Galvanizing standards

BS EN ISO 1461: 1999

Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel articles - Specifications and test methods

BS EN ISO 14713: 1999

Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures - Zinc and aluminium coatings - Guidelines

BS 7371: 1998
Coatings on metal fasteners: specification for hot dipped galvanized coatings

BS 443: 1990
Testing zinc coatings on wire

BS EN 10142/10147
Hot dip zinc coatings on steel sheet

BS 3083: 1988
Hot dip coated corrugated sheet for general purposes Other zinc coatings standards

BS 12329: 2000
Corrosion protection of metals. Electrodeposited coatings of zinc with supplementary treatment on iron
and steel

BS EN 22083
Sprayed aluminium and zinc coatings

BS 3382: Part 2
Electroplated zinc on threaded components

BS 4921
Sherardized coatings on iron and steel articles

Other useful British standards

BS 7361: Part 1 1991

Cathodic protection

BS 7773: 1995
Cleaning and preparation of metal surfaces

PD 6484
Corrosion at bimetallic contacts

BS 7079
Surface preparation of steel substrates before application of coatings

BS EN ISO 2178:1995
Measurement of coating thickness: magnetic method

BS EN ISO 9000: Parts 2 & 3: 1996

Quality systems
BS EN ISO 11124: Parts 3 & 4
Chilled iron shot and grit for grit blasting

BS EN 23270: 1991 (2000)

Paints and varnishes, terms and definitions for coating materials. General Terms

BS EN 23270: 1991 (1997)

Specification or temperature an humidities for conditioning and testing paints, varnishes and their raw
materials

BS 4395: Parts 1 & 2: 1998

High strength friction grip bolts

BS EN ISO 1460
Determination of hot dip galvanizing coating mass: gravimetric method

BS EN ISO 1463
Measurement of coating thickness microscopic method

BS EN ISO 2064
Definition and convention concerning coating thickness method ASTM Standards

A123/A 123M - 00
Hot galvanized coatings on fabricated products

A 90/A 90M - 93
Test method for weight of zinc coating on iron and steel articles

A 153/A 153M - 00
Hot dip galvanized centrifugal components

A325 - 94
High strength carbon steel bolts

A 490 - 93
High strength alloy steel bolts

A 653/A 653M - 00
Hot dip galvanized steel sheet

B 633 - 85 (1994)
Electroplated zinc articles

A 767/A 767M - 00
Hot dip galvanized rebar

DIN Standards

DIN 267
Hot dip galvanized fasteners

DIN EN ISO 1461

Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel articles - Specifications and test methods

DIN 50978
Testing of adhesion of hot dip galvanized coatings

DIN 50933
Measurement of coating thickness using dial indicator

DIN 51213
Testing of zinc coatings on wire

DIN 59231
Galvanized corrugated sheet

DIN 50961
Electroplating zinc

DIN EN 22063
Sprayed aluminum and zinc coatings Swedish Standards SS 3192 Hot dip galvanized threaded
components

SS 055900
Blast cleaning steel

SS EN ISO 1461
Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel articles - Specifications and test methods

ISO Standards

ISO 1459
Protection by hot dip galvanizing: guiding principles

ISO 2063
Metal spraying by zinc and aluminum

ISO 2081
Electroplated zinc coatings

ISO 3575
Continuous hot dip galvanized sheet

Australian Standards

AS/NZS 4680
Hot dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on fabricated ferrous articles

AS/NZS 4534
Zinc and zinc/aluminum alloy coatings on wire

AS/NZS 4791
Hot dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on ferrous hollow sections, applied by a continuous or a specialized
process  

Metallurgy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its
contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects
of the article. (July 2013)

Georgius Agricola, author of De re metallic, an important early work on metal extraction Metallurgy is a
domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their
intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals:
the way in which science is applied to their practical use. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of
metalworking.

Contents [hide]

1 Etymology and pronunciation

2 History

3 Extraction

4 Alloys

5 Production

5.1 Metalworking processes

5.2 Heat treatment

5.3 Plating

5.4 Thermal spraying

6 Microstructure

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

Etymology and pronunciation[edit]The word was originally an alchemist's term for the extraction of
metals from minerals: the ending -urgy signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was in this
sense used by the 1797 Encyclopedia Britannica.[1] In the late 19th century it was extended to the more
general scientific study of metals and alloys and related processes.[1] The roots are borrowed from
Ancient Greek: μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, "worker in metal", from μέταλλον, métallon, "metal" +
ἔργον, érgon, "work". In English, the /meˈtælədʒi/ pronunciation is the more common one in the UK and
Commonwealth. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the more common one in the USA, and is the first-
listed variant in various American dictionaries (e.g., Merriam-Webster Collegiate, American Heritage).

History[edit]
Gold headband from Thebes 750–700 BC See also: Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, History of ferrous
metallurgy, Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America, Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, History of
metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent, and Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy

The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold which can be found free or
"native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late
Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC.[2] Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native,
allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures.[3] Egyptian weapons made from meteoric
iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as "Daggers from Heaven".[4]

Certain metals can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire: notably tin, lead
and (and at a higher temperature) copper, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this
extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennium BC, and was found in the archaeological
sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik, all three in Serbia. To date, the earliest copper smelting is
found at the Belovode site,[5] these examples include a copper axe from 5500 BC belonging to the Vinča
culture.[6] Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela
(Portugal), Los Millares (Spain), and Stonehenge (United Kingdom). However, as often happens with the
study of prehistoric times, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly defined and new discoveries are
continuous and ongoing.

Mining areas of the ancient Middle East. Boxes colors: arsenic is in brown, copper in red, tin in grey, iron
in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and lead in black. Yellow area stands for arsenic bronze,
while grey area stands for tin bronze. These first metals were single ones or as found. By combining
copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, a major technological shift which
began the Bronze Age about 3500 BC.

The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than copper or tin. It
appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of
extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. [4][7]

Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and
civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near
East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia (Turkey), Ancient Nok, Carthage, the
Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and
medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. Many applications, practices, and devices
associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the
blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows.[8][9]

A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallic describes the highly developed and complex
processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been
described as the "father of metallurgy”. [10]

Extraction[edit]

Furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, Yuan Dynasty, China. Main article: Extractive metallurgy
Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted
raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a purer metal, the ore must
be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytic ally.

Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (valuable metal
oxide/sulfide), and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through
crushing and/or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either mostly
valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables
the desired metal to be removed from waste products.

Mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching.
Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected
and processed to extract valuable metals.

Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a
feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate
may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the
valuable metals into individual constituents.

Alloys[edit]

Casting bronze Common engineering metals include aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium,
nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on
understanding the iron-carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels
(those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low cost, high strength
applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron are also
part of the iron-carbon system.

Stainless steel or galvanized steel are used where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminum alloys
and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required.

Copper-nickel alloys (such as Monel) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic
applications. Nickel-based super alloys like Inconel are used in high temperature applications such as
turbochargers, pressure vessel, and heat exchangers. For extremely high temperatures, single crystal
alloys are used to minimize creep.

Production[edit]In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic

components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves the production of alloys, the
shaping, the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product. The task of the metallurgist is to
achieve balance between material properties such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness,
corrosion, fatigue resistance, and performance in temperature extremes. To achieve this goal, the
operating environment must be carefully considered. In a saltwater environment, ferrous metals and
some aluminum alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may endure a
ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking.
Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue. Metals under constant stress at
elevated temperatures can creep.
Metalworking processes[edit]Main article: Metalworking

Metals are shaped by processes such as:

casting – molten metal is poured into a shaped mold.

forging – a red-hot billet is hammered into shape.

flow forming

rolling – a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet.

Laser cladding – metallic powder is blown through a movable laser beam (e.g. mounted on a NC 5-axis
machine). The resulting melted metal reach a substrate to form a melt pool. By moving the laser head, it
is possible to stack the tracks and build up a 3D piece.

extrusion – a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die, which shapes it before it
cools.

sintering – a powdered metal is heated in a non-oxidizing environment after being compressed into a
die.

metalworking

machining – lathes, milling machines, and drills cut the cold metal to shape.

fabrication – sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent and welded into structural
shape.

Cold working processes, where the product’s shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes
while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening.
Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape.

Various forms of casting exist in industry and academia. These include sand casting, investment casting
(also called the "lost wax process"), die casting and continuous casting.

Heat treatment[edit]Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness,
hardness or resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation
strengthening, quenching, and tempering, [11] The annealing process softens the metal by heating it
and then allowing it to cool very slowly, which gets rid of stresses in the metal and makes the grain
structure large and soft-edged so that when the metal is hit or stressed it dents or perhaps bends, rather
than breaking; it is also easier to sand, grind, or cut annealed metal. Quenching is the process of cooling
a high-carbon steel very quickly after you have heated it, thus "freezing" the steel's molecules in the
very hard marten site form, which makes the metal harder. There is a balance between hardness and
toughness in any steel, where the harder it is, the less tough or impact-resistant it is, and the more
impact-resistant it is, the less hard it is. Tempering relieves stresses in the metal that were caused by the
hardening process; tempering makes the metal less hard while making it better able to sustain impacts
without breaking.

Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what is known as thermo-mechanical
treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials. These processes are
common to high alloy special steels, super alloys and titanium alloys.

Plating[edit]Main article: Plating

Electroplating is a common surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another

metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. It is used to reduce corrosion
as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance.

Thermal spraying[edit]Main article: Thermal spraying

Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high
temperature properties than electroplated coatings.

Microstructure[edit]

Metallography allows the metallurgist to study the microstructure of metals. Metallurgists study the
microscopic and macroscopic properties using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton
Sorby. In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample
can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then
examined in an optical or electron microscope, and the image contrast provides details on the
composition, mechanical properties, and processing history.

Crystallography, often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons, is another valuable tool available to the
modern metallurgist. Crystallography allows identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal
structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate the amount of phases
present as well as the degree of strain to which a sample has been subjected.

See also[edit]Metallurgical failure analysis

Archaeometallurgy

CALPHAD

Carbonyl metallurgy

Cupellation

Georg Agricola

Goldbeating

Gold phosphine complex

Mineral industry

Pyro metallurgy