Monastic and Scholastic Theology

Author: Pope Benedict XVI

Monastic and Scholastic Theology

Pope Benedict XVI

A natural friendship between faith and reason

On Wednesday, 28 October [2009], at the General Audience in St Peter's Square, the Holy Father
reflected on the flourishing of Latin theology in the 12th century. The following is a translation of the
Pope's Catechesis, which was given in Italian.

Dear Brothers and Sisters,

Today I am reflecting on an interesting page of history that concerns the flourishing of Latin theology in
the 12th century which occurred through a series of providential coincidences. A relative peace
prevailed in the countries of Western Europe at that time which guaranteed economic development and
the consolidation of political structures in society, encouraging lively cultural activity also through its
contacts with the East. The benefits of the vast action known as the "Gregorian reform" were already
being felt within the Church. Vigorously promoted in the previous century, they had brought greater
evangelical purity to the life of the ecclesial community, especially to the clergy, and had restored to the
Church and to the Papacy authentic freedom of action.

Furthermore, a wide-scale spiritual renewal supported by the vigorous development of consecrated life
was spreading; new religious orders were coming into being and expanding, while those already in
existence were experiencing a promising spiritual revival.

Theology also flourished anew, acquiring a greater awareness of its own nature: it refined its method; it
tackled the new problems; advanced in the contemplation of God's mysteries; produced fundamental
works; inspired important initiatives of culture, from art to literature; and prepared the masterpieces of
the century to come, the century of Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure of Bagnoregio.
This intense theological activity took place in two milieus: the monasteries and the urban Schools, the
scholae, some of which were the forerunners of universities, one of the characteristic "inventions" of
the Christian Middle Ages.

It is on the basis of these two milieus, monasteries and scholae, that it is possible to speak of the two
different theological models: "monastic theology" and "scholastic theology". The representatives of
monastic theology were monks, usually abbots, endowed with wisdom and evangelical zeal, dedicated
essentially to inspiring and nourishing God's loving design. The representatives of Scholastic theology
were cultured men, passionate about research; they were magistri anxious to show the reasonableness
and soundness of the Mysteries of God and of man, believed with faith, of course, but also understood
by reason. Their different finalities explain the differences in their method and in their way of doing
theology.

In 12th-century monasteries the theological method mainly entailed the explanation of Sacred Scripture,
the sacra pagina to borrow the words of the authors of that period; biblical theology in particular was
practised. The monks, in other words, were devout listeners to and readers of the Sacred Scriptures and
one of their chief occupations consisted in lectio divina, that is, the prayed reading of the Bible. For
them the mere reading of the Sacred Text did not suffice to perceive its profound meaning, its inner
unity and transcendent message. It was therefore necessary to practise a biblical theology, in docility to
the Holy Spirit. Thus, at the school of the Fathers, the Bible was interpreted allegorically in order to
discover on every page of both the Old and New Testaments what it says about Christ and his work of
salvation.

Last year, The Synod of Bishops on the "Word of God in the life and mission of the Church" reminded us
of the importance of the spiritual approach to the Sacred Scriptures. It is useful for this purpose to take
into account monastic theology, an uninterrupted biblical exegesis, as well as the works written by its
exponents, precious ascetic commentaries on the Books of the Bible.

Thus monastic theology incorporated the spiritual aspect into literary formation. It was aware, in other
words that a purely theoretical and unversed interpretation is not enough: to enter into the heart of
Sacred Scripture it must be read in the spirit in which it was written and created. Literary knowledge was
necessary in order to understand the exact meaning of the words and to grasp the meaning of the text,
refining the grammatical and philological sensibility. Thus Jean Leclercq, a Benedictine scholar in the
past century, entitled the essay in which he presents the characteristics of monastic theology: L'amour
des lettres et le désir de Dieu (Love of words and the desire for God). In fact, the desire to know and to
love God which comes to meet us through his words to be received, meditated upon and put into
practice, leads us to seek to deepen our knowledge of the biblical texts in all their dimensions. Then
there is another attitude on which those who practise monastic theology insist: namely an intimate,
prayerful disposition that must precede, accompany and complete the study of Sacred Scripture. Since,
ultimately, monastic theology is listening to God's word, it is impossible not to purify the heart in order
to receive it and, especially, it is impossible not to enkindle in it a longing to encounter the Lord.

Theology thus becomes meditation, prayer, a song of praise and impels us to sincere conversion. On this
path, many exponents of monastic theology attained the highest goals of mystic experience and extend
an invitation to us too to nourish our lives with the word of God, for example, through listening more
attentively to the Readings and the Gospel, especially during Sunday Mass. It is also important to set
aside a certain period each day for meditation on the Bible, so that the word of God may be a light that
illumines our daily pilgrimage on earth.

Scholastic theology, on the other hand — as I was saying — was practised at the scholae which came
into being beside the great cathedrals of that time for the formation of the clergy, or around a teacher
of theology and his disciples, to train professionals of culture in a period in which the appreciation of
knowledge was constantly growing.

Central to the method of the Scholastics was the quaestio, that is, the problem the reader faces in
approaching the words of Scripture and of Tradition. In the face of the problem that these authoritative
texts pose, questions arise and the debate between teacher and student comes into being. In this
discussion, on the one hand the arguments of the authority appear and on the other those of reason,
and the ensuing discussion seeks to come to a synthesis between authority and reason in order to reach
a deeper understanding of the word of God. In this regard St Bonaventure said that theology is "per
additionem" (cf. Commentaria in quatuor libros sententiarum, I, proem., q. 1, concl.), that is, theology
adds the dimension of reason to the word of God and thus creates a faith that is deeper, more personal,
hence also more concrete in the person's life. In this regard various solutions were found and
conclusions reached which began to build a system of theology.

The organization of the quaestiones led to the compilation of ever more extensive syntheses, that is, the
different quaestiones were composed with the answers elicited, thereby creating a synthesis, the
summae that were in reality extensive theological and dogmatic treatises born from the confrontation
of human reason with the word of God. Scholastic theology aimed to present the unity and harmony of
the Christian Revelation with a method, called, precisely "Scholastic" — of the school — which places
trust in human reason. Grammar and philology are at the service of theological knowledge, but logic
even more so, namely the discipline that studies the "functioning" of human reasoning, in such a way
that the truth of a proposal appears obvious. Still today, in reading the Scholastic summae one is struck
by the order, clarity and logical continuity of the arguments and by the depth of certain insights. With
technical language a precise meaning is attributed to every word and, between believing and
understanding, a reciprocal movement of clarification is established.
Dear brothers and sisters, in echoing the invitation of the First Letter of Peter, Scholastic theology
stimulates us to be ever ready to account for the hope that is in us (cf. 3:15), hearing the questions as
our own and thus also being capable of giving an answer. It reminds us that a natural friendship exists
between faith and reason, founded in the order of Creation itself. In the incipit of the Encyclical Fides et
Ratio, the Servant of God John Paul II wrote: "Faith and reason are like two wings on which the human
spirit rises to the contemplation of truth". Faith is open to the effort of understanding by reason; reason,
in turn, recognizes that faith does not mortify her but on the contrary impels her towards vaster and
loftier horizons.

The eternal lesson of monastic theology fits in here. Faith and reason, in reciprocal dialogue, are vibrant
with joy when they are both inspired by the search for intimate union with God. When love enlivens the
prayerful dimension of theology, knowledge, acquired by reason, is broadened. Truth is sought with
humility, received with wonder and gratitude: in a word, knowledge only grows if one loves truth. Love
becomes intelligence and authentic theology wisdom of the heart, which directs and sustains the faith
and life of believers. Let us therefore pray that the journey of knowledge and of the deepening of God's
Mysteries may always be illumined by divine love.
INSTRUCTION

DONUM VERITATIS

ON THE ECCLESIAL VOCATION

OF THE THEOLOGIAN

INTRODUCTION

1. The truth which sets us free is a gift of Jesus Christ (cf. Jn 8:32). Man's nature calls him to seek the
truth while ignorance keeps him in a condition of servitude. Indeed, man could not be truly free were no
light shed upon the central questions of his existence including, in particular, where he comes from and
where he is going. When God gives Himself to man as a friend, man becomes free, in accordance with
the Lord's word: «No longer do I call you servants, for the servant does not know what his master is
doing; but I have called you friends, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to
you» (Jn 15:15). Man's deliverance from the alienation of sin and death comes about when Christ, the
Truth, becomes the "way" for him (cf. Jn 14:6).

In the Christian faith, knowledge and life, truth and existence are intrinsically connected. Assuredly, the
truth given in God's revelation exceeds the capacity of human knowledge, but it is not opposed to
human reason. Revelation in fact penetrates human reason, elevates it, and calls it to give an account of
itself (cf. 1 Pet 3:15). For this reason, from the very beginning of the Church, the "standard of teaching"
(cf. Rom 6:17) has been linked with baptism to entrance into the mystery of Christ. The service of
doctrine, implying as it does the believer's search for an understanding of the faith, i.e., theology, is
therefore something indispensable for the Church.

Theology has importance for the Church in every age so that it can respond to the plan of God "who
desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth" (1 Tim 2:4). In times of great
spiritual and cultural change, theology is all the more important. Yet it also is exposed to risks since it
must strive to "abide" in the truth (cf. Jn 8:31), while at the same time taking into account the new
problems which confront the human spirit. In our century, in particular, during the periods of
preparation for and implementation of the Second Vatican Council, theology contributed much to a
deeper "understanding of the realities and the words handed on"(1). But it also experienced and
continues to experience moments of crisis and tension.

The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith deems it opportune then to address to the Bishops of the
Catholic Church, and through them her theologians, the present Instruction which seeks to shed light on
the mission of theology in the Church. After having considered truth as God's gift to His people (I), the
instruction will describe the role of theologians (II), ponder the particular mission of the Church's Pastors
(III), and finally, propose some points on the proper relationship between theologians and pastors (IV).
In this way, it aims to serve the growth in understanding of the truth (cf. Col 1:10) which ushers us into
that freedom which Christ died and rose to win for us (cf. Gal 5:1).

THE TRUTH

GOD'S GIFT TO HIS PEOPLE

2. Out of His infinite love, God desired to draw near to man, as he seeks his own proper identity, and
walk with him ( cf. Lk 24:15 ) . He also wanted to free him from the snares of the "father of lies" (cf. Jn
8:44) and to open the way to intimacy with Himself so that man could find there, superabundantly, full
truth and authentic freedom. This plan of love, conceived by "the Father of lights" (Jas 1:17; cf. I Pet 2:9;
1 Jn 1:5) and realized by the Son victorious over death (cf. Jn 8:36), is continually made present by the
Spirit who leads "to all truth" (Jn 16:13) .

3. The truth possesses in itself a unifying force. It frees men from isolation and the oppositions in which
they have been trapped by ignorance of the truth. And as it opens the way to God, it, at the same time,
unites them to each other. Christ destroyed the wall of separation which had kept them strangers to
God's promise and to the fellowship of the covenant (cf. Eph 2:12-14). Into the hearts of the faithful He
sends His Spirit through whom we become nothing less than "one" in Him (cf. Rom 5:5; 6 Gal 3:28). Thus
thanks to the new birth and the anointing of the Holy Spirit (cf. Jn 3:5; 1 Jn 2:20. 27), we become the
one, new People of God whose mission it is, with our different vocations and charisms, to preserve and
hand on the gift of truth. Indeed, the whole Church, as the "salt of the earth" and "the light of the
world" (cf. Mt 5:13 f.), must bear witness to the truth of Christ which sets us free.

4. The People of God respond to this calling "above all by means of the life of faith and charity, and by
offering to God a sacrifice of praise". More specifically, as far as the "life of faith" is concerned, the
Second Vatican Council makes it clear that "the whole body of the faithful who have an anointing that
comes from the holy one (cf. 1 Jn 2:20. 27) cannot err in matters of belief". And "this characteristic is
shown in the supernatural sense of the faith of the whole people, when 'from the bishops to the last of
the faithful' they manifest a universal consent in matters of faith and morals".(2)
5. In order to exercise the prophetic function in the world, the People of God must continually reawaken
or "rekindle" its own life of faith (cf. 2 Tim 1:6). It does this particularly by contemplating ever more
deeply, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the contents of the faith itself and by dutifully presenting
the reasonableness of the faith to those who ask for an account of it (cf. 1 Pet 3:15). For the sake of this
mission, the Spirit of truth distributes among the faithful of every rank special graces "for the common
good" (1 Cor 12:7-11).

II

THE VOCATION OF THE THEOLOGIAN

6. Among the vocations awakened in this way by the Spirit in the Church is that of the theologian. His
role is to pursue in a particular way an ever deeper understanding of the Word of God found in the
inspired Scriptures and handed on by the living Tradition of the Church. He does this in communion with
the Magisterium which has been charged with the responsibility of preserving the deposit of faith.

By its nature, faith appeals to reason because it reveals to man the truth of his destiny and the way to
attain it. Revealed truth, to be sure, surpasses our telling. All our concepts fall short of its ultimately
unfathomable grandeur (cf. Eph 3:19). Nonetheless, revealed truth beckons reason - God's gift fashioned
for the assimilation of truth - to enter into its light and thereby come to understand in a certain measure
what it has believed. Theological science responds to the invitation of truth as it seeks to understand the
faith. It thereby aids the People of God in fulfilling the Apostle's command (cf. 1 Pet 3:15 ) to give an
accounting for their hope to those who ask it.

7. The theologian's work thus responds to a dynamism found in the faith itself. Truth, by its nature,
seeks to be communicated since man was created for the perception of truth and from the depths of his
being desires knowledge of it so that he can discover himself in the truth and find there his salvation (cf.
1 Tim 2:4). For this reason, the Lord sent forth His apostles to make "disciples" of all nations and teach
them (cf. Mt 28:19 f. ). Theology, which seeks the "reasons of faith" and offers these reasons as a
reponse to those seeking them, thus constitutes an integral part of obedience to the command of Christ,
for men cannot become disciples if the truth found in the word of faith is not presented to them (cf.
Rom 10:14 f.).

Theology therefore offers its contribution so that the faith might be communicated. Appealing to the
understanding of those who do not yet know Christ, it helps them to seek and find faith. Obedient to the
impulse of truth which seeks to be communicated, theology also arises from love and love's dynamism.
In the act of faith, man knows God's goodness and begins to love Him. Love, however, is ever desirous of
a better knowledge of the beloved.(3) From this double origin of theology, inscribed upon the interior
life of the People of God and its missionary vocation, derives the method with which it ought to be
pursued in order to satisfy the requirements of its nature.

8. Since the object of theology is the Truth which is the living God and His plan for salvation revealed in
Jesus Christ, the theologian is called to deepen his own life of faith and continuously unite his scientific
research with prayer.(4) In this way, he will become more open to the "supernatural sense of faith"
upon which he depends, and it will appear to him as a sure rule for guiding his reflections and helping
him assess the correctness of his conclusions.

9. Through the course of centuries, theology has progressively developed into a true and proper science.
The theologian must therefore be attentive to the epistemological requirements of his discipline, to the
demands of rigorous critical standards, and thus to a rational verification of each stage of his research.
The obligation to be critical, however, should not be identified with the critical spirit which is born of
feeling or prejudice. The theologian must discern in himself the origin of and motivation for his critical
attitude and allow his gaze to be purified by faith. The commitment to theology requires a spiritual
effort to grow in virtue and holiness.

10. Even though it transcends human reason, revealed truth is in profound harmony with it. It presumes
that reason by its nature is ordered to the truth in such a way that, illumined by faith, it can penetrate to
the meaning of Revelation. Despite the assertions of many philosophical currents, but in conformity with
a correct way of thinking which finds confirmation in Scripture, human reason's ability to attain truth
must be recognized as well as its metaphysical capacity to come to a knowledge of God from creation.
(5)

Theology's proper task is to understand the meaning of revelation and this, therefore, requires the
utilization of philosophical concepts which provide "a solid and correct understanding of man, the world,
and God" (6) and can be employed in a reflection upon revealed doctrine. The historical disciplines are
likewise necessary for the theologian's investigations. This is due chiefly to the historical character of
revelation itself which has been communicated to us in "salvation history". Finally, a consultation of the
"human sciences" is also necessary to understand better the revealed truth about man and the moral
norms for his conduct, setting these in relation to the sound findings of such sciences.

It is the theologian's task in this perspective to draw from the surrounding culture those elements which
will allow him better to illumine one or other aspect of the mysteries of faith. This is certainly an
arduous task that has its risks, but it is legitimate in itself and should be encouraged.

Here it is important to emphasize that when theology employs the elements and conceptual tools of
philosophy or other disciplines, discernment is needed. The ultimate normative principle for such
discernment is revealed doctrine which itself must furnish the criteria for the evaluation of these
elements and conceptual tools and not vice versa.

11. Never forgetting that he is also a member of the People of God, the theologian must foster respect
far them and be committed to offering them a teaching which in no way does harm to the doctrine of
the faith.

The freedom proper to theological research is exercised within the Church's faith. Thus while the
theologian might often feel the urge to be daring in his work, this will not bear fruit or "edify" unless it is
accompanied by that patience which permits maturation to occur. New proposals advanced for
understanding the faith "are but an offering made to the whole Church. Many corrections and
broadening of perspectives within the context of fraternal dialogue may be needed before the moment
comes when the whole Church can accept them" . Consequently, "this very disinterested service to the
community of the faithful", which theology is, "entails in essence an objective discussion, a fraternal
dialogue, an openness and willingness to modify one's own opinions".(7)

12. Freedom of research, which the academic community rightly holds most precious, means an
openness to accepting the truth that emerges at the end of an investigation in which no element has
intruded that is foreign to the methodology corresponding to the object under study.

In theology this freedom of inquiry is the hallmark of a rational discipline whose object is given by
Revelation, handed on and interpreted in the Church under the authority of the Magisterium, and
received by faith. These givens have the force of principles. To eliminate them would mean to cease
doing theology. In order to set forth precisely the ways in which the theologian relates to the Church's
teaching authority, it is appropriate now to reflect upon the role of the Magisterium in the Church.

III

THE MAGISTERIUM OF THE CHURCH'S PASTORS

13. "God graciously arranged that the things he had once revealed for the salvation of all peoples should
remain in their entirety, throughout the ages, and be transmitted to all generations"(8) He bestowed
upon His Church, through the gift of the Holy Spirit, a participation in His own infallibility.(9) Thanks to
the "supernatural sense of Faith", the People of God enjoys this privilege under the guidance of the
Church's living Magisterium, which is the sole authentic interpreter of the Word of God, written or
handed down, by virtue of the authority which it exercises in the name of Christ.(10)

14. As successors of the apostles, the bishops of the Church "receive from the Lord, to whom all power
is given in heaven and on earth, the mission of teaching all peoples, and of preaching the Gospel to
every creature, so that all men may attain to salvation...".(11) They have been entrusted then with the
task of preserving, explaining, and spreading the Word of God of which they are servants.(12)

It is the mission of the Magisterium to affirm the definitive character of the Covenant established by God
through Christ with His People in a way which is consistent with the "eschatological" nature of the event
of Jesus Christ. It must protect God's People from the danger of deviations and confusion, guaranteeing
them the objective possibility of professing the authentic faith free from error, at all times and in diverse
situations. It follows that the sense and the weight of the Magisterium's authority are only intelligible in
relation to the truth of Christian doctrine and the preaching of the true Word. The function of the
Magisterium is not, then, something extrinsic to Christian truth nor is it set above the faith. It arises
directly from the economy of the faith itself, inasmuch as the Magisterium is, in its service to the Word
of God, an institution positively willed by Christ as a constitutive element of His Church. The service to
Christian truth which the Magisterium renders is thus for the benefit of the whole People of God called
to enter the liberty of the truth revealed by God in Christ.

15. Jesus Christ promised the assistance of the Holy Spirit to the Church's Pastors so that they could
fulfill their assigned task of teaching the Gospel and authentically interpreting Revelation. In particular,
He bestowed on them the charism of infallibility in matters of faith and morals. This charism is
manifested when the Pastors propose a doctrine as contained in Revelation and can be exercised in
various ways. Thus it is exercised particularly when the bishops in union with their visible head proclaim
a doctrine by a collegial act, as is the case in an ecumenical council, or when the Roman Pontiff, fulfilling
his mission as supreme Pastor and Teacher of all Christians, proclaims a doctrine "ex cathedra". (13)

16. By its nature, the task of religiously guarding and loyally expounding the deposit of divine Revelation
(in all its integrity and purity), implies that the Magisterium can make a pronouncement "in a definitive
way" (14) on propositions which, even if not contained among the truths of faith, are nonetheless
intimately connected with them, in such a way, that the definitive character of such affirmations derives
in the final analysis from revelation itself.(15).

What concerns morality can also be the object of the authentic Magisterium because the Gospel, being
the Word of Life, inspires and guides the whole sphere of human behavior. The Magisterium, therefore,
has the task of discerning, by means of judgments normative for the consciences of believers, those acts
which in themselves conform to the demands of faith and foster their expression in life and those which,
on the contrary, because intrinsically evil, are incompatible with such demands. By reason of the
connection between the orders of creation and redemption and by reason of the necessity, in view of
salvation, of knowing and observing the whole moral law, the competence of the Magisterium also
extends to that which concerns the natural law.(16)
Revelation also contains moral teachings which per se could be known by natural reason. Access to
them, however, is made difficult by man's sinful condition. It is a doctrine of faith that these moral
norms can be infallibly taught by the Magisterium (17).

17. Divine assistance is also given to the successors of the apostles teaching in communion with the
successor of Peter, and in a particular way, to the Roman Pontiff as Pastor of the whole Church, when
exercising their ordinary Magisterium, even should this not issue in an infallible definition or in a
"definitive" pronouncement but in the proposal of some teaching which leads to a better understanding
of Revelation in matters of faith and morals and to moral directives derived from such teaching.

One must therefore take into account the proper character of every exercise of the Magisterium,
considering the extent to which its authority is engaged. It is also to be borne in mind that all acts of the
Magisterium derive from the same source, that is, from Christ who desires that His People walk in the
entire truth. For this same reason, magisterial decisions in matters of discipline, even if they are not
guaranteed by the charism of infallibility, are not without divine assistance and call for the adherence of
the faithful.

18. The Roman Pontiff fulfills his universal mission with the help of the various bodies of the Roman
Curia and in particular with that of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in matters of doctrine
and morals. Consequently, the documents issued by this Congregation expressly approved by the Pope
participate in the ordinary magisterium of the successor of Peter.(18)

19. Within the particular Churches, it is the bishop's responsibility to guard and interpret the Word of
God and to make authoritative judgments as to what is or is not in conformity with it. The teaching of
each bishop, taken individually, is exercised in communion with the Roman Pontiff, Pastor of the
universal Church, and with the other bishops dispersed throughout the world or gathered in an
ecumenical council. Such communion is a condition for its authenticity.

Member of the Episcopal College by virtue of his sacramental ordination and hierarchical communion,
the bishop represents his Church just as all the bishops, in union with the Pope, represent the Church
universal in the bonds of peace, love, unity, and truth. As they come together in unity, the local
Churches, with their own proper patrimonies, manifest the Church's catholicity. The episcopal
conferences for their part contribute to the concrete realization of the collegial spirit ("affectus").(19)

20. The pastoral task of the Magisterium is one of vigilance. It seeks to ensure that the People of God
remain in the truth which sets free. It is therefore a complex and diversified reality. The theologian, to
be faithful to his role of service to the truth, must take into account the proper mission of the
Magisterium and collaborate with it. How should this collaboration be understood? How is it put into
practice and what are the obstacles it may face? These questions should now be examined more closely.

IV

THE MAGISTERIUM AND THEOLOGY

A. Collaborative Relations

21. The living Magisterium of the Church and theology, while having different gifts and functions,
ultimately have the same goal: preserving the People of God in the truth which sets free and thereby
making them "a light to the nations". This service to the ecclesial community brings the theologian and
the Magisterium into a reciprocal relationship. The latter authentically teaches the doctrine of the
Apostles. And, benefiting from the work of theologians, it refutes objections to and distortions of the
faith and promotes, with the authority received from Jesus Christ, new and deeper comprehension,
clarification, and application of revealed doctrine. Theology, for its part, gains, by way of reflection, an
ever deeper understanding of the Word of God found in the Scripture and handed on faithfully by the
Church's living Tradition under the guidance of the Magisterium. Theology strives to clarify the teaching
of Revelation with regard to reason and gives it finally an organic and systematic form.(20)

22. Collaboration between the theologian and the Magisterium occurs in a special way when the
theologian receives the canonical mission or the mandate to teach. In a certain sense, such collaboration
becomes a participation in the work of the Magisterium, linked, as it then is, by a juridic bond. The
theologian's code of conduct, which obviously has its origin in the service of the Word of God, is here
reinforced by the commitment the theologian assumes in accepting his office, making the profession of
faith, and taking the oath of fidelity.(21)

From this moment on, the theologian is officially charged with the task of presenting and illustrating the
doctrine of the faith in its integrity and with full accuracy.

23. When the Magisterium of the Church makes an infallible pronouncement and solemnly declares that
a teaching is found in Revelation, the assent called for is that of theological faith. This kind of adherence
is to be given even to the teaching of the ordinary and universal Magisterium when it proposes for belief
a teaching of faith as divinely revealed.
When the Magisterium proposes "in a definitive way" truths concerning faith and morals, which, even if
not divinely revealed, are nevertheless strictly and intimately connected with Revelation, these must be
firmly accepted and held.(22)

When the Magisterium, not intending to act "definitively", teaches a doctrine to aid a better
understanding of Revelation and make explicit its contents, or to recall how some teaching is in
conformity with the truths of faith, or finally to guard against ideas that are incompatible with these
truths, the response called for is that of the religious submission of will and intellect.(23) This kind of
response cannot be simply exterior or disciplinary but must be understood within the logic of faith and
under the impulse of obedience to the faith.

24. Finally, in order to serve the People of God as well as possible, in particular, by warning them of
dangerous opinions which could lead to error, the Magisterium can intervene in questions under
discussion which involve, in addition to solid principles, certain contingent and conjectural elements. It
often only becomes possible with the passage of time to distinguish between what is necessary and
what is contingent.

The willingness to submit loyally to the teaching of the Magisterium on matters per se not irreformable
must be the rule. It can happen, however, that a theologian may, according to the case, raise questions
regarding the timeliness, the form, or even the contents of magisterial interventions. Here the
theologian will need, first of all, to assess accurately the authoritativeness of the interventions which
becomes clear from the nature of the documents, the insistence with which a teaching is repeated, and
the very way in which it is expressed.(24)

When it comes to the question of interventions in the prudential order, it could happen that some
Magisterial documents might not be free from all deficiencies. Bishops and their advisors have not
always taken into immediate consideration every aspect or the entire complexity of a question. But it
would be contrary to the truth, if, proceeding from some particular cases, one were to conclude that the
Church's Magisterium can be habitually mistaken in its prudential judgments, or that it does not enjoy
divine assistance in the integral exercise of its mission. In fact, the theologian, who cannot pursue his
discipline well without a certain competence in history, is aware of the filtering which occurs with the
passage of time. This is not to be understood in the sense of a relativization of the tenets of the faith.
The theologian knows that some judgments of the Magisterium could be justified at the time in which
they were made, because while the pronouncements contained true assertions and others which were
not sure, both types were inextricably connected. Only time has permitted discernment and, after
deeper study, the attainment of true doctrinal progress.

25. Even when collaboration takes place under the best conditions, the possibility cannot be excluded
that tensions may arise between the theologian and the Magisterium. The meaning attributed to such
tensions and the spirit with which they are faced are not matters of indifference. If tensions do not
spring from hostile and contrary feelings, they can become a dynamic factor, a stimulus to both the
Magisterium and theologians to fulfill their respective roles while practicing dialogue.

26. In the dialogue, a two-fold rule should prevail. When there is a question of the communion of faith,
the principle of the "unity of truth" (unitas veritatis) applies. When it is a question of differences which
do not jeopardize this communion, the "unity of charity" (unitas caritatis) should be safeguarded.

27. Even if the doctrine of the faith is not in question, the theologian will not present his own opinions
or divergent hypotheses as though they were non-arguable conclusions. Respect for the truth as well as
for the People of God requires this discretion (cf. Rom 14:1-15; 1 Cor 8; 10: 23-33 ) . For the same
reasons, the theologian will refrain from giving untimely public expression to them.

28. The preceding considerations have a particular application to the case of the theologian who might
have serious difficulties, for reasons which appear to him wellfounded, in accepting a non-irreformable
magisterial teaching.

Such a disagreement could not be justified if it were based solely upon the fact that the validity of the
given teaching is not evident or upon the opinion that the opposite position would be the more
probable. Nor, furthermore, would the judgment of the subjective conscience of the theologian justify it
because conscience does not constitute an autonomous and exclusive authority for deciding the truth of
a doctrine.

29. In any case there should never be a diminishment of that fundamental openness loyally to accept
the teaching of the Magisterium as is fitting for every believer by reason of the obedience of faith. The
theologian will strive then to understand this teaching in its contents, arguments, and purposes. This will
mean an intense and patient reflection on his part and a readiness, if need be, to revise his own opinions
and examine the objections which his colleagues might offer him.

30. If, despite a loyal effort on the theologian's part, the difficulties persist, the theologian has the duty
to make known to the Magisterial authorities the problems raised by the teaching in itself, in the
arguments proposed to justify it, or even in the manner in which it is presented. He should do this in an
evangelical spirit and with a profound desire to resolve the difficulties. His objections could then
contribute to real progress and provide a stimulus to the Magisterium to propose the teaching of the
Church in greater depth and with a clearer presentation of the arguments.
In cases like these, the theologian should avoid turning to the "mass media", but have recourse to the
responsible authority, for it is not by seeking to exert the pressure of public opinion that one contributes
to the clarification of doctrinal issues and renders servite to the truth.

31. It can also happen that at the conclusion of a serious study, undertaken with the desire to heed the
Magisterium's teaching without hesitation, the theologian's difficulty remains because the arguments to
the contrary seem more persuasive to him. Faced with a proposition to which he feels he cannot give his
intellectual assent, the theologian nevertheless has the duty to remain open to a deeper examination of
the question.

For a loyal spirit, animated by love for the Church, such a situation can certainly prove a difficult trial. It
can be a call to suffer for the truth, in silence and prayer, but with the certainty, that if the truth really is
at stake, it will ultimately prevail.

B. The problem of dissent

32. The Magisterium has drawn attention several times to the serious harm done to the community of
the Church by attitudes of general opposition to Church teaching which even come to expression in
organized groups. In his apostolic exhortation Paterna cum benevolentia, Paul VI offered a diagnosis of
this problem which is still apropos.(25) In particular, he addresses here that public opposition to the
Magisterium of the Church also called "dissent", which must be distinguished from the situation of
personal difficulties treated above. The phenomenon of dissent can have diverse forms. Its remote and
proximate causes are multiple.

The ideology of philosophical liberalism, which permeates the thinking of our age, must be counted
among the factors which may exercise their remote or indirect influence. Here arises the tendency to
regard a judgment as having all the more validity to the extent that it proceeds from the individual
relying upon his own powers. In such a way freedom of thought comes to oppose the authority of
tradition which is considered a cause of servitude. A teaching handed on and generally received is a
priori suspect and its truth contested. Ultimately, freedom of judgment understood in this way is more
important than the truth itself. We are dealing then here with something quite different from the
legitimate demand for freedom in the sense of absence of constraint as a necessary condition for the
loyal inquiry into truth. In virtue of this exigency, the Church has always held that "nobody is to be
forced to embrace the faith against his will" .(26)

The weight of public opinion when manipulated and its pressure to conform also have their influence.
Often models of society promoted by the "mass media" tend to assume a normative value. The view is
particularly promoted that the Church should only express her judgment on those issues which public
opinion considers important and then only by way of agreeing with it. The Magisterium, for example,
could intervene in economic or social questions but ought to leave matters of conjugal and family
morality to individual judgment.

Finally, the plurality of cultures and languages, in itself a benefit, can indirectly bring on
misunderstandings which occasion disagreements.

In this context, the theologian needs to make a critical, well-considered discernment, as well as have a
true mastery of the issues, if he wants to fulfill his ecclesial mission and not lose, by conforming himself
to this present world (cf. Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23), the independence of judgment which should be that of
the disciples of Christ.

33. Dissent has different aspects. In its most radical form, it aims at changing the Church following a
model of protest which takes its inspiration from political society. More frequently, it is asserted that the
theologian is not bound to adhere to any Magisterial teaching unless it is infallible. Thus a Kind of
theological positivism is adopted, according to which, doctrines proposed without exercise of the
charism of infallibility are said to have no obligatory character about them, leaving the individual
completely at liberty to adhere to them or not. The theologian would accordingly be totally free to raise
doubts or reject the non-infallible teaching of the Magisterium particularly in the case of specific moral
norms. With such critical opposition, he would even be making a contribution to the development of
doctrine.

34. Dissent is generally defended by various arguments, two of which are more basic in character. The
first lies in the order of hermeneutics. The documents of the Magisterium, it is said, reflect nothing more
than a debatable theology. The second takes theological pluralism sometimes to the point of a relativism
which calls the integrity of the faith into question. Here the interventions of the Magisterium would
have their origin in one theology among many theologies, while no particular theology, however, could
presume to claim universal normative status. In opposition to and in competition with the authentic
magisterium, there thus arises a kind of "parallel magisterium" of theologians.(27)

Certainly, it is one of the theologian's tasks to give a correct interpretation to the texts of the
Magisterium and to this end he employs various hermeneutical rules. Among these is the principle
which affirms that Magisterial teaching, by virtue of divine assistance, has a validity beyond its
argumentation, which may derive at times from a particular theology. As far as theological pluralism is
concerned, this is only legitimate to the extent that the unity of the faith in its objective meaning is not
jeopardized.(28) Essential bonds link the distinct levels of unity of faith, unity-plurality of expressions of
the faith, and plurality of theologies. The ultimate reason for plurality is found in the unfathomable
mystery of Christ who transcends every objective systematization. This cannot mean that it is possible to
accept conclusions contrary to that mystery and it certainly does not put into question the truth of those
assertions by which the Magisterium has declared itself.(29) As to the "parallel magisterium", it can
cause great spiritual harm by opposing itself to the Magisterium of the Pastors. Indeed, when dissent
succeeds in extending its influence to the point of shaping; a common opinion, it tends to become the
rule of conduct. This cannot but seriously trouble the People of God and lead to contempt for true
authority.(30)

35. Dissent sometimes also appeals to a kind of sociological argumentation which holds that the opinion
of a large number of Christians would be a direct and adequate expression of the "supernatural sense of
the faith".

Actually, the opinions of the faithful cannot be purely and simply identified with the "sensus fidei".(31)
The sense of the faith is a property of theological faith; and, as God's gift which enables one to adhere
personally to the Truth, it cannot err. This personal faith is also the faith of the Church since God has
given guardianship of the Word to the Church. Consequently, what the believer believes is what the
Church believes. The "sensus fidei" implies then by its nature a profound agreement of spirit and heart
with the Church, "sentire cum Ecclesia".

Although theological faith as such then cannot err, the believer can still have erroneous opinions since
all his thoughts do not spring from faith.(32) Not all the ideas which circulate among the People of God
are compatible with the faith. This is all the more so given that people can be swayed by a public opinion
influenced by modern communications media. Not without reason did the Second Vatican Council
emphasize the indissoluble bond between the "sensus fidei" and the guidance of God's People by the
magisterium of the Pastors. These two realities cannot be separated.(33) Magisterial interventions serve
to guarantee the Church's unity in the truth of the Lord. They aid her to "abide in the truth" in face of
the arbitrary character of changeable opinions and are an expression of obedience to the Word of God.
(34) Even when it might seem that they limit the freedom of theologians, these actions, by their fidelity
to the faith which has been handed on, establish a deeper freedom which can only come from unity in
truth.

36. The freedom of the act of faith cannot justify a right to dissent. In fact this freedom does not indicate
at all freedom with regard to the truth but signifies the free self-determination of the person in
conformity with his moral obligation to accept the truth. The act of faith is a voluntary act because man,
saved by Christ the Redeemer and called by Him to be an adopted son (cf. Rom 8:15; Gal 4:5; Eph 1:5; Jn
1:12), cannot adhere to God unless, "drawn by the Father" (Jn 6:44), he offer God the rational homage
of his faith (cf. Rom 12:1). As the Declaration Dignitatis humanae recalls,(35) no human authority may
overstep the limits of its competence and claim the right to interfere with this choice by exerting
pressure or constraint. Respect for religious liberty is the foundation of respect for all the rights of man.
One cannot then appeal to these rights of man in order to oppose the interventions of the Magisterium.
Such behavior fails to recognize the nature and mission of the Church which has received from the Lord
the task to proclaim the truth of salvation to all men. She fulfills this task by walking in Christ's footsteps,
knowing that "truth can impose itself on the mind only by virtue of its own truth, which wins over the
mind with both gentleness and power".(36)

37. By virtue of the divine mandate given to it in the Church, the Magisterium has the mission to set
forth the Gospel's teaching, guard its integrity, and thereby protect the Faith of the People of God. In
order to fulfill this duty, it can at times be led to take serious measures as, for example, when it
withdraws from a theologian, who departs from the doctrine of the faith, the canonical mission or the
teaching mandate it had given him, or declares that some writings do not conform to this doctrine.
When it acts in such ways, the Magisterium seeks to be faithful to its mission of defending the right of
the People of God to receive the message of the Church in its purity and integrity and not be disturbed
by a particular dangerous opinion.

The judgment expressed by the Magisterium in such circumstances is the result of a thorough
investigation conducted according to established procedures which afford the interested party the
opportunity to clear up possible misunderstandings of his thought. This judgment, however, does not
concern the person of the theologian but the intellectual positions which he has publicly espoused. The
fact that these procedures can be improved does not mean that they are contrary to justice and right.
To speak in this instance of a violation of human rights is out of place for it indicates a failure to
recognize the proper hierarchy of these rights as well as the nature of the ecclesial community and her
common good. Moreover, the theologian who is not disposed to think with the Church ("sentire cum
Ecclesia") contradicts the commitment he freely and knowingly accepted to teach in the name of the
Church.(37)

38. Finally, argumentation appealing to the obligation to follow one's own conscience cannot legitimate
dissent. This is true, first of all, because conscience illumines the practical judgment about a decision to
make, while here we are concerned with the truth of a doctrinal pronouncement. This is furthermore
the case because while the theologian, like every believer, must follow his conscience, he is also obliged
to form it. Conscience is not an independent and infallible faculty. It is an act of moral judgement
regarding a responsible choice. A right conscience is one duly illumined by faith and by the objective
moral law and it presupposes, as well, the uprightness of the will in the pursuit of the true good.

The right conscience of the Catholic theologian presumes not only faith in the Word of God whose riches
he must explore, but also love for the Church from whom he receives his mission, and respect for her
divinely assisted Magisterium. Setting up a supreme magisterium of conscience in opposition to the
magisterium of the Church means adopting a principle of free examination incompatible with the
economy of Revelation and its transmission in the Church and thus also with a correct understanding of
theology and the role of the theologian. The propositions of faith are not the product of mere individual
research and free criticism of the Word of God but constitute an ecclesial heritage. If there occur a
separation from the Bishops who watch over and keep the apostolic tradition alive, it is the bond with
Christ which is irreparably compromised(38).

39. The Church, which has her origin in the unity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, (39) is a mystery of
communion. In accordance with the will of her founder, she is organized around a hierarchy established
for the service of the Gospel and the People of God who live by it. After the pattern of the members of
the first community, all the baptized with their own proper charisms are to strive with sincere hearts for
a harmonious unity in doctrine, life, and worship (cf. Acts 2:42). This is a rule which flows from the very
being of the Church. For this reason, standards of conduct, appropriate to civil society or the workings of
a democracy, cannot be purely and simply applied to the Church. Even less can relationships within the
Church be inspired by the mentality of the world around it (ct. Rom 12:2). Polling public opinion to
determine the proper thing to think or do, opposing the Magisterium by exerting the pressure of public
opinion, making the excuse of a "consensus" among theologians, maintaining that the theologian is the
prophetical spokesman of a "base" or autonomous community which would be the source of all truth,
all this indicates a grave loss of the sense of truth and of the sense of the Church.

40. The Church "is like a sacrament, a sign and instrument, that is, of communion with God and of unity
among all men".(40) Consequently, to pursue concord and communion is to enhance the force of her
witness and credibility. To succumb to the temptation of dissent, on the other hand, is to allow the
"leaven of infidelity to the Holy Spirit" to start to work.(41)

To be sure, theology and the Magisterium are of diverse natures and missions and cannot be confused.
Nonetheless they fulfill two vital roles in the Church which must interpenetrate and enrich each other
for the service of the People of God.

It is the duty of the Pastors by virtue of the authority they have received from Christ Himself to guard
this unity and to see that the tensions arising from life do not degenerate into divisions. Their authority,
which transcends particular positions and oppositions, must unite all in the integrity of the Gospel which
is the "word of reconciliation" (cf. 2 Cor 5:18-20).

As for theologians, by virtue of their own proper charisms, they have the responsibility of participating in
the building up of Christ's Body in unity and truth. Their contribution is needed more than ever, for
evangelization on a world scale requires the efforts of the whole People of God.(42) If it happens that
they encounter difficulties due to the character of their research, they should seek their solution in
trustful dialogue with the Pastors, in the spirit of truth and charity which is that of the communion of the
Church.
41. Both Bishops and theologians will keep in mind that Christ is the definitive Word of the Father (cf.
Heb 1:2 ) in whom, as St. John of the Cross observes: "God has told us everything all together and at one
time".(43) As such, He is the Truth who sets us free (cf. Jn 8:36; 14:6). The acts of assent and submission
to the Word entrusted to the Church under the guidance of the Magisterium are directed ultimately to
Him and lead us into the realm of true freedom.

CONCLUSION

42. The Virgin Mary is Mother and perfect Icon of the Church. From the very beginnings of the New
Testament, she has been called blessed because of her immediate and unhesitating assent of faith to
the Word of God (cf. Lk 1:38. 45) which she kept and pondered in her heart (cf. Lk 2:19. 51). Thus did she
become a model and source of help for all of the People of God entrusted to her maternal care. She
shows us the way to accept and serve the Word. At the same time, she points out the final goal, on
which our sights should ever be set, the salvation won for the world by her Son Jesus Christ which we
are to proclaim to all men.

At the close of this Instruction, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith earnestly invites Bishops
to maintain and develop relations of trust with theologians in the fellowship of charity and in the
realization that they share one spirit in their acceptance and service of the Word. In this context, they
will more easily overcome some of the obstacles which are part of the human condition on earth. In this
way, all can become ever better servants of the Word and of the People of God, so that the People of
God, persevering in the doctrine of truth and freedom heard from the beginning, may abide also in the
Son and the Father and obtain eternal life, the fulfillment of the Promise (cf. 1 Jn 2:24-25).

This Instruction was adopted at an Plenary Meeting of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
and was approved at an audience granted to the undersigned Cardinal Prefect by the Supreme Pontiff,
Pope John Paul II, who ordered its publication.

Given at Rome, at the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, on May 24, 1990, the Solemnity of the
Ascension of the Lord.