Chapter I

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CROP PESTS

This chapter discusses the nature and importance of pests in the context of
agricultural production and productivity. You will be introduced with the different
major groups of pests associated to crops that have played a pivotal role in the
economic, social, physical and political landscape in both developed and developing
countries around the world.
In the Philippines, the agriculture sector is placed under tremendous pressure
of coping up with the market demand for food. As the population of the country
continues to grow, the demand for safe and sufficient food supply also rides along
with it. However, the sector’s target annual outputs are often times difficult to reach
because of several production constraints which either directly or indirectly hamper
expected production by volume. Among these, are pests and disease of crops. What
then are pests? And why are they important?
In the past, the prevalence and damaging effects brought by pests resulted to
the development of initiatives that regulated their population in the field. In order to
effectively prevent, regulate and/ or eradicate their population, you should be able to
acquire the fundamental knowledge and skills of characterizing and differentiating
one pest group from the other, and be able to understand their strengths and
weaknesses. Hence, this course material will guide you through the world of crop
pests and diseases.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
1. Describe the nature and importance of Pests in relation to food supply
2. Characterize and differentiate the major groups of pests
3. Recognize the role of crop/ plant protection and allied sciences in ensuring
food security

I. Word population and food supply: Trends and challenges

Fifty years from now the world’s population is estimated to increase by 34
percent which is equivalent to 9.1 billion human population. The massive progress of
human welfare brought about by advancements in technology as well as improved
supply and production systems will enable society to thrive and expand over the
years. Moreover, urbanization is foreseen to increase up to 70 percent around the
world (FAO, 2017). In a decade or so, human population will have more purchasing
power because of multiple income sources and innovative approaches in generating
revenue. In relation to growth in income, food consumption will likely increase per
capita opening dietary shift towards higher consumption of meat, fruits, vegetables
and cereals/grains and putting much pressure on natural resources.
With this much development, feeding the populace will become a significant
and near-to-impossible challenge to the Agriculture sector. In fact, in order to feed

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the entire world population by year 2050 the sector must enhance its food production
by 70 percent. In doing so, the sector would have to invest more capital outlay that
ensures seamless production and postharvest management, developed innovative
and practical policy interventions that enables efficient market orientation of
agribusiness sectors, and ensure safety nets for producers and business operators
alike. These tremendous pressure to agricultural crop production oftentimes forces a
farmer to intensively and extensively improve production. This eventually lead to over
exploitation of natural resources such as conversion of natural landscapes for
agricultural use. The human-induced disturbance to the nature landscape causes
direct and indirect negative effects which upsets the natural balance of an
ecosystem. The clearing of small to large areas of land which involve the destruction
and alteration of natural vegetation and ecosystems, the cultivation of crops and the
selection of plants for yield and human acceptability, aggravated the situation.
Organisms tends to shift from one food preference to the other in order to survive.
These organisms eventually affect crop production output. Thus, farmers label these
organisms as pests.
Also, intercontinental transport and trade brought about the introduction and
establishment of new pests and diseases from other areas. Other factors that create
pests and diseases include the introduction of new crops and changes in human
habits and economic conditions. But what are crop pests?
II. Definition of Pest(s)

Before we move further to the details of these course we need to

consider exactly what is a pest. There are many animals, plants and other
organisms in the world, of which we may consider some to be of benefit,
some to be pests, and some to be neutral. But what makes an animal, plant
or other organism to be considered a pest? For example, bees produce
honey and wax which are eaten and used by man, and so bees can be
classed as beneficial. However, if bees make a nest close to a house and
sting the people in the house, then in this situation they are a definite
nuisance and are classed as a pest. Alternatively, one Striga plant in a field is
not a problem, but if there are so many that the cultivated crop is affected
then the Striga is classed as a pest or weed. No organism, therefore, is
inherently a pest, and to call something a pest is a subjective classification
depending on the situation in which the organism occurs and in what
numbers. A crop pest, crop disease and weed can be described as any
organism that:

 Competes in any manner with humans and crops.

 Injures or kills a crop and reduce its yield and reduces the crops market quality
and quantity
 Spreads disease from one crop to the other.
 Annoys humans and affect crop production and management activities in the
field
 Increase cost of crop production because of the application of pesticides.

The types of pests include:

 Insects such as Aphids, beetles, caterpillars, True Bugs,etc.
 Insect-like organisms such Mites, Spiders, Ticks, etc
 Weeds which refers to any plant or parasitic plant growing where it is not wanted

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 and has no economic value to a farmer
 Molluscs such as Slugs and Snails
 Vertebrates animals such as Rats and mice, and bird pests, etc
 Plant pathogenic organisms which refers to microorganism that causes plant
diseases like plant nematodes, Bacteria, Fungi and Viruses

In this learning material, whenever the word “pest” is used, it implies

any animal, plant or other organism which is harmful to crop growth or
agricultural production.

III. Economic Importance of Pests and its categories

Crop productivity is generally affected by several factors. One of it are

crop damages incured from pests. The losses of total actual crop yield may
range from 30-70% depending on the prevailing conditions. Therefore, the
reduction of losses due to pests and diseases is an important element in
increasing the efficiency of crop production. These losses occur from planting
stage to development stage in the field up to the storage stage of crop
produce.

A. Conditions which promote pests occurrence

a) Favourable climatic conditions

The most common way in which organisms attain pest status is simply
by an increase in number. Seasonal increases in pest numbers are usually
controlled by climatic conditions and biological pressures. These climatic
conditions include temperature, humidity, rainfall and sunlight. In the country,
high losses in yield is observed during rainy season. Example of pests and
disease that prevail during rainy season includes: Bacterial Leaf Blight in
Susceptible rice variety, and Bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops such as
eggplant. During dry periods high incidence of of insect pest damage can
occur in plants. These includes Eggplant shoot and fruit borer damage,
Tungro Disease in rice which is transmitted or vectored by an insect known as
Green Leaf hopper, Aphid infestation in crucifers and legumes.

b) Biological Change
When the environmental conditions are favourable, an ecological
change can covert a harmless organism into a pest. The major ecological
reasons for an organism developing pest status include:

1. Change in cultural practices. Example: monocultures represent a

concentration of plants of the same species over a wide area and encourages the
establishment of pests and diseases especially if the monocultured crop is planted
every year. A good example of this is rice which is planted every year under
monoculture set-up.

2. Introduction to new environments. Insects and other organisms become

established as pests when taken to countries where they do not previously exist. In the
new country, the natural enemies (parasites and predators) and competitors for food
are often absent, hence allowing the population of the new pests to increase
dramatically. An good example of this is your Golden Apple Snail locally known as

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Kuhol that attacks the seedling stage of rice. Kuhol was introduced on 1987 as an
alternative food (source of protein) for Filipinos. However, the culture of this snail was
unregulated and on top of that its food preference is very wide making it able to
consume a number of plants as long as this plants are succulent. The population and
spread of this pest not controlled eventually becoming a major pest of rice.

3. Reduction in the population of natural enemies of crop pests. Natural

enemies of crop pests includes organisms (like predatory insects and parasitoids) that
help reduce the population of crop pests in the field. However, the unregulated
application of pesticides on a large scale in agricultural operations generally affects
natural enemies more than the pests. The reduction in the population of natural
enemies causes the population of crop pest to increase in the field. A good example of
this is the “Hopper Burn” damage on rice in Eastern Samar which happened in 2017.
On that year, there was a very high incidence of Brown plant hopper attack on rice
across the Eastern Samar Province which cause tremendous damage to rice
production. The increase in population was determined to be caused by unregulated
application of pesticides and favorable conditions which eventually affected the
population of natural enemies of pests in the rice field.

Generally, organisms which cause significant economic loss in

quantity and/or quality of crops and plant products are widely recognized as
pests and disease organisms.

c) Planting of susceptible host plant. Plants which are not resistant to pests
and disease are considered susceptible. Susceptible plants can easily be damaged
by pests and diseases. Thus yield losses are often greater for these types of plants
compared to resistant ones.

B. Categories of crop pests

Pests are categorized according to several factors, including their

abundance, damage caused, etc. we have already seen that the number of
organisms causing damage or loss is considered to be of great importance in
determining which organisms are pests. Very often, the degree of
seriousness of damage is related to numbers. However, there are
exceptions, e.g. organisms that transmit diseases, which the effect of
organism on crop is not directly proportional to numbers. A good example of
this is Banana Black Aphid which is an tiny insect that transmits Banana
Bunchy Top Virus. The virus causes stunted growth of Banana plant. The
insect and the virus it carries also affect Abaca.
In spite of this, the concept of economic threshold based on the
population levels of organism, or level of incidence of a disease, is still the
most acceptable in categorizing pests.

Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is the population density at

which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest
population from reaching Economic Injury Level (EIL) or the population
level of the organisms or level of disease incidence above which
economically significant damage or loss is caused, and below which
damage or loss is negligible or the population level above which it will pay the
farmer to control his pests and below which it is uneconomical. The concept

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 of economic threshold is based on the fact that organisms over a long period
of time and in a relatively undisturbed environment reach a state of
equilibrium with their environment.
This is a dynamic state of equilibrium, which means that although
population densities vary from season to season, year to year or place to
place, for a particular place, there is an average population level which is
reasonably stable over a long period of time. The economic threshold and
economic injury level (the lowest population density that will cause
economic damage or injury that will justify the cost of artificial control
measures) are usually above this average population level. These levels are
not constant for any pest, disease or environment, but they can be worked out
from an intimate knowledge of the organisms, the crops which they are
attacking and other components of the environment. Economic damage is
the amount of injury which will justify the cost of artificial control measures.

On the basis of the concept of economic threshold and depending on

the severity of damage caused, the number of organisms involved, frequency
of occurrence and the prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as
follows:

a) Key pests (major pests, regular pests)

These are perennial pests which cause serious and persistent

economic damage in the absence of effective control measures. The
population of the damaging stage stamp above economic injury level. Key
pests are the main target of pest control operations.

Example: Rice Black Bug, Rodents pest of rice, Golden Apple Snail or
Kuhol

b) Minor pests

Some organisms cause economic damage only under certain

circumstances in their local environment. Under normal conditions, their
populations are low and the damage they cause is insignificant.

Example: Aphids in Beans and other Legumes

c) Occasional pests

Populations of occasional pests are normally below the economic threshold

level, occasionally rise above it.

Example: Brown plant hopper in rice which population increase only when
environmental conditions are favorable like slightly humid conditions and when their
is a susceptible host.

d) Potential pests

Potential pests are those species whose population level are usually far
below the economic threshold but can become highly injurious under changed

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cultural practices or as an introduced pest.

e) Migrant or Migratory pests

This refers to pests that move from one area to cause damage to crops in
another area. They are a special group of key pests which are classified as migrant
pests. Their control normally involves international cooperation between the
members countries affected.
Example: Locust (this is a type of migratory grasshoppers that are quite
huge than the average grasshopper).

C. The Major Group of Pests in the Philippines

Crop pests are specifically group based on their unique characteristics

which often times separates them from the rest of the pests. In the country
their are four major groups that plague crop production annually. These pest
are able to significantly affect expected production outputs especially if
conditions that favor their proliferation are met. The five major groups include:
Plant Pathogens, Insect pests, Mollusc, Weeds and vertebrate pests. The first
three (plant pathogens, insect pests and mollusc) are collectively invertebrate
organisms, or organisms with no backbone while those with backbones are
from the vertebrate pest category.

Plant pathogens refers to disease-causing microorganisms that

cause harm to plants. They are the only group of pest that are able to cause
infectious type of disease in plants. Like any other organism they have the
ability to reproduce and infect other plants as long as it is their susceptible
host. Susceptible host refers to a plant that can be infected by a particular
pathogen and exhibits disease symptom brought about by the infection.
Examples of plant pathogens includes plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi,
nematode, virus and viroid. You will know more about plant diseases in the
next chapter.

Insect pests refers organisms that are characterized by having

jointed appendages, a hard exoskeleton (hard skin covering), and causes
harm to plants. Like plant pathogens, this group falls under the invertebrate
category. Meaning, insects pests have no backbone. Similar to other
organism, insect pests also are able to reproduce, communicate with their
own kind, and spread from one area or host plant to the other. Their spread
can be direct with the aid of their wings while some with no wings spread
indirectly through various means such as transfer of contaminated planting
material (e.g. seedlings or seeds), transfer or movement of contaminated soil
that contains insect eggs, and many more. This particular group are able to
cause direct and observable injury or damage to plants like leaf defoliation
(chewed parts of leaves), wholes/ punctures and superficial abrasions on
fruits. Eventually the injury reduces the quality of the plant produce while the
damage causes reduction in plant expected yield. Aside from this, insect
pests can be vectors of plant disease. They can carry plant pathogens and
transfer it from one plant to the other upon feeding.
Examples of insect pest include Rice Black Bug, Rice Brown Bug
(Locally known as Tiyangaw), Aphids, Corn Borer, Eggplant fruit and shoot

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 borer, Fruit fly, etc. The details about insect pests will be discussed in
Chapter 3.

Mollusc are invertebrate pest characterized by having a soft body

enclosed in a hard shell. One particular mollusc that is economically important
is Kuhol which is a known pest of rice. Economic importance in this case
refers to the degree of damage a pest can cause to a particular crop
translated as monetary losses. The higher the losses in the expected income
of a farmer brought about by a pest attack the greater is the economic
importance of that particular pest. Kuhol is a small organism but its ability to
cause damage in the field is very significant. More information on Mollusc will
be discussed in Chapter 4.
Weeds on the other hand are plants that grows unintentionally in a
cultivated land where crops are planted. They are unwanted plants and
generally does not provide economic value to farmers. Weeds compete with
crops in the field for essential raw materials for growth and development.
These includes competition for sunlight, water and nutrient from the soil as
well as space. Some weeds releases substances in the soil that may even
cause adjacent plants to die. Details on weeds and their characteristics will be
discussed in Chapter 5.

Vertebrate pests refers to organisms characterized by having

vertebra or backbone and possess a more complex organ system compared
to other known plant pests. Vertebrate pests may vary from one location to
the other and depending of the crops grown. In the Philippines, rodents, bats
and a few species of birds are considered pests by some farmers. Coconut,
Corn and Rice growers consider rodents are major pest especially during the
mature period of the crop. The damage can be observed directly and this
include damage coconut fruit, premature failing of coconut fruits, chewed corn
cubs and rice grain. Fruit bats are nuisance for farmer growing fruits such as
Papaya, and other succulent fruits. Maya and other bird species attacks rice
during its mature stage and is also considered economically important group.

IV. Role of crop protection in pest management and food security

In order to control or manage this pests, you should be able to

understand how they behave in order to pin point weaknesses in their life
cycle. Without the basic understanding about them chances are that any
management intervention, inputs cost, and time will be put to waste.
Crop protection is the science and practice of managing plant
diseases, weeds and other pests (both vertebrate and invertebrate) that
damage agricultural crops and forestry. Agricultural crops include field crops
(maize, wheat, rice, etc.), vegetable crops (potatoes, cabbages, etc.) and
fruits.
Crop protectionists play a vital role in ensuring that crops are free from
pests and disease and the projected crop yields are met. Crop protectionists
are pest managers that utilizes traditional as well as modern crop protection
methods in order to put pest population to desirable level or levels that will not
cause significant damage to crops.
In general, crop protection is a vital component in crop production that
concerns with all processes involved in ensuring that crops and crop produce

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 are safe from potential and real threats of damage by abiotic (environmental
factors such as extreme weather events) and biotic factors (animal pests,
weeds and pathogens) that can lead to loss of quantity and quality on the
field, in transit and in the stores during the postharvest period.

V. Various discipline involved in crop protection

A crop protectionist needs a good background in several disciplines in order
to formulate a sound pest management scheme. Some of the scientific disciplines
that a crop protectionists must understand includes (but not limited to) a basic
knowledge on Biology, Agronomy, Horticulture, Plant breeding, Economics, Soil
Science, Plant physiology, Microbiology, Chemistry, Ecology, and Meteorology
among many others.

CHAPTER I ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice Test. Select from the choices the answer that corresponds to each
entry question.
1. Which of the following best describes a crop pest
a) Contributes significant reduction in food supply thus affecting agro-economic
stability
b) Comprised of living organism or entities that cause direct and indirect
damage to crops
c) Has the ability to multiply/ reproduce/ replicate
d) Transmits disease-causing organisms that causes secondary damage to
crops
e) All of the above

2. Which statement best describes the relationship of pest proliferation and food
supply, particularly crops
a) The increase in food supply also increase crop pest problems
b) Extensive and intensive crop production to maintain food supply encouraged
the proliferation of crop pests
c) Unsustainable crop production practices encourage the proliferation and
spread of pests
d) Increase in human population promotes the occurrence of pest in the field

3. What separates plant pathogens from the rests of the major groups of pests
a) The only group that has the ability to reproduce and spread from one host to
another
b) Plant pathogens are mostly microscopic and cannot be readily observed by
the naked eye
c) The only group of pest that causes plant diseases
d) Both A and C
e) Both B and C
f) None of the above

4. What is the distinguishing feature unique to insect pest

a) Some are vectors of plant diseases and are able to spread from place to
place

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 b) Organisms with jointed appendages, an exoskeleton, and are able to cause
significant injury or damage to crops
c) Organisms with vertebra
d) Multiplies exponentially and exhibits social behaviors within species
e) Both A and B
f) Either A or D
g) None of the above

5. Which of the following encourages the occurrence of pest in an area

a) Introduction of exotic plants to a new area
b) Unfavorable environmental conditions
c) Unsustainable farming practices
d) Both B and C
e) Only A and C
f) None of the above

6. Which of the following categories refers to perennial pests which cause serious
and persistent economic damage in the absence of effective control measures?
a) Key pests
b) Occassional Pests
c) Minor pests
d) Migrant pests

7. Aphids are insects which contribute minimal damage to crops and are
considered…
a) Key pests
b) Occassional Pests
c) Minor pests
d) Migrant pests

8. This refers to microorganisms which causes disease in plants

a) Insect pests
b) Plant pathogens
c) Rodents
d) Mollusc
e) Weeds

9. This particular group of pest is characterized by having jointed appendages and a

hard exoskeleton
a) Insect pest
b) Plant pathogen
c) Vertebrate pest
d) Mollusc
e) Weeds

10. Kuhol or Golden Apple Snail belongs to what particular group of pests
a) Insect pest
b) Plant pathogen
c) Vertebrate pest
d) Mollusc
e) Weeds

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11. Rice field rats or rodents belongs to what group of pest
a) Insect pest
b) Plant pathogen
c) Vertebrate pest
d) Mollusc
e) Weeds

12. This refers to plants that compete with crops for essential growth requirements
such as soil nutrients and light
a) Insect pest
b) Plant pathogen
c) Vertebrate pest
d) Mollusc
e) Weeds

Modified TRUE or FALSE. Write “T” on the blank provided if the statement is true. If
the statement is false, change the underlined word or phrase to make it true and
write your answer on the blank provided.

1. Monoculture cropping system encourages pest occurrence

and abundance annually.
2. Weeds are plants that grow in areas where they are wanted.
3. Susceptible plants can easily be damaged by pests and
diseases.
4. Crop Science is the science that deals with the management
of crop pests
5. Knowledge and understanding of the basic characteristics
and behavior of pests is unnecessary in order to control it.

Enumeration: Provide the corresponding answer/s to each entry question

1. Give three reasons why pests are a problem in Agriculture. (2 points each)
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________

2. What are the three conditions that encourages the occurrence of pests in an
area? (1 point each)
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________

3. What are the major groups of pests that are important to Agriculture (1 point
each)
a) __________________________________
b) __________________________________
c) __________________________________
d) __________________________________
e) __________________________________

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4. Give at least 2 importance of Crop protection in relation to crop pests (2 points
each)
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________

Chapter II

PLANT PATHOLOGY AND PLANT DISEASES

Plant pathology or phytopathology (phyton = plant; pathos = ailments; logos =
knowledge or study) is that branch of agricultural, botanical or biological science
which deals with the cause, etiology (process of development) resulting losses and
control of plant diseases.
The objective of plant pathology is to identify the cause(s) of diseases, the
mechanism of disease development, the factors affecting disease development and
finally economic and efficient management of diseases. Knowledge of basic
biological and physical sciences as well as comprehension of agricultural,
environmental and social sciences are the core disciplines upon which the science of
plant pathology rests. For instance, to understand and manage diseases plant
pathoIogist must understand the biology, physiology, reproduction, dispersal, survival
and ecology of all the multiple pathogens and parasites of plants. They also must
understand the concepts of stress and strains in plants and how environmental
factors induce diseases when the limits of tolerance are exceeded. Complete
understanding of the nature of plant disease will help you design a good and effective
management approach.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
1. Understand the principles of plant pathology and plant diseases
2. Understand the nature and basic characteristics of major group of plant
pathogens
3. Recognize several common plant disease of major crops

PLANT DISEASES
Plants not only sustain man and animal, they are also the source of food for
multitudes of organisms living in the ecosystem. Thus, while man has been able to

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 subjugate plants and animals for his own use, the competing microorganisms still
defy his efforts and claim a major share of resources which man would like to use for
himself. Plant diseases have been considered a stubborn barrier to the rapid
progress of food production.

A. What is a Disease?
Disease is one of those terms that are very difficult to define. It is realized that
disease (literally, “dis-ease”) implies lack of comfort and therefore involves deviation
from normal functioning. From time to time, several definitions which have been
proposed are in fact descriptive but not simultaneously exclusive. All these definitions
indicate that disease:

(i) is related to poor functioning of growth and reproduction in the plant,

(ii) is malfunctioning physiology of plant, and
(iii) reduces the plant’s ability to survive and maintain its ecological niche.

A more comprehensive definition or description of “disease” includes:

“an injurious physiological process caused by the continued irritation of a
primary causal agent or factor exhibited in abnormal cellular activity and expressed
through characteristic conditions called symptoms”
Thus a plant or its part or product is diseased when the physiological
processes and morphological development are altered by a causal agent in such a
way that signs of such effects (symptoms) are obvious.
B. Classification of Plant Diseases
Plant disease can be classified in the following ways:
B-1. General Classification
1. Based on Location - A disease may be localized (when the infected part is
limited) or it may be systemic when the infection is within the host, seed-borne,
or air-borne.

Leaf spots (A) and Root galls

(B) are diseases in plants that
are considered Localized type
they only appear on the leaves
and roots and none on any
other parts within a plant

A B

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growth of plants (B) are
diseases in plants that is
Systemic because it
A B

2. Based on Symptom - The symptoms or signs which appear on the affected plant
parts also form a basis for grouping the plant diseases. Thus, we find diseases
known as rusts, smuts. root rots. wilts, blights, cankers. Mildew, fruit rot, etc
Symptoms - expressions by the suscept or host of a pathologic condition. In a
broader sense it means to include any measurable host response to infection
such as increased respiration and increase leaf temperature.
i. Primary symptoms - those that are the immediate and direct results
of the causal agent's activities on the invaded tissues
ii. Secondary symptoms - are effects on the distant and uninvaded
parts.

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Principles of Crop Protection Page | 14
Principles of Crop Protection Page | 15
3. Based on Host Plant - According to the host plants, the disease may be grouped
as cereal disease, forage disease, root crop disease, solanaceous disease, tree
crop disease, fibre crop disease, oil crop disease, etc.
4. Based on the Function of the Plant Part - Depending upon which vital functions
are being adversely affected, a plant disease could be classified in one of the
following groups;
a) gall disease in which meristematic activity is impaired
b) vascular wilts affecting water transport in plants from root to leaves.
c) disease affecting photosynthesis (bacterial and fungal spots and blights,
downy and powdery mildews, and rusts),
d) disease interfering with translocation e g. viral diseases

B-2. Classification based on Occurrence

1. Endemic diseases - The word endemic means “prevalent in and confined to a
particular district or country”. This is applied to diseases when a disease is more
or less constantly present from year to year in moderate to severe form in a
particular country or part of the earth.
2. Epidemic or Epiphytotic Diseases - An epidemic or epiphytotic disease is one
which occurs widely but periodically. It may be present constantly in the locality
but assumes severe form only on occasions.
3. Sporadic Diseases - this refers to diseases which occur at very irregular interval

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 and locations in relatively few instances.
4. Pandemic Diseases - this type of plant disease occurs all over the world and
results in mass mortality. Example: Late blight of potato

B-3. Classification based on Major Causal Agent

A “causal agent” refers to any organism or factor that caused the disease in
plants.
1. Non-infectious or Non-parasitic disease - These plant diseases are not
associated with biotic (living) or mesobiotic agents and they remain noninfectious
and cannot be transmitted from diseased plant to another healthy plant. Most of
the non-infectious type of plant disease are caused by environmental factors.
Example: Wilting of the plant caused by extreme drought or El Niño, yellowing of
the plant leaves caused by nutrient deficiency.
2. Infectious Diseases - These are diseases which are caused by biotic (living
organisms) factor and mesobiotic agents (entities that can reproduce but are
not made up of cells). The diseases can be transmitted from a diseased plant to
another healthy plant. Examples of infectious disease in plants includes the
following: Leaf spot caused by a plant fungi, deformed and discolored plant leaf
caused by a virus, rotten plant roots caused by nematode.

B-3. Classification based on the production of Inoculum

An Inoculum is the infective part (propagule) of a pathogen which is capable
of causing the disease. The disease in this case can be classified as:
1. Single-cycle Disease - here there is only one generation of disease in the course
of one epidemic. Such diseases develop from a common source of inoculum and
often there is one generation of infection in a season.
2. Multiple-cycle disease - in this case there are several or many generation of the
pathogen in a lifetime of the crop
C. Disease Development (Pathogenesis)
Before diseases can be caused, there must be the host (plant), the pathogen
(causal agent) and favourable environment (the environmental conditions which
favors the pathogen not the plant). Plant diseases result from the interaction of a
pathogen with its host but the intensity of this interaction is markedly affected by the
environmental factors. Any consideration of disease in the crop, therefore involve the
disease triangle, i.e. host, pathogen and favourable environment

Susceptible Host

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 Time

Virulent Pathogen Favorable environment

The Disease Triangle

For a disease to happen the conditions in the disease triangle must be

satisfied. A disease will occur in plants when the host plant otherwise termed as
suscept is susceptible to the attack of a virulent pathogen. A virulent pathogen
refers to a living infectious agent that is able to cause a disease in its host plant. If
the pathogen is not strong enough to cause a disease it is called “Avirulent”. Not all
plants can be infected by a pathogen. Resistant crop varieties are an example to this.
For a disease to happen, the environmental conditions must be favorable
for the pathogen to thrive. In extreme cases, the expression of disease in plants
becomes severe if the environmental conditions negatively affect the growth and
development of the plants. In this situation the extreme environmental conditions
predisposes (weakens) a plant making it susceptible to pathogen attack. The
development of the disease take time. This is the reason why time is a component in
the disease triangle. There are diseases in plant that occur and symptoms can be
observed within a week while others may appear on a plant for quite some time.
The interactions of these three components (virulent pathogen, susceptible
host, favorable environment) do affect the course of infection of disease
development. If such interactions occur before the pathogen enters the host, it is
referred to as pre-penetration interactions and these interactions take place at the
infection court (point of entry of a pathogen). When such interactions occur within
the plant like for example when the pathogen has entered the host, it is known as
post-penetration interactions. Some of these interactions can be against or in
favour of infection. If such interactions favour infection, disease develops which can
be observed as symptoms and such plant is said to be susceptible whereas no
disease develops when the interaction does not favour infection and such plant is
said to be resistant.
C.1. Stages of Disease Development
The development of diseases in the plant passes through several stages. The
symptoms and manifestation of injury to the plant are the last link/ stage in the chain
of events. These stages, reactions, and interactions arranged in a sequence lead to
disease development, and the entire chain of events leading to the development of
disease is known as pathogenesis. The several stages that lead to disease
development are shown in the following figure:

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 Contact with the host

Recognition and
Acceptance by the host

Penetration activities of
the pathogen

Entry of the pathogen

inside the host

Breakdown of structural
and chemical barriers
inside the host

Infection and Colonization

Principles of Crop Protection of host tissue Page | 19
The
infection
 Pathogen nutrition

Incubation Symptom expression

period

Reproduction of the
pathogen

Survival of the inoculum

by different means

Stages that lead to disease development in plants

The infection chain can be continuous or intermittent. Furthermore, these
stages may be on a single plant species (homogeneous) or on many plant species
(heterogeneous).
The stages of disease development arrange in chronological order include:
1. Inoculum and inoculation
The infective propagules coming in contact with the host are known as,
inoculum and the process which ensures this contact is called inoculation. In fungal
pathogens, the inoculum may be hyphal fragments, asexually and/or sexually
produced spores, and specialized vegetative organs. In bacteria, viruses, and
viroids, the inoculum is always the whole individual. In nematodes, inoculum may
be adults, larvae, or eggs. In phanerogams (parasitic plants), it may be plant parts
or seeds. The initial infection that occurs from these sources in the crop is the
primary infection and the propagules that cause this infection are called primary
inoculum. After initiation of disease in the crop, the spores or other structures of the
pathogen arising from the infected crop are sources of secondary inoculum and
cause a secondary infection, thereby spreading the disease in the field.
2. Contact
Pathogenesis caused by infectious agents begins as soon as the inoculum
comes into contact with targeted, infected organs of the plant. Most of the bacterial
and fungal pathogens come into contact with their hosts accidentally in the form of
wind-borne or water-borne propagules. Some fungi, many bacteria, and most of the
viruses are brought to their host by insect or other vectors. Motile propagules (also

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 known as zoospores) of Fungi are attracted to plants by root exudates (chemical
substances release by plant roots). This process of attraction to chemical substance
by pathogen is known as chemotaxis.
Plant-parasitic nematodes also move and accumulate at the root zone. The
direct movement and accumulation of nematodes to plant roots may be due to
potential attractants like CO2, O2, amino acids, pH, and organic acids produced by
growing roots.
3. Recognition and Specificity of Host
The majority of plant pathogens are known to have a limited host-range. For
example, Pyricularia oryzae which causes rice blast disease cannot infect tomato,
while Alternaria solani causing early blight of tomato cannot infect rice. This type of
host-pathogen specificity is termed basic compatibility. The limited host-range of
most pathogens suggests that the plant defence mechanisms especially for non-host
are not easy to overcome.
4. Germination and Pre-peneration Activities
The plant viruses are particulate in nature and they are transmitted and
introduced into the host by a vector (Insect vector). Thus, this type of penetration is
passive. They reach the interior of host cells only with the activity of organs of their
vector (mostly virus enter the host through the feeding of its vector) or by some other
mechanical means, not by themselves. Transmission of bacteria and their entry into
the host cells is also passive in the sense that either they enter through wounds or
through natural openings of the plants like stomata. Nematodes cannot multiply
outside the living host or, away from the host as they depend for nutrition solely on
their host. Fungal invasion is chiefly by the germination of spores into germ tubes or
structures derived from them. These structures produce appressoria and
penetration pegs which penetrate and infect the underlying cortex of the host.

Germ tube
1
Fungal spore
2
Host surface

Spore lands on host surface Spore germinates by developing germ tube

Appresorium Penetration peg

3 4
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 Appresorium develops Penetration peg form beneath the
appresorium

Germination and penetration activities on host surface by a fungal pathogen

5. Penetration
Pathogens may enter plants through wounds, natural openings, or by direct
penetration. In nature, viruses enter plants through wounds made by their vectors.
Bacteria enter plants mostly through wounds, less frequently through natural
openings, and never directly. Nematodes with the help of style enter plants directly
and sometimes, through natural openings. Fungi enter their host either directly or
through natural openings and wounds. In fungal pathogens, direct penetration
through the cutinized epidermal wall is achieved by mechanical means or enzymatic
action or both. In some fungi, germ tube swells to form appressoria (use for fungal
attachment on host surface) under which a penetration peg (use for directly
penetrating the host surface) is formed, while in many others even hyphae penetrate.
Enzymes have an important role in weakening the cuticle and in digesting pectin
and cellulose.

Virus particles inside

the host plant

Virus particles
entering the
host plant

Virus particles entry on a host plant through the feeding of an insect

vector

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 Plant pathogenic bacteria entry in a host plant through wounds and
natural openings in the root and leaves

6. Infection and Colonization

In viral infection the vector carries the viral particle to the host and the
coat protein is removed during passage and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is
released in the host cell. Intercellular movement of viral nucleic acid particles
takes place through plasmodesmata.
Bacteria and fungi dissolve the cell walls by enzymes after entry into
the host and thus absorb nutrients. Nematodes use force as well as enzymes
to break or dissolve cell walls to reach the cell protoplasm. Enzymes and
hormones produced by them cause tissue disintegration and other
abnormalities. The damage and alteration of metabolic activities of the
infected plants result in the disease symptoms. At this stage, the tissue
environment becomes unfavorable to the growth of the pathogen, hence it
stops vegetative growth and reproduction. The entire processes involved in
disease development can be summarized using a disease cycle of a
parasitic pathogen.

Propagule

Dispersal
Landing on
host surface

Reproduction
Germination
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Symptoms Penetration
 Damage/ infection Colonization

Successful (host
susceptibility) Unsuccessful (host
resistance)

Life cycle of a parasitic pathogen

AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES

Plants suffer from disease or disorder due to some abnormality in the

functioning of their system. These abnormalities may be due to factors that have no
biological activity of their own (non-living or abiotic factors) or those agents which
show some biological activities (mesobiotic agents) and those entities that are
established cellular organisms (living or biotic agents). A pathogen can be broadly
defined as any agent or factor that induces disease (pathos) in an organism, but it is
generally used to denote biotic and mesobiotic causes. Pathogenic organisms
depend on the living part of their host but saprophytes depend on the dead remains
of the plant.
Classification of Agents of Plant Diseases
The agents of plant diseases can be broadly classified into parasitic and non-
parasitic agents.
A. Non-Parasitic (Abiotic or Inanimate) Agents
These are causes that are more or less due to unfavorable environmental
conditions. Diseases caused in this way are not transmissible from the diseased
plant to a healthy plant. They could be due to:
i. adverse climatic conditions such as very high or very low temperature,
the unfavorable intensity of light, excess of humidity or rains.
ii. chemical injuries caused by the faulty application of pesticides and plant
nutrients and atmospheric impurities or pollutants such as phytotoxic
components of smog, ozone, sulfur dioxide. ethylene, etc.

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 iii. adverse soil conditions including low, high or unbalanced soil moisture,
poor soil structure affecting root growth, aeration, water holding capacity
and poor oxygen supply; deficiency, excess or imbalance of nutrients,
injurious salts and soil reaction
Examples of Non-parastic (Non-infectious) disease in plants

Due to extremely low temperature

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Principles of Crop Protection Page | 26
Principles of Crop Protection Page | 27
 B. Parasitic Agents
Under this group are mesobiotic and biotic agents. These organism are able
to cause infectious disease or diseases that can be transferred from one infected
plant to a healthy plant.
B-1. MESOBIOTIC AGENTS - The mesobiotic (meso = middle) agents
occupy a unique position between abiotic and biotic as they possess characteristics
of both systems. They include viruses and viroids.
a) Plant Viruses
General characteristics
Viruses are entities that are too small to be seen with the light microscope,
and they multiply only in living cells and have the ability to cause disease. All viruses
are parasitic in cells and cause a multitude of diseases to all forms of living
organisms. They cannot survive outside their host and also cannot be cultured in a
media and as a result, are referred to as obligate parasites. They are mostly either

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 rod-shaped or polyhedral, or variants of these two basic structures. At their simplest,
viruses consist of nucleic acid and proteins, with the protein coat wrapped around the
nucleic acid. There is always only RNA or only DNA in each virus. Viruses multiply
by inducing host cells to form more viruses. They cause diseases not by consuming
cells or killing them with toxins, but by upsetting the metabolic processes of the host
cells which in turn, leads to development by the cell of abnormal substances and
conditions injurious to the functions and the life of the cell or the organism.

Examples of Plant diseases caused by viruses

Papaya Ringspot Disease caused by Papaya Ringspot Virus

Symptom: Mottling or abnormal yellow green color of leaves, Rice tungro disease
appearance of ringofspots
Principles Crop on papaya fruit
Protection caused by Rice Tungro
Page | 29
Virus
Symptom: Stunted growth
of plant, yellowing of
younger leaves
 Banana Bunchy Top Disease caused by Banana Bunchy Top Virus
Symptoms: Stunted growth of plant, abnormal yellowing of leaves, Errected
leaves.

b) Plant Viroids
Viroids are molecular parasites of higher plants composed of naked single
stranded, low molecular weight, circular RNA which utilizes only host component for
its replication. They exist in solution as rod-like structures arranged in a series of
short base-paired and nonbase-paired regions. Unlike viruses, viroids does not
contain a protein coating and is only made up of RNA. This means that Viroids are
much smaller in size compared to plant viruses.
Examples of plant diseases caused by plant viroids

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B-2. BIOTIC AGENTS
Biotic agents are living organisms that are capable of causing diseases in
plants when prevailing environmental conditions are favorable. They include the
following: fungi, protozoa, algae, nematodes, and bacteria.
a) Plant Pathogenic Fungi
General characteristics
Fungi are micro-organisms with no chlorophyll (Achlorophyllous), Eukaryotic,
unicellular or multicellular, has filamentous thallus (thread-like body), and reproduce
by asexual or sexual spores. The body of a fungus is usually composed of distinctive
elongated cells called hyphae which aggregate together to form a mycelium (plural
mycelia). In all but a few primitive species, the protoplasm is surrounded by a cell
wall. However, this usually consists mainly of chitin rather than cellulose as in the
true plants.
Among parasitic fungi, the hyphae may be ectophytic or endophytic. The
ectophytic mycelium lives on the surface of the host while endophytic hyphae are
found within the host tissues. The endophytic mycelium may be inter or intracellular.
Parts of the mycelium may be organized into specialized absorptive structures known
as haustoria (also known as feeding hyphae) or into dispersive or reproductive

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structures e.g. spores, conidia, etc. Another specialized structure called
appressorium (appremere = to press against) is formed from the germ tube of
several fungi. This is simple or lobed mucilaginous swelling which helps fungus
structures to attach to the host surface.
Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They depend on other organisms for
nourishment and survival. They have holophytic or absorptive type of nutrition. They
produce extracellular enzymes to degrade insoluble substrate into smaller fragments
and finally into soluble units which are then absorbed by hyphae, which results in the
rot of the infected plant part. Examples of fungal diseases are a blight, leaf spot, wilt,
etc.
Examples of diseases caused by plant pathogenic fungi

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 b) Plant parasitic nematodes
General characteristics
Nematodes (derived from the Greek word for thread) are elongated, tubular
organisms, somewhat spindle-shaped, which move like snakes. With some
exceptions, adult plant parasitic nematodes are elongated worms ranging in length
from about 0.30 mm to over 5.00 mm. The anterior end of a typical plant-parasitic
nematode tapers to a rounded or truncated lip region; the body proper is more or less
cylindrical, and the posterior end tapers to a terminus which may be pointed to
hemispherical.
The adult males are always slender worms. The females of some species
become swollen at maturity and have pear-shaped bodies. The mouth of the
nematode is at the anterior end, and the terminus is at the posterior end. The
excretory pore, vulva, and anus are on the ventral side, and the opposite side called
dorsally. A distinguishing feature of nematode is the stylet which is a spear-like
organ used for directly penetrating the host plant.
Reproduction of plant-parasitic nematodes is of three general types, varying
with species. In bisexual species, the female is fertilized by the male, in
hermaphroditic species both eggs and sperms are produced by the female. In
parthenogenetic species, the eggs develop without fertilization. The life history is
usually very simple, with five distinct stages, the first four of which end in a molt. After
the final molt. the nematode differentiates into adult males and females. In terms of
habitat, plant-parasitic nematodes are either ectoparasites or endoparasites.
Ectoparasitic nematodes are those that live and feed outside the host plant body
while endoparasitic nematodes are those that live and feed inside the host plant.
Example of diseases caused by plant pathogenic nematodes

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 Root gall disease in Okra caused by Root knot
nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)
Symptoms: Root galls, stunted plant

c) Plant pathogenic bacteria

General characteristics
Bacteria are simple micro-organisms usually consisting of single prokaryotic
cells i.e. cells containing a single circular chromosome, but no nuclear membranes or
internal organelles comparable to mitochondria or chloroplasts. Almost all plant
pathogenic bacteria are rod-shaped, the only exception being the species of
streptomyces, which are filamentous. The bacterial cells are surrounded by a wall
made up of mucopeptide, which is peculiar to bacteria. Plant pathogenic bacteria

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are non-motile or motile by means of one or more flagella. Bacterial flagella are made
up of flagellin molecules. On the basis of the number and position of flagella, the
bacteria can be grouped into five categories. They are:

There are two main divisions of bacteria namely: Gram-positive and Gram-
negative. In Gram-positive bacteria, the major cell - wall component is mucopeptide
whereas in Gram-negative bacteria it is present in small quantities, and a major
proportion of the cell wall being formed by lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide. Almost
all plant pathogenic bacteria are Gram - negative except the genus
Corynebacterium.

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 Examples of diseases caused by plant pathogenic bacteria

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Principles of Crop Protection Page | 37
 CHAPTER II ASSESSMENT

Multiple Choice Test. Select from the choices the answer that corresponds to each
entry question

1. What kind of disease will happen if a plant is exposed to extremely low

temperature?
a) Wilt
b) Etiolation
c) Chilling injury
d) Leaf burns

2. Wilting in plants caused by prolonged drought is an example of what type of

disease?
a) Infectious
b) Non-infectious
c) Both A and B
d) Neither A nor B

3. A diseased plant shows what type of characteristics?

a) Abnormal growth
b) Physiological malfunctioning
c) Steady development
d) Only A and B
e) Both B and C

4. Which of the following is NOT a localized necrotic symptom in a diseased plant?

a) Spot
b) Blight
c) Wilt
d) Canker

5. Which of the following conditions will cause a disease to occur in plants

a) Resistant plant + Avirulent pathogen + Favorable environment
b) Susceptible host plant + Virulent pathogen + Favorable environment
c) Susceptible host plant + Avirulent pathogen + Unfavorable environment
d) Resistant plant + Virulent pathogen + Unfavorable environment

6. A carrot showing symptoms of soft rotting and gives away a very foul odor is
suspected to be infected with what pathogen?
a) Fungi
b) Bacteria
c) Virus
d) Nematode

7. A classification of plant disease which refers to diseases that occurs widely but
periodically and may be present constantly in the locality but assumes severe
form only on occasions.
a) Endemic
b) Epidemic
c) Sporadic
d) Pandemic

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8. What is the term which refers to the infective part or propagule of a pathogen
a) Sign of a pathogen
b) Inoculum
c) Virulent pathogen
d) Infection court

9. This refers to the point of entry of a pathogen

a) Infection court
b) Entrance
c) Wound
d) Penetration

10. Which of the following shows the chronological order of disease development
process in plants?
a) landing on host surface -> penetration -> colonization -> damage
b) penetration -> landing on host surface -> colonization -> damage
c) colonization -> landing on host surface -> penetration -> damage
d) damage -> penetration -> landing on host surface -> colonization

11. What type of penetration refers to the entry of a pathogen to a host with the help
of a vector?
a) Active penetration
b) Passive penetration
c) Direct penetration
d) Pre-penetration

12. Which of the following pathogen has the ability to directly penetrate the host
plant?
a) Bacteria
b) Virus and Viroids
c) Fungi
d) Nematode
e) Both A and C
f) Only C and D

13. Banana bunchy top disease is caused by what pathogen?

a) Bacteria
b) Virus
c) Fungi
d) Nematode

14. A typical symptom that can be observed in rice with tungro disease
a) Leaf spot and leaf curls
b) Galls on the roots
c) Yellowing of leaves and stunted growth
d) Toppling of seedlings

15. Bugtok or Atubaglon disease of Banana in caused by what pathogen?

a) Bacteria
b) Virus
c) Fungi
d) Nematode

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16. Spots on the surface of a ripe mango fruit is caused by what pathogen?
a) Bacteria
b) Virus
c) Fungi
d) Nematode

Modified TRUE or FALSE. Write “T” on the blank provided if the statement is true. If
the statement is false, change the underlined word or phrase to make it true and
write your answer on the blank provided.

1. For a disease to occur in plants an avirulent pathogen must

be present.
2. Environmental conditions must favor the growth and
development of the plant in order for a disease to occur

3. Pathology refers to the development of disease in plants

4. Diseases caused by abiotic (environmental) factors are non-

infectious
5 The stylet is used by nematodes to penetrate directly the host
plant

Enumeration: Provide the corresponding answer/s to each entry question

1. Give at least three importance of having knowledge and understanding of plant

pathogens in relation to crop protection. (2 points each)
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________

2. What are the conditions that encourage a disease to occur in plant? (1 point each)
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________

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