Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs

In this section we introduce logarithmic functions. Notice that every exponential function f(x) =
ax, with a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is a one-to-one function by the Horizontal Line Test and therefore has an
inverse function. The inverse function of the exponential function with base a is called the
logarithmic function with base a and is denoted by
log a x. Recall that f -1 is defined by

f −1 ( y ) = x ⇔ f ( x) = y

This leads to the following definition of the logarithmic function.

Definition of the Logarithmic Function:

Let a be a positive number with a ≠ 0. The logarithmic function with

base a, denoted by log a, is defined by

log a x = y ⇔ a y = x

In other words, this says that

log a x is the exponent to which the base a must be raised to give x.

The form log a x = y is called the logarithmic form, and the form ay = x is called the
exponential form. Notice that in both forms the base is the same:

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 1: Express each equation in exponential form.

(a) log 7 49 = 2
(b) log16 4 = 12

Solution:

From the definition of the logarithmic function we know

log a x = y ⇔ a y = x

This implies

(a) log 7 49 = 2 ⇔ 7 2 = 49

log16 4 = ⇔ 16 2 = 4
1
1
(b) 2

Example 2: Express each equation in logarithmic form.

(a) 34 = 81
(b) 6−1 = 16

Solution:

From the definition of the logarithmic function we know

a y = x ⇔ log a x = y

This implies

(a) 34 = 81 ⇔ log 3 81 = 4

(b) 6−1 = 1
6 ⇔ log 6 16 = −1

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions:

Since the logarithmic function f(x) = log a x is the inverse of the exponential function f(x) = ax,
the graphs of these two functions are reflections of each other through the line
y = x.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Also, since the exponential function with a ≠ 0 has domain ú and range (0, ∞), we conclude its
inverse, the logarithmic function, has domain (0, ∞) and range ú. Finally, since f(x) = ax has a
horizontal asymptote at y = 0, f(x) = log a x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0.

Example 3: Draw the graph of y = 5x, then use it to draw the graph of y = log 5 x.

Solution:

Step 1: To graph y = 5x, start by choosing some values of x and finding

the corresponding y-values.

Step 2: Plot the points found in the previous step for y = 5x and draw a
smooth curve connecting them.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 3 (Continued):

Step 3: To find the graph of y = log 5 x, all we need to do is reflect the

graph of y = 5x over the line y = x, because they are inverses.

Another way we can find the graph of y = log 5 x is to take the

chart we found in Step 1 for y = 5x, and switch the x and y
values. Then we plot the new points and draw a smooth curve
connecting them.

The figure below shows the graphs of the family of logarithmic functions with bases 2, 3, 5, and
10.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

We can now add the logarithmic function to our list of library functions. In addition, we can
perform transformations to the logarithmic function using the techniques learned earlier.

Example 4: Graph the function f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2), not by plotting points, but by
starting from the graphs in the above figure. State the domain, range, and
asymptote.

Solution:

Step 1: To obtain the graph of f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2), we start with the
graph of f(x) = log 3 x, reflect it across the x-axis and shift it to
the left 2 units.

Step 2: Notice that while the vertical asymptote is not actually part of the
graph, it also shifts left 2 units, and so the vertical asymptote of
f(x) = -log 3 (x + 2) is the line x = –2. Looking at the graph, we
see that the domain of f is (–2, ∞), and the range is ú.

Some important properties of logarithms are as follows:

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Properties of Logarithms:

Common Logarithms:

Frequently one will see the logarithmic function written without a specified base,
y = log x. This is known as the common logarithm, and it is the logarithm with base 10.

The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is denoted by
omitting the base:

log x = log10 x

Natural Logarithms:

Of all possible bases a for logarithms, it turns out the most convenient choice for the purposes of
calculus is the number e.

The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is denoted by ln:

ln x = log e x

The natural logarithmic function y = ln x is the inverse function of the exponential function y =
ex. Both functions are graphed below.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

By the definition of inverse functions we have

ln x = y ⇔ e y = x

The same important properties of logarithms that were listed above also apply to natural
logarithms.

Properties of Natural Logarithms:

Example 5: Evaluate the expressions.

(a) log 7 1
(b) log 3 3
(c) ln e12
(d) 10logπ

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 5 (Continued):

Solution (a):

The first property of logarithms says log a 1 = 0. Thus,

log 7 1 = 0

Solution (b):

The second property of logarithms says log a a = 1. Thus,

log 3 3 = 1 .

Solution (c):

The third property of natural logarithms says ln ex = x. Thus,

ln e12 = 12 .

Solution (d):

Step 1: First note that log π = log 10 π. So

10log π = 10log10 π

Step 2: The fourth property of logarithms says aloga x = x. Thus

10log10 π = π .

Example 6: Use the definition of the logarithmic function to find x.

(a) 3 = log 2 x
(b) −4 = log 3 x
(c) 4 = log x 625
(d) −2 = log x 100

Solution (a):

Step 1: By the definition of the logarithm, we can rewrite the expression

in exponential form.

3 = log 2 x ⇔ 23 = x

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 6 (Continued):

Step 2: Now we can solve for x.

x = 23
x =8

Solution (b):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

−4 = log 3 x ⇔ 3−4 = x

Step 2: Solve for x.

x = 3−4
x= 1
34

x = 811

Solution (c):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

4 = log x 625 ⇔ x 4 = 625

Step 2: Solve for x.

x 4 = 625 take the fourth root of both sides

x = ± 4 625
x = ±5

Recall that a logarithm cannot have a negative base. So, we

discard the extraneous solution x = –5, and therefore x = 5 is the
only solution to the expression 4 = log x 625.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 6 (Continued):

Solution (d):

Step 1: Rewrite the expression in exponential form using the definition

of the logarithmic function.

−2 = log x 100 ⇔ x −2 = 100

Step 2: Solve for x.

x −2 = 100
1
x2
= 100 multiply both sides by x 2
1 = 100 x 2 divide both sides by 100
1
100 = x2 take the square root of both sides
x=± 1
100

x = ± 101

Again we note that a logarithm cannot have a negative base. So,

we discard the extraneous solution x = − 101 , and therefore x = 101
is the only solution to the expression −2 = log x 100 .

THE DECIBEL SCALE

The ear is sensitive to an extremely wide range of sound intensities. We take as a reference
intensity I 0 = 10 –12 W/m 2 (watts per square meter) at a frequency of 1000 hertz, which measures
a sound that is just barely audible (the threshold of hearing). The psychological sensation of
loudness varies with the logarithm of the intensity (the Weber-Fechner Law) and so intensity
level β, measured in decibels (dB), is defined as

⎛ I ⎞
β = 10 log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ I0 ⎠

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 7: The intensity level of the sound of a subway train was measured at 98 dB. Find
the intensity in W/m 2.

Solution:

From the definition of intensity level, we see that

⎛ I ⎞
10 log ⎜ −12 ⎟ = 98
⎝ 10 ⎠
10log(I ) − 10 log(10−12 ) = 98 Law 2 of Logarithms
10log(I ) = 98 + 10 log(10−12 ) Add 10log(10−2 ) to both sides
log( I ) = 9.8 + log(10−12 ) Divide both sides by 10
log( I ) = 9.8 − 12 = −2.2 Property of logarithms
I = 10−2.2 Property of logarithms
−3
I ≈ 6.31×10 Use a calculator

Thus, the intensity level is about 6.3 × 10 –3 W/m 2.

THE RICHTER SCALE

In 1935 the American geologist Charles Richter (1900-1984) defined the magnitude M of an
earthquake to be
⎛I⎞
M = log ⎜ ⎟
⎝S⎠

where I is the intensity of the earthquake (measured by the amplitude of a seismograph reading
taken 100 km from the epicenter of the earthquake) and S is the intensity of a “standard”
earthquake (whose amplitude is 1 micron = 10 –4 cm). The magnitude of a standard earthquake
is

⎛S⎞
M = log ⎜ ⎟ = log(1) = 0
⎝S⎠

Richter studied many earthquakes that occurred between 1900 and 1950. The largest had
magnitude 8.9 on the Richter scale, and the smallest had a magnitude 0. This corresponds to a
ratio of intensities of 800,000,000, so the Richter scale provides more manageable numbers to
work with. For instance, an earthquake of magnitude 6 is ten times stronger than an earthquake
of magnitude 5.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo

Example 8: The 1985 Mexico City earthquake had a magnitude of 8.1 on the Richter scale. The
1976 earthquake in Tangshan, China, was 1.26 times as intense. What was the magnitude of the
Tangshan earthquake?

Solution:

If I is the intensity of the Mexico City earthquake, then from the definition of
magnitude we have

⎛I⎞
M = log ⎜ ⎟ = 8.1
⎝S⎠

The intensity of the Tangshan earthquake was 1.26I, so its magnitude was

⎛ 1.26 I ⎞ ⎛I⎞
M = log ⎜ ⎟ = log(1.26) + log ⎜ ⎟ = log(1.26) + 8.1 ≈ 8.2
⎝ S ⎠ ⎝S⎠

Example 9: The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco had a magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale.
At the same time in Japan an earthquake with magnitude 4.9 caused only minor damage. How
many times more intense was the San Francisco earthquake than the Japanese earthquake?

Solution:

If I 1 and I 2 are the intensities of the San Francisco and Japan earthquakes, then
we are required to find I 1 / I 2. To relate this to the definition of magnitude, we
divide numerator and denominator by S.

I1 I S
log = log 1 Divide numerator and denominator by S
I2 I2 S
I1 I
= log − log 2 Law 2 of Logarithms
S S
= 8.3 − 4.9 = 3.4 Definition of earthquake magnitude

Therefore

I1
= 10log( I1 I2 )
= 103.4 ≈ 2,511.88
I2

The San Francisco earthquake was about 2500 times as intense as the Japan
earthquake.

By: Crystal Hull and Jennifer Guajardo