Functions and Graphs 3

At the end of this session, students will be able to:

1. sketch the graph of some basic functions
2. state the domain and range of each function

Graphs of Functions
This section will help you become familiar with the graphs of many of the
basic functions that you will encounter in Calculus.

Graphing a Function
You get the graph of a function f by drawing all points whose coordinates are
(x; y) where x must be in the domain of f and y = f(x).

Figure 1. Graph of a function f in which the domain of f consists of all x

values and the range consists of all possible values f can have.

The figure shows the graph of a function f in which the domain of f consists of
all x values at which the function is defined, and the range consists of all
possible values f can have.

Linear Functions
A function which is given by the formula f(x) = mx + n where m and n are
constants is called a linear function.
Its graph is a straight line. The constants m and n are the slope and y-
intercept of the line. Conversely, any straight line which is not vertical is the
graph of a linear function.
If you know two points (x0, y0) and (x1, y1) on the line, then then one can
compute the slope m from the “rise-over-run" formula
𝑦1 −𝑦0
𝑚= .
𝑥 1−𝑥 0
Course Module
 Figure 2. A straight line and its slope. The line is the graph of f(x) = mx + n.
It intersects the y-axis at height n, and the ratio between the amounts by
which y and x increase as you move from one point to another on the line
is y1- y0 / x1 - x0 = m.

Vertical Line Test

If no two different points in a graph have the same first coordinate, this
means that vertical lines cross the graph at most once. This is known as
the vertical line test. Graphs that pass the vertical line test are graphs
of functions.
We can also say that, for the vertical line test, a curve in the xy-plane is the
graph of y = f(x) for some function f if and only if no vertical line intercepts
the curve more than once.

Horizontal Line Test

If no two different points in a graph have the same second coordinate, this
means that horizontal lines cross the graph at most once. This is known as
the horizontal line test. Functions whose graphs pass the horizontal line
test are called one-to-one.
We can also say that, for the horizontal line test, A curve in the xy-plane is
the graph of x = f(y) for some function f if and only if no horizontal line
intercepts the curve more than once.

One-to-One Functions
Graphs that pass both the vertical line and horizontal line tests are one-to-
one functions. These are exactly those functions whose inverse relation is
also a function. One-to-one functions have an inverse.
Here are samples of the graphs.
 Figure 3. Function, not one-to-one Figure 4. Not a function.

Figure 5. One-to-one function. Figure 6. One-to-one function.

Graphs of Functions
There are six basic functions that we are going to explore in this section. We
will graph the function and state the domain and range of each function. The
six basic functions are the following:
1. 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥
2. 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2
3. 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3
4. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥
5. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 |
1
6. 𝑓( 𝑥 ) = 2

1. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥.

Remember, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥.
𝑓(−2) = −2
𝑓(−1) = −1
𝑓 ( 0) = 0
𝑓 ( 1) = 1

Course Module
 𝑓 ( 2) = 2

Table 1. Ordered pairs for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥.

Figure 7. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥.

The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is (-∞, ∞)
and the range is (-∞, ∞)

2. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 .

Remember, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2.
𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 = 4
𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 = 1
𝑓(0) = (0)2 = 0
𝑓(1) = (1)2 = 1
𝑓(2) = (−2)2 = 4

Table 2. Ordered pairs for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2.

 The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is (-∞, ∞)
and the range is [0, ∞)

Figure 8. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2.

3. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 .

Remember, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 .
𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 = −8
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 = −1
𝑓(0) = (0)3 = 0
𝑓(1) = (1)3 = 1
𝑓(2) = (−2)3 = 8

Table 3. Ordered pair for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 .

Course Module
Figure 9. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3.
 The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is (-∞, ∞) and
the range is (-∞, ∞).

4. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥.
Remember 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥.
𝑓(−2) = √−2 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝑓(−1) = √−1 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝑓(0) = √0 = 0
𝑓(1) = √1 = 1
𝑓(4) = √4 = 2

Table 4 . Ordered pair for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥

Figure 10. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥

The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is [0, ∞) and the
range is [0, ∞).

5. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 | .

 Remember, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 | .
𝑓(−2) = |−2| = 2
𝑓(−1) = |−1| = 1
𝑓(0) = |0| = 0
𝑓(1) = |1| = 1
𝑓(2) = |2| = 2
Table 5. Ordered pair for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = |𝑥| .

Figure 11. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = |𝑥|.

The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is (-∞, ∞) and the
range is [0, ∞).

1
6. For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2
1
Remember, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2 .

1
Table 6. Ordered pair for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2.

The ordered pairs are indicated in the graph . The domain is (-∞, 0) U (0, ∞)
and the range is (-∞, 0) U (0, ∞).
Course Module
 1
Figure 12. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) = .
2

Example 1:
2
Graph 𝑦 = − 5 𝑥 + 3.
Solution:
This is a line in the slope intercept form y = mx + b
In this case the line has a y intercept of (0,b) and a slope of m. Recall that
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
slope can be thought of as 𝑚 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 .

Note that if the slope is negative we tend to think of the rise as a fall. The
slope allows us to get a second point on the line. Once we have any point on
the line and the slope we move right by run and up/down by rise depending
on the sign. This will be a second point on the line.
In this case we know (0,3) is a point on the line and the slope is -2/5. So
starting at (0,3) we’ll move 5 to the right, that is 0 to 5 and down 2 which is 3
to 1 to get (5,1) as a second point on the line. Once we’ve got two points on a
line all we need to do is plot the two points and connect them with a line.
 2
Figure 13. Graph of 𝑦 = − 5 𝑥 + 3.

Example 2:
Graph 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 3.
Solution
This is a parabola in the general form of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
In this form, the x-coordinate of the vertex (the highest or lowest point on the
𝑏 𝑏
parabola) is 𝑥 = − and we get the y-coordinate is 𝑦 = 𝑓(− ). So, for our
2𝑎 2𝑎
2
parabola the coordinates of the vertex will be 𝑥 = − 2 (−1) = 1 and 𝑦 =
𝑓(1) = −(1)2 + 2(1) + 3 = 4. So, the vertex for this parabola is (1,4).
We can also determine which direction the parabola opens from the sign of a.
If a is positive the parabola opens up and if a is negative the parabola opens
down. In our case the parabola opens down.
Now, because the vertex is above the x-axis and the parabola opens down we
know that we’ll have x-intercepts which are values of x for which we’ll have
f(x) = 0 on this graph. So, we’ll solve the following:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0;
−𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
So, we will have x-intercepts at x=-1 and x=3. Notice that to make it easier in
the solution process; we multiplied everything by -1 to get the coefficient of
the positive. This made the factoring easier.

Course Module
Here’s a sketch of our parabola.

Figure 14. Graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 3

Example 3:
Graph 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 8 = 0.
Solution:
To determine just what kind of graph we’ve got here we need to complete the
square on both the x and the y.
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 8 = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 1 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 16 − 16 + 8 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 9
Recall that to complete the square we take the half of the coefficient of the x
(or the y), square this and then add and subtract it to the equation.
Upon doing this we see that we have a circle and it’s now written in standard
form.
Standard form of a circle: (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟2
When circles are in this form we can easily identify the center : (h, k) and
radius : r. Once we have these we can graph the circle simply by starting at
the center and moving right, left, up and down by r to get the rightmost,
leftmost, top most and bottom most points respectively.
 Our circle has a center at (-1, 4) and a radius of 3.

Figure 15. Graph of 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 8 = 0

with center at (-1, 4) and a radius of 3.

Example 4:
(𝑥−2) 2
Graph + 4(𝑦 + 2)2 = 1.
9

Solution:
(𝑥−ℎ) 2 (𝑦−𝑘) 2
This is an ellipse. The standard form of the ellipse is + = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2

This is an ellipse with center (h, k) and the right most and left most points are
a distance of a away from the center and the top most and bottom most
points are a distance of b away from the center.
1
The ellipse for this problem has center (2, -2) and has a= 3 and 𝑏 = 2 . Note
(𝑥−2) 2 (𝑦+2) 2
that to get the b we’re really rewriting the equation as + 1 = 1.
9
4

Here’s a sketch of our ellipse.

2
(𝑥−2)
Figure 16. Graph of + 4(𝑦 + 2)2 = 1 with center (2, -2)
9
1
and has a= 3 and 𝑏 = .
2

Example 5:
Course Module
 (𝑥+1) 2 (𝑦−2) 2
Graph + = 1.
9 4

Solution:
This is a hyperbola. There are actually two standard forms for a hyperbola.
Here are the basics for each form.
Table 7. Standard forms for a hyperbola.

As shown in the table, first, notice that one of the terms is positive a nd the
other is negative. This will determine which direction the two parts of the
hyperbola open. If the x term is positive the hyperbola opens left and right.
Likewise, if the y term is positive the parabola opens up and down.
Both have the same “center”. Note that hyperbolas don’t really have a center
in the sense that circles and ellipses have centers. The center is the starting
point in graphing a hyperbola. It tells us how to get to the vertices and how to
get the asymptotes set up.
The asymptotes of a hyperbola are two lines that intersect at the center and
have the slopes listed in the table. As you move farther out from the center
the graph will get closer and closer to the asymptotes.
For the given equation, the hyperbola will open left and right. Its center is (-1,
2). The two vertices are (-4, 2) and (2, 2). The asymptotes will have slopes
2
± .
3

Here is a sketch of our hyperbola. Note that the asymptotes are denoted by
the two dashed lines.
 2 2
(𝑥+1) (𝑦−2)
Figure 17. Graph of + = 1with center at (-1, 2), vertices at (-4, 2) and (2, 2), and
9 4
2
asymptotes of ± .
3

Example 6:
Graph 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 .
Solution:
There isn’t a lot to this problem other than making sure that both of the
exponentials are graphed somewhere.
These will both show up with some regularity in later sections and their
behavior as x goes to both plus and minus infinity will be needed and from
this graph we can clearly see this behavior.

Figure 18. Graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥.

Course Module
Example 7:
Graph 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥.
Solution:
Recall the properties of natural logarithm we discussed earlier. These are:
• ln x  ∞ as x  ∞
• ln x  - ∞ as x  0, x > 0
We will put it here with all the other “important” graphs.

Figure 19. Graph of 𝑓 (𝑥) = ln 𝑥.

Example 8:
Graph y = cos (x).
Solution:
There isn’t a lot to this one. Here’s the graph for -4π ≤ x ≤ 4π.
Note that we can put all values of x into cosine (which won’t be the case for
most of the trigonometric functions) and so the domain is all real numbers. It
is also important to notice that cosine will never be larger than 1 or smaller
than -1. This will be useful on occasion in calculus.

Figure 20. Graph of y = cos (x).

 Example 8:
Graph y = sin (x).
Solution:
As with the cos problem, there really isn’t a lot to do other than graph it. Here
is the graph.

Figure 21. Graph of y = sin (x).

From this graph we can see that sine has the same range that cosine does. As
with cosine, sine itself will never be larger than 1 and never smaller than -1.
Also the domain of sine is all real numbers.

Example 10:
Graph y = tan (x).
Solution:
In the case of tangent, we have to be careful when plugging x’s in since
tangent doesn’t exist wherever cosine is zero (remember that tan x = sin
x/cos x).
5𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Tangent will not exist at 𝑥 = − 2 , − 2
, −2 , 2 , 2
, 2
, … and the graph will
have asymptotes at these points.
5𝜋 5𝜋
Here is the graph of tangent on the range − 2
<𝑥 2
.

Course Module
 5𝜋 5𝜋
Figure 22. Graph of y = tan (x) on the range − <𝑥< .
2 2

Example 11:
Graph y = sec (x).
Solution
As with tangent, we will have to avoid x’s for which cosine is zero (remember
1
that sec 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ).
5𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Secant will not exist at 𝑥 = ⋯ , − 2 , − , −2 , 2 , , , … and the graph will
2 2 2
have asymptotes at these points.
5𝜋 5𝜋
Here is the graph of secant on the range − <𝑥 < .
2 2

5𝜋 5𝜋
Figure 23. Graph y = sec (x) on the range − <𝑥< .
2 2

Notice that the graph is always greater than 1 and less than -1, since sec x =
1/cos x. So, one divided by something less than one will be greater than 1.
 For graphing of functions, always remember to…
Make a table of ordered pairs that satisfy f(x) to graph basic functions .
Use the general or standard forms of the equation to sketch other common
functions (i.e., line, parabola, circle, ellipse, and hyperbola).
Use the respective properties to graph natural logarithm and trigonometric
functions.

Activities and Exercises

Work on an exercises and complete the quiz. Refer to Week003-

Assessments-FunctionsAndGraphs3 file.

References
Angenent, Sigurd B. (2006). MATH 221 - 1st Semester Calculus Lecture
Notes, Version 2.0. Free Software Foundation
Strang, Gilbert. Calculus. Massachusetts: Wellesley, Wellesley-Cambridge
Press.
Dawkins, Paul. (2007). Calculus I – Review. Retrieved from
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/CalcI.aspx

Course Module