COM 223 Lecture note

Basic Concepts of Electricity

A complete circuit is needed before voltage can cause the current to flow through the load to
perform work. A simple electric circuit consists of the following:

1. Voltage source (e.g. battery)

2. Load (e.g. lamp)

3. Path for the current between the power supply and the load (e.g. wire).

The following figure shows a simple electric circuit with its schematic representation. Also it
can be seen from the figure (2-1) the flow of the current.

The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit is fundamental to
the operation of any circuit or device. It can be related mathematical in a law called Ohms law.

V=I×R

Basic Concepts
The three main concepts in electricity are voltage, current and resistance. Voltage or potential
difference can be thought of as the driving force (although it is not really a "force") behind the
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electric current. In the water analogy, in figure (2-2), you can think of voltage as the pressure
difference created by a pump that causes the water to flow through the pipe in the water system.
Also you can think of the electrons flow in the electric circuit as equivalent to the flow of the
water in the pipes that caused by the pump. Another important concept in electricity is resistance.
It’s Property of a material that opposes the flow of electrons through it. Resistance in a material
is a result of the collision of electrons with the atoms and with each other as they move. The
collisions produce heat, increasing the temperature of the material .This can be useful in some
application such as the filament lamp.

CURRENT
Given an appropriate external force, the movement of electrons is from negatively charged atoms
to positively charged atoms. This flow of electrons is called current (I). The symbol I is used to
represent current. The amount of current is the sum of the charges of the moving electrons past a
given point. An electron has a very small charge, so the charge of 6.24 * 1018 electrons is added
together and called a coulomb (C). When one coulomb of charge moves past a single point in
one second it is called an ampere (A). The ampere is named for a French physicist named André
Marie Ampère (1775-1836). Current is measured in amperes.

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VOLTAGE
When there is an excess of electrons (negative charge) at one end of a conductor and a deficiency
of electrons (positive charge) at the opposite end, a current flows between the two ends. A
current flows through the conductor as long as this condition persists. The source that creates this
excess of electrons at one end and the deficiency at the other end represents the potential. The
potential is the ability of the source to perform electrical work. The actual work accomplished in
a circuit is a result of the difference of potential available at the two ends of a conductor. It is this
difference of potential that causes electrons to move or flow in a circuit. The difference of
potential is referred to as electromotive force (emf) or voltage. Voltage is the force that moves
the electrons in the circuit. Think of voltage as the pressure or pump that moves the electrons.

Voltage Source

A current is produced when an electron is forced from its orbit around an atom. Any form of
energy that dislodges electrons from atoms can be used to produce current. It is important to note
that energy is not created; rather, there is simply a transfer of energy from one form to another.
The source supplying the voltage is not simply a source of electrical energy. Instead, it is the
means of converting some other form of energy into electrical energy. The six most common
voltage sources are friction, magnetism, chemicals, light, heat, and pressure.

Friction is the oldest known method of producing electricity. A glass rod can become charged
when rubbed with a piece of fur or silk. This is similar to the charge you can generate by scuffing
your feet across a carpet in a dry room. A Van de Graaf generator is a device that operates using
the same principles as the glass rod and is capable of producing millions of volts.

Magnetism is the most common method of producing electrical energy today. If a wire is passed
through a magnetic field, voltage is produced, as long as there is motion between the magnetic
field and the conductor. A device based on this principle is called a generator.

A generator can produce either direct current or alternating current, depending on how it is
wired. When electrons flow in only one direction, the current is called direct current (DC). When
electrons flow in one direction then in the opposite direction, the current is called alternating
current (AC).

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Chemical: The second most common method of producing electrical energy today is by the use
of a chemical cell. The cell consists of two dissimilar metals, copper and zinc, immersed in a
salt, acid, or alkaline solution. The metals, copper and zinc, are the electrodes. The electrodes
establish contact with the electrolyte (the salt, acid, or alkaline solution) and the circuit. The
electrolyte pulls the free electrons from the copper electrode, leaving it with a positive charge.
The zinc electrode attracts free electrons in the electrolyte and thus acquires a negative charge.

Light energy can be converted directly to electrical energy by light striking a photosensitive
(light-sensitive) substance in a photovoltaic cell (solar cell). .A solar cell consists of
photosensitive materials mounted between metal contacts. When the surface of the
photosensitive material is exposed to light, it dislodges electrons from their orbits around the
surface atoms of the material. This occurs because light has energy. A single cell can produce a
small voltage.

Heat can be converted directly to electricity with a device called a thermocouple. A

thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires, twisted together. One wire is copper and the
other wire is zinc or iron. When heat is applied to the twisted connection, the copper wire readily
gives up free electrons, which are transferred to the other wire. Thus the copper wire develops a
positive charge and the other wire develops a negative charge, and a small voltage occurs. The
voltage is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied.

Pressure: When pressure is applied to certain crystalline materials such as quartz, tourmaline,
Rochelle salts, or barium titanate, a small voltage is produced. This is referred to as the
piezoelectric effect. Initially, negative and positive charges are distributed randomly throughout
a piece of crystalline material and no overall charge can be measured. However, when pressure is
applied, electrons leave one side of the material and accumulate on the other side. A charge is
produced as long as the pressure remains. When the pressure is removed, the charge is again
distributed, so no overall charge exists. The voltage produced is small and must be amplified to
be useful. Uses of the piezoelectric effect include crystal microphones, phonograph pickups
(crystal cartridges), and precision oscillators.

Note that while a voltage can be produced by these means, the reverse is also true; that is, a
voltage can be used to produce magnetism, chemicals, light, heat, and pressure. Magnetism is

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evident in motors, speakers, solenoids, and relays. Chemical activities can be produced through
electrolysis and electroplating. Light is produced with light bulbs and other optoelectric devices.
Heat is produced with heating elements in stoves, irons, and soldering irons. And voltage can be
applied to bend or twist a crystal.

RESISTANCE

Resistance is opposition to the flow of current. Some materials such as glass and rubber offer
great opposition to current flow. Other materials such as silver and copper offer little opposition
to current flow. The size and type of wires in an electric circuit are chosen to keep the electrical
resistance as low as possible. This allows the current to flow easily through the conductor. In an
electric circuit, the larger the diameter of the wire, the lower the electrical resistance to current
flow.

As previously mentioned, every material offers some resistance or opposition to the flow of
current. Some conductors such as silver, copper, and

aluminum offer very little resistance to current flow. Insulators such as glass, wood, and paper
offer high resistance to current flow. The size and type of wires in an electric circuit are chosen
to keep the electrical resistance as low as possible. This allows the current to flow easily through
the conductor. In an electric circuit, the larger the diameter of the wire, the lower the electrical
resistance to current flow.

Resistance is the opposition to current flow. To add resistance to a circuit, electrical components
called resistors are used. A resistor is a device whose resistance to current flow is a known,
specified value. Resistance is measured in ohms and is represented by the symbol R in equations.

Resistors are common components of many electrical and electronic devices. Some frequent uses
for resistors are to establish the proper value of circuit voltage, to limit current, and to provide a
load.

CONNECTING RESISTORS

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There are three important types of resistive circuits: the series circuit, the parallel circuit, and the
series-parallel circuit . A series circuit provides a single path for current flow. A parallel circuit
provides two or more paths for current flow. A series-parallel circuit is a combination of a series
circuit and a parallel circuit.

CONNECTING RESISTORS IN SERIES

A series circuit contains two or more resistors and provides one path for current to flow. The
current flows from the negative side of the voltage source through each resistor to the positive
side of the voltage source. If there is only one path for current to flow between two points in a
circuit, the circuit is a series circuit.

The more resistors connected in series, the more opposition there is to current flow. The more
opposition there is to current flow, the higher the resistance in the circuit. In other words, when a
resistor is added in series to a circuit, the total resistance in the circuit increases. The total
resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances in the circuit. This can be
expressed as: RT = R1+ R2+ R3 . . . Rn

EXAMPLE: What is the total resistance of the circuits shown below?

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CONNECTING RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

A parallel circuit contains two or more resistors and provides two or more paths for current to
flow. Each current path in a parallel circuit is called a branch. The current flows from the
negative side of the voltage source, through each branch of the parallel circuit, to the positive

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side of the voltage source. If there is more than one path for current to flow between two points
in a circuit with two or more resistors, the circuit is a parallel circuit.

The more resistors are connected in parallel, the less opposition there is to current flow. The less
opposition there is to current flow, the lower the resistance in the circuit. In other words, when a
resistor is added in parallel to a circuit, the total resistance in the circuit decreases, because
additional paths for current flow are provided. In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is always
less than the resistance of any branch.

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is given by the formula:

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Note that the total resistance is less than that of the smallest resistor. The circuit shown in Figure
4–21 could be replaced with one 5.45-ohm resistor.

EXAMPLE: Calculate the total resistance for the circuit shown in Figure 4–22.

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EXAMPLE: What resistor value must be connected in parallel with a 47-ohm resistor to provide
a total resistance of 27 ohms? See Figure 4–23.

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CONNECTING RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

A series-parallel circuit is a combination of a series and a parallel circuit. Figure 4–24 shows a
simple series-parallel circuit with resistors. Notice that R2 and R3 are in parallel, and that this
parallel combination is in series with R1 and R4. The current flows from the negative side of the
voltage source through resistor R4 and divides at point A to flow through the two branches, R2
and R3. At point B, the current recombines and flows through R1.

The total resistance for a series-parallel circuit or compound circuit is computed using the series
formula:

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Most circuits can be broken down to a simple parallel or series circuit. The procedure is as
follows:

1. Calculate the parallel portion of the circuit first to determine the equivalent resistance.

2. If there are series components within the parallel portion of the circuit, determine the
equivalent resistance for the series components first.

3. After the equivalent resistance is determined, redraw the circuit, substituting the equivalent
resistance for the parallel portion of the circuit.

4. Determine the final resistance.

EXAMPLE: Calculate the total resistance for the circuit shown below.

The first step is to determine the equivalent resistance (RA) for R2 and R3.

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Redraw the circuit, substituting the equivalent resistance for the parallel portion of the circuit.

Now determine the total series resistance for the redrawn circuit.

EXAMPLE: Calculate the total resistance for the circuit shown below;

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First find the equivalent resistance (RA) for parallel resistors R2 and R3. Then find the
equivalent resistance (RB) for resistors R5, R6, and R7.

Now redraw the circuit using equivalent resistance RA and RB and determine the total series resistance
for the redrawn circuit shown below.

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 Ohm‘s Law

Ohm’s law defines the relationship among three fundamental quantities: current, voltage, and
resistance. It states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to
resistance.

As stated earlier, current flows from a point with an excess of electrons to a point with a
deficiency of electrons. The path that the current follows is called an electric circuit. All electric
circuits consist of a voltage source, a load, and a conductor. The voltage source establishes a
difference of potential that forces the current to flow. The source can be a battery, a generator, or
another of the devices.

Ohm’s law, or the relationship among current, voltage, and resistance, was first observed by
GeorgeOhmin1827.Ohm’s law states that the current in an electric circuit is directly proportional
to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance in a circuit. This may be expressed as:

Whenever two of the three quantities are known, the third quantity can always be determined.

EXAMPLE: How much current flows in the circuit shown in Figure 5–9?

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EXAMPLE: In the circuit shown in Figure 5–10, how much voltage is required to produce 20
milliamps of current flow?

EXAMPLE: What resistance value is needed for the circuit shown in Figure 5–11 to draw 2
amperes of current?

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In a series circuit shown below, the same current flows throughout the circuit.

The total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the voltage

drop across the individual loads (resistance) in the circuit.

The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum

of the individual resistances in the circuit.

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In a parallel circuit above, the same voltage is applied to each branch in the circuit.

The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents in the
circuit.

The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
branch resistances.

The total resistance in a parallel circuit will always be smaller than the smallest branch
resistance. Ohm’s law states that the current in a circuit (series, parallel, or series-parallel) is
directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.

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In determining unknown quantities in a circuit, follow these steps:

1. Draw a schematic of the circuit and label all known quantities.

2. Solve for equivalent circuits and redraw the circuit.

3. Solve for the unknown quantities.

EXAMPLE: What is the total current flow in the circuit shown below?

EXAMPLE: How much voltage is dropped across resistor R2 in the circuit shown below?

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 Solution: First solve for the total circuit resistance:

Draw the equivalent circuit as shown below and determine the total current in the circuit:

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EXAMPLE: What is the value of R2 in the circuit shown below?

First solve for the current that flows through R1 and R3. Because the voltage is the same in each
branch of a parallel circuit, each branch voltageisequaltothesourcevoltageof120volts.

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In a parallel circuit, the total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the branch currents.

Resistor R2 can now be determined using Ohm’s law.

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 Assignment.

Determine the current through R3 in the circuit shown below:

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