What is the impact of networks and complexity theories on learning?
 What is the impact of chaos as a complex pattern recognition process on learning?
 With increased recognition of interconnections in differing fields of knowledge, how are
systems and ecology theories perceived in light of learning tasks?

AN ALTERNATIVE THEORY

Including technology and connection making as learning activities begins to move learning
theories into a digital age. We can no longer personally experience and acquire learning that we
need to act. We derive our competence from forming connections. Karen Stephenson states:

Experience has long been considered the best teacher of knowledge. Since we cannot experience
everything, other people’s experiences, and hence other people, become the surrogate for
knowledge. ‘I store my knowledge in my friends’ is an axiom for collecting knowledge through
collecting people (undated).

Chaos is a new reality for knowledge workers. ScienceWeek (2004) quotes Nigel Calder’s
definition that chaos is “a cryptic form of order.” Chaos is the breakdown of predictability,
evidenced in complicated arrangements that initially defy order. Unlike constructivism, which
states that learners attempt to foster understanding by meaning making tasks, chaos states that
the meaning exists—the learner’s challenge is to recognize the patterns which appear to be
hidden. Meaning-making and forming connections between specialized communities are
important activities.

Chaos, as a science, recognizes the connection of everything to everything. Gleick (1987) states:
“In weather, for example, this translates into what is only half-jokingly known as the Butterfly
Effect—the notion that a butterfly stirring the air today in Peking can transform storm systems
next month in New York” (p. 8). This analogy highlights a real challenge: “sensitive dependence
on initial conditions” profoundly impacts what we learn and how we act based on our learning.
Decision making is indicative of this. If the underlying conditions used to make decisions
change, the decision itself is no longer as correct as it was at the time it was made. The ability to
recognize and adjust to pattern shifts is a key learning task.

Luis Mateus Rocha (1998) defines self-organization as the “spontaneous formation of well
organized structures, patterns, or behaviors, from random initial conditions.” (p.3). Learning, as a
self-organizing process requires that the system (personal or organizational learning systems) “be
informationally open, that is, for it to be able to classify its own interaction with an environment,
it must be able to change its structure . . .” (p.4). Wiley and Edwards acknowledge the

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importance of self-organization as a learning process: “Jacobs argues that communities self-
organize is a manner similar to social insects: instead of thousands of ants crossing each other’s
pheromone trails and changing their behavior accordingly, thousands of humans pass each other
on the sidewalk and change their behavior accordingly.” Self-organization on a personal level is
a micro-process of the larger self-organizing knowledge constructs created within corporate or
institutional environments. The capacity to form connections between sources of information,
and thereby create useful information patterns, is required to learn in our knowledge economy.

NETWORKS, SMALL WORLDS, WEAK TIES

A network can simply be defined as connections between entities. Computer networks, power
grids, and social networks all function on the simple principle that people, groups, systems,
nodes, entities can be connected to create an integrated whole. Alterations within the network
have ripple effects on the whole.

Albert-László Barabási states that “nodes always compete for connections because links
represent survival in an interconnected world” (2002, p. 106). This competition is largely dulled
within a personal learning network, but the placing of value on certain nodes over others is a
reality. Nodes that successfully acquire greater profile will be more successful at acquiring
additional connections. In a learning sense, the likelihood that a concept of learning will be
linked depends on how well it is currently linked. Nodes (can be fields, ideas, communities) that
specialize and gain recognition for their expertise have greater chances of recognition, thus
resulting in cross-pollination of learning communities.

Weak ties are links or bridges that allow short connections between information. Our small
world networks are generally populated with people whose interests and knowledge are similar
to ours. Finding a new job, as an example, often occurs through weak ties. This principle has
great merit in the notion of serendipity, innovation, and creativity. Connections between
disparate ideas and fields can create new innovations.

CONNECTIVISM

Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and
self-organization theories. Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of
shifting core elements—not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as
actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organization or a database), is
focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the connections that enable us to learn
more are more important than our current state of knowing.

Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering
foundations. New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions
between important and unimportant information is vital. The ability to recognize when new
information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday is also critical.

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Principles of connectivism:

 Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.

 Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.
 Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
 Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known
 Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
 Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
 Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning
activities.
 Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of
incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right
answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate
affecting the decision.

Connectivism also addresses the challenges that many corporations face in knowledge
management activities. Knowledge that resides in a database needs to be connected with the right
people in the right context in order to be classified as learning. Behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism do not attempt to address the challenges of organizational knowledge and
transference.

Information flow within an organization is an important element in organizational effectiveness.

In a knowledge economy, the flow of information is the equivalent of the oil pipe in an industrial
economy. Creating, preserving, and utilizing information flow should be a key organizational
activity. Knowledge flow can be likened to a river that meanders through the ecology of an
organization. In certain areas, the river pools and in other areas it ebbs. The health of the learning
ecology of the organization depends on effective nurturing of information flow.

Social network analysis is an additional element in understanding learning models in a digital

era. Art Kleiner (2002) explores Karen Stephenson’s “quantum theory of trust” which “explains
not just how to recognize the collective cognitive capability of an organization, but how to
cultivate and increase it.” Within social networks, hubs are well-connected people who are able
to foster and maintain knowledge flow. Their interdependence results in effective knowledge
flow, enabling the personal understanding of the state of activities organizationally.

The starting point of connectivism is the individual. Personal knowledge is comprised of a

network, which feeds into organizations and institutions, which in turn feed back into the
network, and then continue to provide learning to individual. This cycle of knowledge
development (personal to network to organization) allows learners to remain current in their field
through the connections they have formed.

Landauer and Dumais (1997) explore the phenomenon that “people have much more knowledge
than appears to be present in the information to which they have been exposed.” They provide a
connectivist focus in stating “the simple notion that some domains of knowledge contain vast

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numbers of weak interrelations that, if properly exploited, can greatly amplify learning by a
process of inference.” The value of pattern recognition and connecting our own “small worlds of
knowledge” are apparent in the exponential impact provided to our personal learning.

John Seely Brown presents an interesting notion that the internet leverages the small efforts of
many with the large efforts of few. The central premise is that connections created with unusual
nodes supports and intensifies existing large effort activities. Brown provides the example of a
Maricopa County Community College system project that links senior citizens with elementary
school students in a mentor program. Becuase the children “listen to these ‘grandparents’ better
than they do their own parents, the mentoring really helps the teachers . . . the small efforts of the
many—the seniors—complement the large efforts of the few—the teachers” (2002). This
amplification of learning, knowledge and understanding through the extension of a personal
network is the epitome of connectivism.

IMPLICATIONS

The notion of connectivism has implications in all aspects of life. This paper largely focuses on
its impact on learning, but the following aspects are also impacted:

 Management and leadership. The management and marshalling of resources to achieve

desired outcomes is a significant challenge. Realizing that complete knowledge cannot
exist in the mind of one person requires a different approach to creating an overview of
the situation. Diverse teams of varying viewpoints are a critical structure for completely
exploring ideas. Innovation is also an additional challenge. Most of the revolutionary
ideas of today at one time existed as a fringe element. An organizations ability to foster,
nurture, and synthesize the impacts of varying views of information is critical to
knowledge economy survival. Speed of “idea to implementation” is also improved in a
systems view of learning.
 Media, news, information. This trend is well under way. Mainstream media organizations
are being challenged by the open, real-time, two-way information flow of blogging.
 Personal knowledge management in relation to organizational knowledge management
 Design of learning environments

CONCLUSION

The pipe is more important than the content within the pipe. Our ability to learn what we need
for tomorrow is more important than what we know today. A real challenge for any learning
theory is to actuate known knowledge at the point of application. When knowledge, however, is
needed, but not known, the ability to plug into sources to meet the requirements becomes a vital
skill. As knowledge continues to grow and evolve, access to what is needed is more important
than what the learner currently possesses.

Connectivism presents a model of learning that acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society where
learning is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. How people work and function is

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 altered when new tools are utilized. The field of education has been slow to recognize both the
impact of new learning tools and the environmental changes in what it means to learn.
Connectivism provides insight into learning skills and tasks needed for learners to flourish in a
digital era.

Application Exercises

 Use a comparison chart (such as a T-chart or Venn Diagram) to compare elements of

Connectivism with elements of Behaviorism, Cognitivism, or Constructivism.
 According to connectivism, how has the rapid increase of access to knowledge affected
the way we should view knowledge?
 Think of the most recent job you have held. How did the principles of connectivism
affect the way you learned in that job?
 How would you summarize the main points of connectivism if you had to explain it to a
friend with no background in this area?

PBL is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers learners

to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a
viable solution to a defined problem. Critical to the success of the approach is the selection of ill-
structured problems (often interdisciplinary) and a tutor who guides the learning process and
conducts a thorough debriefing at the conclusion of the learning experience. Several authors have
described the characteristics and features required for a successful PBL approach to instruction.
The reader is encouraged to read the source documents, as brief quotes do not do justice to the
level of detail provided by the authors. Boud and Feletti (1997) provided a list of the practices
considered characteristic of the philosophy, strategies, and tactics of problem-based learning.
Duch, Groh, and Allen (2001) described the methods used in PBL and the specific skills
developed, including the ability to think critically, analyze and solve complex, real-world
problems, to find, evaluate, and use appropriate learning resources; to work cooperatively, to
demonstrate effective communication skills, and to use content knowledge and intellectual skills
to become continual learners. Torp and Sage (2002) described PBL as focused, experiential
learning organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems. They
describe students as engaged problem solvers, seeking to identify the root problem and the
conditions needed for a good solution and in the process becoming self-directed learners. Hmelo-
Silver (2004) described PBL as an instructional method in which students learn through
facilitated problem solving that centers on a complex problem that does not have a single correct
answer. She noted that students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn
in order to solve a problem, engage in self-directed learning, apply their new knowledge to the
problem, and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed.

On the website for the PBL Initiative (http://www.pbli.org/pbl/generic_pbl.htm) Barrows (nd)

describes in detail a set of Generic PBL Essentials, reduced to bullet points below. Each of these
essential characteristics has been extended briefly to provide additional information and
resources.

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 Students must have the responsibility for their own learning.
PBL is a learner-centered approach—students engage with the problem with whatever
their current knowledge/experience affords. Learner motivation increases when
responsibility for the solution to the problem and the process rests with the learner
(Savery & Duffy, 1995) and as student ownership for learning increases (Savery, 1998;
1999). Inherent in the design of PBL is a public articulation by the learners of what they
know and about what they need to learn more. Individuals accept responsibility for
seeking relevant information and bringing that back to the group to help inform the
development of a viable solution.
 The problem simulations used in problem-based learning must be ill-structured and allow
for free inquiry.
Problems in the real world are ill-structured (or they would not be problems). A critical
skill developed through PBL is the ability to identify the problem and set parameters on
the development of a solution. When a problem is well-structured learners are less
motivated and less invested in the development of the solution. (See the section on
Problems vs. Cases below.)
 Learning should be integrated from a wide range of disciplines or subjects.
Barrows notes that during self-directed learning, students should be able to access, study
and integrate information from all the disciplines that might be related to understanding
and resolving a particular problem—just as people in the real world must recall and apply
information integrated from diverse sources in their work. The rapid expansion of
information has encouraged a cross-fertilization of ideas and led to the development of
new disciplines. Multiple perspectives lead to a more thorough understanding of the
issues and the development of a more robust solution.
 Collaboration is essential.
In the world after school most learners will find themselves in jobs where they need to
share information and work productively with others. PBL provides a format for the
development of these essential skills. During a PBL session the tutor will ask questions of
any and all members to ensure that information has been shared between members in
relation to the group’s problem.
 What students learn during their self-directed learning must be applied back to the
problem with reanalysis and resolution.
The point of self-directed research is for individuals to collect information that will
inform the group’s decision-making process in relation to the problem. It is essential that
each individual share coherently what he or she has learned and how that information
might impact on developing a solution to the problem.
 A closing analysis of what has been learned from work with the problem and a discussion
of what concepts and principles have been learned are essential.
Given that PBL is a very engaging, motivating and involving form of experiential
learning, learners are often very close to the immediate details of the problem and the
proposed solution. The purpose of the post-experience debriefing process (see
Steinwachs, 1992; Thiagarajan, 1993 for details on debriefing) is to consolidate the
learning and ensure that the experience has been reflected upon. Barrows (1988) advises
that learners examine all facets of the PBL process to better understand what they know,
what they learned, and how they performed.

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  Self and peer assessment should be carried out at the completion of each problem and at
the end of every curricular unit.
These assessment activities related to the PBL process are closely related to the previous
essential characteristic of reflection on knowledge gains. The significance of this activity
is to reinforce the self-reflective nature of learning and sharpen a range of metacognitive
processing skills.
 The activities carried out in problem-based learning must be those valued in the real
world.
A rationale and guidelines for the selection of authentic problems in PBL is discussed
extensively in Savery & Duffy (1995), Stinson and Milter (1996), Wilkerson and
Gijselaers (1996), and MacDonald (1997). The transfer of skills learned through PBL to a
real-world context is also noted by Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000, p. 77).
 Student examinations must measure student progress towards the goals of problem-based
learning.
The goals of PBL are both knowledge-based and process-based. Students need to be
assessed on both dimensions at regular intervals to ensure that they are benefiting as
intended from the PBL approach. Students are responsible for the content in the
curriculum that they have “covered” through engagement with problems. They need to be
able to recognize and articulate what they know and what they have learned.
 Problem-based learning must be the pedagogical base in the curriculum and not part of a
didactic curriculum.

Reflection

The author states, “The problem simulations used in problem-based learning must be ill-
structured and allow for free inquiry.” Create your own “messy, real-world” problem. Decide on
a main curriculum area (most good problems are interdisciplinary) and an age group. Construct a
problem that could be used in a problem-based classroom. Share it with two people and get their
feedback. Revise the problem and submit.

SUMMARY

These descriptions of the characteristics of PBL identify clearly 1) the role of the tutor as a
facilitator of learning, 2) the responsibilities of the learners to be self-directed and self-
regulated in their learning, and 3) the essential elements in the design of ill-
structured instructional problems as the driving force for inquiry. The challenge for many
instructors when they adopt a PBL approach is to make the transition from teacher as
knowledge provider to tutor as manager and facilitator of learning (see Ertmer & Simons, 2006).
If teaching with PBL were as simple as presenting the learners with a “problem” and
students could be relied upon to work consistently at a high level of cognitive self-monitoring
and self-regulation, then many teachers would be taking early retirement. The reality is
that learners who are new to PBL require significant instructional scaffolding to support
the development of problem-solving skills, self-directed learning skills, and
teamwork/collaboration skills to a level of self-sufficiency where the scaffolds can be removed.
Teaching institutions that have adopted a PBL approach to curriculum and instruction

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(including those noted earlier) have developed extensive tutor-training programs in recognition
of the critical importance of this role in facilitating the PBL learning experience. An
excellent resource is The Tutorial Process by Barrows (1988), which explains the importance of
the tutor as the metacognitive coach for the learners.

Given that change to teaching patterns in public education moves at a glacial pace, it will take
time for institutions to commit to a full problem-based learning approach. However, there are
several closely related learner-centered instructional strategies, such as project-based learning,
case-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, that are used in a variety of content domains
that can begin to move students along the path to becoming more self-directed in their learning.
In the next section I examine some of similarities and differences among these approaches.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING VS. CASE-BASED AND PROJECT-BASED

LEARNING

Both case-based and project-based approaches are valid instructional strategies that
promote active learning and engage the learners in higher-order thinking such as analysis
and synthesis. A well-constructed case will help learners to understand the important elements of
the problem/situation so that they are better prepared for similar situations in the future. Case
studies can help learners develop critical thinking skills in assessing the information provided
and in identifying logic flaws or false assumptions. Working through the case study will help
learners build discipline/context-specific vocabulary/terminology, and an understanding of the
relationships between elements presented in the case study. When a case study is done as a group
project, learners may develop improved communication and collaboration skills. Cases may be
used to assess student learning after instruction, or as a practice exercise to prepare learners for a
more authentic application of the skills and knowledge gained by working on the case.

Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning in that the learning activities are

organized around achieving a shared goal (project). This instructional approach was described by
Kilpatrick (1921), as the Project Method and elaborated upon by several researchers, including
Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial, and Palinscar (1991). Within a project-based
approach learners are usually provided with specifications for a desired end product (build a
rocket, design a website, etc.) and the learning process is more oriented to following correct
procedures. While working on a project, learners are likely to encounter several “problems” that
generate “teachable moments” (see Lehman, George, Buchanan, & Rush, this issue). Teachers
are more likely to be instructors and coaches (rather than tutors) who provide expert guidance,
feedback and suggestions for “better” ways to achieve the final product. The teaching (modeling,
scaffolding, questioning, etc.) is provided according to learner need and within the context of the
project. Similar to case-based instruction learners are able to add an experience to their
memory that will serve them in future situations.

While cases and projects are excellent learner-centered instructional strategies, they tend to
diminish the learner’s role in setting the goals and outcomes for the “problem.” When the
expected outcomes are clearly defined, then there is less need or incentive for the learner to set

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his/her own parameters. In the real world it is recognized that the ability to both define the
problem and develop a solution (or range of possible solutions) is important.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING VS. INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING

These two approaches are very similar. Inquiry-based learning is grounded in the philosophy of
John Dewey (as is PBL), who believed that education begins with the curiosity of the learner.
Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered, active learning approach focused on questioning,
critical thinking, and problem solving. Inquiry-based learning activities begin with a question
followed by investigating solutions, creating new knowledge as information is gathered and
understood, discussing discoveries and experiences, and reflecting on new-found knowledge.
Inquiry-based learning is frequently used in science education (see, for example, the Center for
Inquiry-Based Learning http://www.biology.duke.edu/cibl/) and encourages a hands-on approach
where students practice the scientific method on authentic problems (questions). The primary
difference between PBL and inquiry-based learning relates to the role of the tutor. In an inquiry-
based approach the tutor is both a facilitator of learning (encouraging/expecting higher-order
thinking) and a provider of information. In a PBL approach the tutor supports the process and
expects learners to make their thinking clear, but the tutor does not provide information related to
the problem—that is the responsibility of the learners. A more detailed discussion comparing and
contrasting these two approaches would be an excellent topic for a future article in this journal.

CHALLENGES STILL AHEAD FOR PBL

Problem-based learning appears to be more than a passing fad in education. This

instructional approach has a solid philosophical and epistemological foundation (which, due
to space constraints, is not discussed fully here; see Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, Savery
& Duffy, 1995; Torp & Sage, 2002) and an impressive track record of successful graduates
in medical education and many other fields of study. In commenting on the adoption of PBL in
undergraduate education, White (1996) observed:

Many of the concerns that prompted the development of problem-based learning in medical
schools are echoed today in undergraduate education. Content-laden lectures delivered to large
enrollment classes typify science courses at most universities and many colleges. Professional
organizations, government agencies, and others call for a change in how science is taught as well
as what is taught. While problem-based learning is well known in medical education, it is almost
unknown in the undergraduate curriculum. (p. 75)

The use of PBL in undergraduate education is changing gradually (e.g., Samford

University, University of Delaware) in part because of the realization by industry and
government leaders that this information age is for real. At the Wingspread Conference (1994)
leaders from state and federal governments and experts from corporate, philanthropic,
higher education, and accreditation communities were asked for their opinions and visions
of undergraduate education and to identify some important characteristics of quality
performance for college and university graduates. Their report identified as important high-

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level skills in communication, computation, technological literacy, and information retrieval that
would enable individuals to gain and apply new knowledge and skills as needed. The report also
cited as important the ability to arrive at informed judgments by effectively defining problems,
gathering and evaluating information related to those problems, and developing solutions; the
ability to function in a global community; adaptability; ease with diversity; motivation and
persistence (for example being a self-starter); ethical and civil behavior; creativity and
resourcefulness; technical competence; and the ability to work with others, especially in team
settings. Lastly, the Wingspread Conference report noted the importance of a demonstrated
ability to deploy all of the previous characteristics to address specific problems in complex, real-
world settings, in which the development of workable solutions is required. Given this set of
characteristics and the apparent success of a PBL approach at producing graduates with these
characteristics one could hope for increased support in the use of PBL in undergraduate
education.

The adoption of PBL (and any other instructional innovation) in public education is a
complicated undertaking. Most state-funded elementary schools, middle schools, and high
schools are constrained by a state-mandated curriculum and an expectation that they will produce
a uniform product. High-stakes standardized testing tends to support instructional approaches
that teach to the test. These approaches focus primarily on memorization through drill and
practice, and rehearsal using practice tests. The instructional day is divided into specific blocks
of time and organized around subjects. There is not much room in this structure for teachers or
students to immerse themselves in an engaging problem. However, there are many efforts
underway to work around the constraints of traditional classrooms (see, for example, PBL
Design and Invention Center -http://www.pblnet.org/, or the PBL Initiative—
http://www.pbli.org/core.htm), as well as the article by Lehman and his colleagues in this issue. I
hope in future issues of this journal to learn more about implementations of PBL in K–12
educational settings.

We do live in interesting times—students can now access massive amounts of information that

was unheard-of a decade ago, and there are more than enough problems to choose from in a
range of disciplines. In my opinion, it is vitally important that current and future generations of
students experience a problem-based learning approach and engage in constructive solution-
seeking activities. The bar has been raised as the 21st century gathers momentum and more than
ever, higher-order thinking skills, self-regulated learning habits, and problem-solving skills are
necessary for all students. Providing students with opportunities to develop and refine these skills
will take the efforts of many individuals—especially those who would choose to read a journal
named the Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning.

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THE CONCEPT AND NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is a theoretical concept utilized to clarify human behaviour. It provides the motive for
the human beings to react and fulfil their needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's route
lead to behaviour, or to the construct that trigger someone to desire to replicate behaviour and
vice – versa. Motivation is defined as the process to make a start, guides, and maintains goal-
oriented behaviours. Basically, it leads individuals to take action to achieve a goal or to fulfil a
need or expectation. Previously, there is no standard definition for motivation in education.
According to the motivation definition proposed by Houssave (1875), define motivation as the
kick off and behaviour behind the strength. Aristotle and Plato have endorsed that motivation is
associated with physical, emotional and logical. Other than that, there are few other definitions
proposed by several researchers. Woolfolk’s definition regarding motivation is an internal
condition that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour. Furthermore, it is a factor which leads to
behaviour and determine the directions, the force and insistence of it. motivation is considered
as the reason underlying behaviour. Brophy defined motivation as a theoretical concept that is
used to explain the beginning, direction, force and insistence of goal-oriented behaviour. It is an
attribute that instigate movements, an energy, direction, the reason for our behaviour and “what”
and “why” we do something. The working definition of motivation is a persuasive feeling that
always provides positivism to students to accomplish a task or activity to the end and succeed in
it no matter how hard and tough it is. Motivation is a kind of feeling that always finds ways to go
down and cultivate anxiety and tension in human mind and thoughts indeed, with the positive
motivation; we can revive the positivism energy and apply it in performing tasks. Apart from that
individual with self-motivation always can find a motive and intensity without expecting external
encouragements to complete a task even though the task is challenging. In contrast, negative
motivation illustrates the behaviour is motivated by expectation and fear of not able to achieve
the aimed outcome. Fear considered as a powerful motivator, notably when the fear is regarding
our survival and future endeavours.

motivation is a condition that energizes behavior and gives it direction. It is experienced

subjectively as a conscious desire – the desire for food, for drink, for sex. It is the force that
moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do. Motivated behavior is energized,
directed, and sustained. Most of us can choose whether or not to act on our desires. We can force

18
ourselves to forgo what we desire, and we can make ourselves do what we would rather not do.
Perhaps we can even deliberately choose not to think about the desires that we refuse to act on.
But it is considerably more difficult – perhaps impossible – to control our motivations directly.
When we are hungry, it is hard not to want food. When we are hot and thirsty, we cannot help
wanting a cool breeze or a cold drink. Conscious choice appears to be the consequence, rather
than the cause, of our motivational states. So what does control motivation, if not deliberate
choice? The causes of motivation range from physiological events within the brain and body to
our culture and social interactions with the other individuals who surround us. To a large extent
motivations arise from our biological heritage and reveal general principles about how
motivation and reward work to give direction to behavior.

Types of Motivation
1. Extrinsic Motivation: The type of motivation in which a person performs an action
because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external from the person.
Example: A child get N5,000 for every “A” on his report card or paying an employee a
bonus check for increased performance
2. Intrinsic Motivation: Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because
the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Example: A person
volunteers at an animal shelter because they enjoy being around animals

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Psychoanalytic Theory

As part of Sigmund Freud theory, he believed that humans have only two basic drives: Eros and
Thanatos, or the Life and Death drives.  According to Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do,
every thought we have, and every emotion we experience has one of two goals: to help us
survive or to prevent our destruction.  This is similar to instinct theory, however, Freud believed
that the vast majority of our knowledge about these drives is buried in the unconscious part of
the mind.

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Psychoanalytic theory therefore argues that we go to school because it will help assure our
survival in terms of improved finances, more money for healthcare, or even an improved ability
to find a spouse.  We move to better school districts to improve our children's ability to survive
and continue our family tree.   We demand safety in our cars, toys, and in our homes.  We want
criminal locked away, and we want to be protected against poisons, terrorists, and anything else
that could lead to our destruction.  According to this theory, everything we do, everything we are
can be traced back to the two basic drives

2. Humanistic theory

Humanistic theory is perhaps the most well know theory of motivation.  According to this
theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always do so unless
obstacles are placed in their way.  These obstacles include hunger, thirst, financial problems,
safety issues, or anything else that takes our focus away from maximum psychological growth.

The best way to describe this theory is to utilize the famous pyramid developed by Abraham
Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs.  Maslow believed that humans have specific
needs that must be met and that if lower-level needs go unmet, we cannot possibly strive for
higher level needs.  The Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower level, we must focus on
basic issues such as food, sleep, and safety.  Without food, without sleep, how could we possible
focus on the higher-level needs such as respect, education, and recognition?

Throughout our lives, we work toward achieving the top of the pyramid, self-actualization, or the
realization of all of our potential.  As we move up the pyramid, however, things get in the way
which slow us down and often knock us backward.  Imagine working toward the respect and
recognition of your colleagues and suddenly finding yourself out of work and homeless. 
Suddenly, you are forced backward and can no longer focus your attention on your work due to
the need for finding food and shelter for you and your family.

According to Maslow, nobody has ever reached the peak of his pyramid.  We all may strive for it
and some may even get close, but no one has achieved full self-actualization.  Self-actualization
means a complete understanding of who you are, a sense of completeness, of being the best
person you could possibly be.  To have achieved this goal is to stop living, for what is there to

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strive for if you have learned everything about yourself, if you have experienced all that you can,
and if there is no way left for you to grow emotionally, intellectually, or spiritually.

3. Instinct theory
The theory of instinct is based on our biological makeup. We've all seen spider webs and maybe
even observed a spider in the process of building its home and trap. We've all seen birds in their
nests, either feeding their young or carefully arranging twigs to construct their new home. What
makes spiders so good at spinning webs? What is the best way for birds to learn how to build
nests? All living things are born with specific intrinsic survival skills. These fundamental
tendencies are preprogrammed at birth; they are in our DNA, and even if the spider had never
seen or witnessed the weaving of a web before, it would still be able to do it.
Humans have the same types of innate tendencies.  Babies are born with a unique ability that
allows them to survive; they are born with the ability to cry.  Without this, how would others
know when to feed the baby, know when he needed changing, or when she wanted attention and
affection?  Crying allows a human infant to survive.  We are also born with particular reflexes
which promote survival.  The most important of these include sucking, swallowing, coughing,
blinking.  Newborns can perform physical movements to avoid pain; they will turn their head if
touched on their cheek and search for a nipple (rooting reflex); and they will grasp an object that
touches the palm of their hands.

According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born with innate biological
tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors.
Instincts are goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result of learning or
experience. An instinct is an innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to
be universal throughout a species. Generally, an instinct is set in motion by a sign stimulus —
something in the environment that turns on a fi xed pattern of behavior. Instincts may explain a
great deal of nonhuman animal behavior. In addition, some human behavior is instinctive. for
example, Babies do not have to learn to suck; they instinctively do it when something is placed
in their mouth. So, for infants, an object touching the lips is a sign stimulus. After infancy,
though, it is hard to think of specific behaviors that all human beings engage in when presented
with a particular stimulus.

4. Drive-reduction theory

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This theory emphasize the role of internal factors in motivation. Some internal drives, such as
those related to hunger or thirst, have been said to reflect basic physiological needs. For
motivations like sex or aggression, drive factors seem less tied to absolute physiological needs.
After all, does one ever need to aggressively attack another in the same way that one needs to eat
or drink? Still, aggression and sex have been said to have drive aspects, both in the sense that
internal factors such as hormonal state often appear important and in the sense that they may
have evolved originally to fulfill basic ancestral needs. Drive-Reduction Theory: approach to
motivation assumes that behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to
push the organism to act in order to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.

Primary Drives: Those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger, thirst and sex

Acquired (Secondary) Drives: Those drives that are learned through experience or
conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval

Homeostasis: The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. Functions like a “thermostat”
for the body

5. Arousal theory

The need for stimulation is another explanation for motivation

Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain a certain level of arousal in order to feel
comfortable. This is a theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or
ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. Arousal
refers to a state of emotional, intellectual, and physical activity.  It is different from the above
theory, however, because it doesn't rely on only a reduction of tension, but a balanced amount.  It
also does better to explain why people climb mountains, go to school, or watch sad movies.

Motivation Theories in Learning

Motivation and learning process have a deep connection. Motivation is the core for human
being’s aspirations and achievements. Thus, motivation is crucial to succeed in educational
matters and without the fighting spirit nothing is possible not only in education but also in real
life. The learning process is an endless life long process. In order to continuously achieve a high

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motivation is crucial. Motivation is the force that encourages students to face all the tough and
challenged circumstances. Motivation itself is a huge scope to cater.

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