Module 1: Overview of Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)
Module 1: Overview of Applied Behaviour Analysis

(ABA)
Table of contents
A Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 4
B Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5
C Introduction to Measurement ........................................................................................ 6
D A Tale of Dogs and Rats! ................................................................................................ 8
E Behaviour: What's in a name? ..................................................................................... 10
1 Back to basics .............................................................................................................. 10
2 What to teach: Choosing goals .................................................................................... 11
3 How to teach: Respect, dignity and choice ................................................................. 12
4 Teach your children well ............................................................................................. 13
F Why measure behaviour? ............................................................................................. 15
G What is behaviour? Painting the picture .................................................................... 16
H Types of measurement .................................................................................................. 19
1 Technology........................................................................................................... ....... 19
I Methods of measurement.............................................................................................. 20
1 Duration..................................................................................................... .................. 21
2 Latency ........................................................................................................................ 21
3 Magnitude.................................................................................................................... 22
4 Self-monitoring ........................................................................................................... 22
J Systems of recording ..................................................................................................... 24
1 Partial interval ............................................................................................................. 24
2 Whole interval ............................................................................................................. 24
3 Momentary time sampling .......................................................................................... 25
4 How to choose ............................................................................................................. 25
K Functional assessment and analysis of behaviour ...................................................... 27
Copyright © 2013 ICEP Europe Email: info@icepe.eu Web: www.icepe.co.uk

1 Methods of conducting a functional assessment ......................................................... 28
2 Observational assessment............................................................................................ 29
3 Experimental functional analysis ................................................................................ 29
4 Other observation systems .......................................................................................... 30
5 PLA Check .................................................................................................................. 31
L Common Mistakes ......................................................................................................... 33
M References ...................................................................................................................... 36
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A Objectives
Our objectives for this module are to:
• Introduce you to applied behaviour analysis;

• Review the origins of applied behaviour analysis, its different spin-offs and some of
the populations to which it applies;
• Define behavioural objectives;
• Define baseline;
• Describe measurement systems;
• Define the functional assessment and the functional analysis of behaviour;
• Describe observation systems.
Upon completion, you should:
• Know about the history of ABA, what it is and where it came from;
• Understand some of the basic principles of ABA;
• Understand measurement observation systems, behavioural objectives and baseline
measurement;
• Understand how to write an operational definition of behaviour;
• Become familiar with some data collection systems;
• Know how to analyse behaviour using both a functional assessment and a functional
analysis;
• Be familiar with PLA Check and scatter plot observation systems.

B Introduction
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) is a way to look at behaviour, observe it, measure it, teach
new behaviour, and monitor the change. Behaviour is examined in the context of the events
that surround it. Behaviour analysts look at what happened before and after the behaviour in
order to analyse and understand it. One of the basic assumptions in ABA is that there is
always a reason for a particular behaviour.
Behaviour analysis has been around for almost 100 years. What is unique about this approach
to behaviour is the contribution it has made in helping psychology to become more scientific.
Behaviour analysis has achieved this by focusing on collecting information (data) to inform
decisions, and by researching learning trends and patterns based on principles of
reinforcement and punishment.
At first, ABA can seem overwhelming and mysterious. It can seem very far removed from
everyday life. However, we are all behaviour analysts because we all shape behaviour every
day, often without being aware of it. In this course we will give you some of the skills and
knowledge that will enable you to influence and understand other peoples behaviour. When
you understand behaviour, you can change the behaviour.
The primary skill needed to be a good behaviour analyst is observation. We hope that by the
end of this course you will be great observers of behaviour. Many people use behavioural
techniques every day without realising it. We will be putting new language on techniques you
probably already use. Behaviour analysis has its own language. We will try to give concrete
examples to explain all the principles involved as we proceed through the module.
Having a good understanding of ABA is particularly

One of the basic assumptions in
important when things go wrong. If you understand the
ABA is that there is always a
principles of behaviour analysis then when a programme
reason for a particular
does not work out you can understand why it might have
behaviour
failed and what to do to correct it. In this course we hope
to give you the skills to use applied behaviour analysis with young people who have a range
of developmental disabilities. We also hope to give you the information to modify a
programme when it is not working and to understand why it is not working.
ABA has many applications. Our focus will be on the area of disabilities including autism.
Applied behaviour analysis has been used to improve the lives of people with disabilities for
over 40 years now. Within the field of ABA, a variety of approaches has been developed to
help and support people with disabilities. However, all of these approaches have in common
the fact that they focus on careful observation and recording of behaviour i.e. measurement of
behaviour.

C Introduction to Measurement
Although we all influence and modify one anothers
behaviour every day, we do not usually measure behaviour If we want to change behaviour,
systematically or specifically define behaviours we want to we must first find a way to
change what behaviour analysts would call target measure it. And measurement
behaviours. A guiding principle of the behavioural begins with a good definition of
approach is that if we want to change behaviour, we must the behaviour we want to
first find a way to measure it. And measurement begins change
with a good definition of the behaviour we want to change.
A good behavioural definition or operational definition paints a picture. An operational

definition is what you see and what you hear not what you think! We should be able to
exactly reproduce the behaviour from the definition or at least be able to recognise what is
and what is not an incidence of the behaviour. A behavioural definition is the cornerstone of a
behavioural objective.
A good behavioural objective contains:
• An operational definition of the behaviour you are interested in;

• The dimensions or qualities of the behaviour that you are interested in, such as its
frequency, intensity or duration;
• The context or conditions in which you want it to occur or not occur;
• The criterion level or the level we would like the behaviour to be at.
For example:
• When playing dolls with her two friends, Deirdre will share her dolls clothes with her
friends at least three out of four times when they ask for them.
• Every day for five consecutive days, when asked a question by his teacher, Tommy
will answer using a complete sentence that is audible.
• Eileen will have no incidents of hitting other children during break time for at least
three days this week.
There are many methods for measuring behaviour, including:
• Permanent products (e.g. wet pants, arithmetic problems solved correctly, number of
comprehension questions answered) can be a useful and easy way to record behaviour.
• Direct observations of the frequency (how often behaviour occurs), rate (how often a
behaviour occurs in specific period of time), duration (how long it lasts) or latency
(the time it takes for the behaviour to begin) are often used in ABA. Occasionally we
look at the magnitude of the behaviour, for example, severity of self-injury or assault.
• Self-monitoring, where an individual observes and records their own behaviour (e.g.
counting the number of cigarettes smoked, asking a child to record how many times
they get out of their seat during class).

A number of systems have been developed for observing
Systems have been developed
and recording behaviour in ordinary settings such as
for observing and recording
classrooms and playgrounds. Partial-interval recording,
behaviour in ordinary settings
whole-interval recording and momentary time sampling
such as classrooms and
are methods associated with these systems. We will
playgrounds
describe observation systems in more detail later in this
module. For example, the Placheck system is used to observe children in classrooms and
playgrounds in order to ascertain which activities they are most interested in.
Functional assessment is a structured way to look at and analyse challenging behaviour.

Essentially, it is a process for examining the antecedents (what happened before) and
consequences (what happened after, and as a result) of the behaviour you are interested in.
The scatter plot is one of the most useful tools for carrying out functional assessment. This
system involves recording incidents of the behaviour as they occur on a grid that is divided
into short blocks of time (e.g. half-hour blocks) for several days. This kind of record can often
show up patterns in behaviour (e.g. when it is most and least likely to occur) that give clues as
to its causes. We will look at the scatter plot in more detail later.

D A Tale of Dogs and Rats!
There have been many pioneers in the history of applied behaviour analysis but for the sake of
brevity we will focus on just two, Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov won the Nobel Prize
in physiology and medicine in 1904. His most famous experiment was conducted on dogs in a
laboratory setting. First, he noticed that putting food into the mouths of the dogs caused them
to salivate. This is an unlearned or unconditioned reflex. After a while, he realised also that
the dogs were beginning to salivate as soon as he entered the room. With further investigation,
he found that if a bell was rung before the food was given to the dogs, they began to salivate
as soon as they heard the bell. In fact, they continued to salivate after the sound of the bell,
even when he stopped giving them the food. Pavlov called this kind of learning a conditioned
reflex.
Pavlovs initial work has since been extended to include the study of conditioned reflexes in
other animals and in humans. This whole area is called classical or Pavlovian conditioning.
Essentially, researchers in this field are interested in how we learn to associate feelings
(emotions, physical reactions, etc.) with particular stimuli (e.g. people, places, events).
If we take a leap forward to our own lives, we can see how this theory might apply. The aunt
who always gives out treats can become associated with the treats and the positive feelings
that go with them. The doctor who gives the child an injection can become strongly associated
with pain so the child may begin to cry as soon as she enters the doctors surgery.
Therapists sometimes use classical conditioning to teach clients to associate feelings of

relaxation with situations that evoke anxiety. For example, a person who gets very anxious
before talking in front of an audience may be taught to use deep breathing (which induces
relaxation) while imaging themselves standing in front of an audience. Over time, the person
may learn to associate a new feeling (relaxation) with the feared situation in real life.
Therapeutic techniques based on principles of classical conditioning have been shown to be
very useful in helping people to deal with a wide range of psychological problems, e.g.
phobias, anxiety disorders, anger-management issues.
B.F. Skinner is the other pioneer who developed theories of behaviour based on observation
of animals and how they learn. His work is called operant conditioning, because in his studies
animals learned to operate on the environment (e.g. press a lever or peck at a circle) to get a
reinforcer. Based on his laboratory work with animals, Skinner was able to describe some
basic principles about how behaviour is learned.
Skinner believed that we are Skinner was able to systematically produce patterns of
behaviour based on the consequences for the behaviour,
who we are because
and how the behaviour was shaped and conditioned during
contingencies in our
training. The core principles are research-based and the
environment have shaped us
application of the Skinner principles to everyday life is
called applied behaviour analysis. Skinners legacy to us is the formation of the basic
principles of learning theory. He set out schedules of reinforcement, how learning is shaped,
how we increase behaviour, and how we extinguish it or punish it. Skinner believed that we
are who we are because contingencies in our environment have shaped us. We are subject to
reinforcement and punishment and based on this we behave in certain ways.

A person is first of all an organism, a member of a species and a
subspecies, possessing a genetic endowment of anatomical and
physiological characteristics, which are the product of the
contingencies of survival to which the species has been exposed in
the process of evolution. The organism becomes a person as it
acquires a repertoire of behavior under the contingencies of
reinforcement to which it is exposed in its lifetime. The behavior it
exhibits at any moment is under the control of a current setting. It is
able to acquire such a repertoire because of processes of conditioning,
to which it is susceptible because of its genetic endowment.
(From Skinner, 1974, p.213)
Behaviourists like Skinner see all of human behaviour in these terms, they live by these
principles and organise their thinking in these terms. They use behavioural terminology,
which is like a language in itself to the outsider. Behaviour analysis is not something that a
child receives for two hours a day for these people it is a framework for looking at life and for
living life.
There have been many variations on these two schools of A good behavioural programme
behaviourism. Applied behaviour analysis takes many
works towards the naturally
shapes and forms. Some people take some aspects of ABA
occurring reinforcers in the
and use them in conjunction with other approaches. Other
environment
people are purists and only use a strict behavioural model.
ABA does not have to be delivered in a one-to-one situation. When dealing with younger
children, the one-to-one approach may be useful initially, but the aim of any good programme
should be to establish the normal environmental conditions. A good behavioural programme
works towards the naturally occurring reinforcers in the environment. If intensive one-on-one
input is required then there must be a plan to fade it out. It is possible to implement a
behavioural programme for specific or defined behaviours. Unfortunately, many people are
discouraged when they are told that there has to be intensive intervention. Of course,
behaviour change is faster in an intensive behavioural environment but in the real world this is
not always possible.
Some of the most common approaches used in children with disabilities are pivotal response
training, direct instruction training, precision teaching, TEACCH, discrete trial training, PSI
(personal system of instruction), positive programming and cognitive behaviour therapy. All
of these are behavioural approaches with a slightly different emphasis. It can be confusing!
Another area of confusion is the labels applied to behaviour analysis. Let us look at some of
these terms.

E Behaviour: What's in a name?
Many textbooks use the terms behaviour therapy and behaviour modification interchangeably.
However, some state that, traditionally, behaviour modification was used to describe operant
conditioning (Martin and Pear, 1999). Behaviour therapy was used by people who were
involved in therapy in clinical settings, but tended to be used to describe the Pavlovian
classical conditioning. Behaviour modification was used by followers of operant conditioning
and tended to be used by those working in group homes and schools. It has been suggested
that behaviour modification includes the other two terms, behaviour therapy and applied
behaviour analysis (Martin and Pear 1999).
Behaviour modification = behaviour therapy + applied behaviour analysis.
Let us examine some of the basic principles of applied behaviour analysis.
1 Back to basics
In applied behaviour analysis the focus is on looking at behavioural principles and how they
can be used to solve human problems (Grant and Evans, 1994). There are seven common
factors that all behaviour analysts share, despite the variety of their field of study (Grant and
Evans 1994). These are:
• A focus on behaviour;
• A scientific approach to the study of behaviour;
• A pragmatic approach to changing behaviour;
• A clearly defined specific treatment goal and clear definitions of principles and
procedures;
• An emphasis on environmental causes of behaviour;
• A concentration on the present, rather than delving into the past to unearth
hypothetical reasons for current behaviour;
• A sense of optimism about the possibility of behaviour change.
Children learn to behaviour in certain ways. They can Learning principles can be
learn to adapt to the environment in an appropriate or in extremely effective in
inappropriate ways. For example, a child might learn to modifying maladaptive
say, Go away or, I do not want to do that job, which is an behaviours
appropriate behaviour or response in a particular situation.
Alternatively, the child might learn to scratch or pinch or scream to get out of doing a job,
which is a maladaptive or inappropriate response in the same situation. Maladaptive
behaviours are to a considerable degree acquired through learning, in the same way that any
behaviour may be learned. Learning principles, therefore, can be extremely effective in
modifying maladaptive behaviours.
In a key article Baer et al. (1968) define applied behaviour analysis as follows: applied
relates to the social importance of the behaviour, behaviour is the pragmatic problem of how
to get someone to do something effectively and analysis relates to the believable
demonstration of the events that can be responsible for the occurrence or non-occurrence of
the behaviour.

Applied behaviour analysis is the science in which procedures
derived from the principles of behaviour are systematically applied to
improve socially significant behaviour to a meaningful degree and to
demonstrate experimentally that the procedures employed were
responsible for the improvement in behaviour.
(Cooper, Heron and Heward, 1987)
ABA focuses on teaching components of each skill from very small skills, such as eye
contact, to relatively complex skills, like having a conversation. Problem behaviours are
analysed as a target for intervention and appropriate behaviours are taught and reinforced or
the inappropriate behaviour is ignored. The teaching of each skill begins with an operational
or a working definition of that skill, and criteria for successfully learning or mastering that
skill are defined.
The techniques of applied behaviour analysis have been employed across a huge range of
settings, including:
• Parent training, e.g. training parents how to manage their childrens behaviour;
• Health care, e.g. programmes that encourage people to comply with medical
treatments;
• Developmental disabilities, e.g. training direct-care staff to support people with
disabilities in community settings;
• Environmental protection, e.g. increasing recycling of household waste;
• Workplace safety, e.g. increasing the use of safety equipment in factories.
Since the early 1960s research has demonstrated the efficacy of behavioural interventions for
children and adults with autism (Leaf et al., 1999). It has been shown to be effective in both
decreasing disruptive behaviour and in improving skills. There are a number of very detailed
ABA-based intervention programmes available, particularly for younger children with autism
(Maurice et al., 1996, Leaf et al., 1999) and for children with developmental disabilities
(Lovaas, 2002).
2 What to teach: Choosing goals
Because ABA is essentially a systematic method for It is important to always keep in

changing behaviour (i.e. teaching new behaviours and/or mind how useful a new skill or
removing unwanted behaviours), it is important to select behaviour will be for a child in
the right behaviours to focus on. Lou Brown (Brown et al., their future life
1976) suggested that when selecting goals for people with
disabilities we should focus on the functional skills they would need in order to fully
participate in community life. Using the criterion of ultimate functioning, as he called it, it is
important to always keep in mind how useful a new skill or behaviour will be for a child in
their future life.
Taking this functional approach to curriculum development is broadly consistent with the
pragmatic approach of ABA. Some of the principles which must be taken into account when
planning a functional curriculum are that it must be useful and age appropriate; that the
criterion of ultimate functioning is applied; that partial completions and adaptations, or means

to an end in terms of achieving the target are closely looked at; that it is based on adaptive
skill needs; and finally, that it is community-based.
Brown (1976) poses six questions to help us target the curriculum to the criterion of ultimate
functioning. These include asking ourselves:
• Why should we engage in this activity?

• Is it necessary to help students function in the varied complex
communities as adults?
• Could students function as adults if they did not have this
skill?
• Is there a short cut or a different way that the student could
approximate this skill more quickly and efficiently? For
example, instead of knowing each cycle on the washing
machine, turning the dial to match up two green dots
representing the most common washing cycle can help a child
to independently wash clothes.
• Will this activity hinder the student in functioning in a
community setting?
• Are the skills tasks and materials similar to those that the
student would experience in the community at large in adult
life?
(Adapted from Brown et al., 1976)
3 How to teach: Respect, dignity and choice

One of the most important aspects of working with children, teenagers and adults who have
disabilities is to treat them with respect. Often we use inappropriate materials such as a childs
peg-board with a teenager or Lego blocks, when there may be more age-appropriate materials
available. While this may seem like a simple gesture, it has repercussions because it can
unintentionally convey a message of lack of respect for the dignity of the person involved.
Similarly, when selecting activities, toys, or clothes we

We often fall into the trap of
should ask ourselves if there is any way that the person
limiting the individuals
can make these choices for themselves? We often fall into
autonomy and freedom to
the trap of limiting the individuals autonomy and freedom
choose by doing too much for
to choose by doing too much for them and making too
them
many decisions for them.
Ethical issues frequently arise when we are developing programmes to change behaviour, e.g.
why are we choosing to modify this behaviour? Are we using a negative procedure when a
more positive, less restrictive one is available? The techniques of ABA are powerful tools for
changing behaviour. ABA programmes should always be designed and implemented in a way
that promotes dignity and respect for people with disabilities.
A practical illustration of this approach can be seen in the way that behaviour analysts
distinguish between the child and their behaviour. Behaviour analysts see the behaviour as
occurring in a context, which we study, and by doing so we try to understand the function of
the behaviour for the child. For instance, instead of saying a child is aggressive, we say this is

a child who hits out at others when he wants to get out of a
situation. Instead of saying this child is a self-stimmer we Separate the deed and the doer!
say this is a child who engages in self-stimulatory behaviour Instead of been called a nagger,
(engages in repetitive body movements or repetitive the child is called a child who
movements of objects such as flicking or tapping or lining nags.
up objects) when left alone for periods of time.
While looking at the ABA approach we will use these principles to guide our practice and
ensure that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
4 Teach your children well

ABA is something that we all do every day. We teach our children to behave in a certain way
and they, in turn, teach us how to behave. In any parent-child situation, the parent teaches the
child to respond in a particular way and, likewise, the child teaches the parent to respond in a
particular way. For example, a child cries or nags a parent to get something she wants, the
parent gives in after a while and lets the child have her way. The child stops crying or
nagging. In future, the parent is more likely to respond quickly to the crying or nagging and
the child is much more likely to engage in this strategy again in order to get his/her own way.
Other examples of this principle are:
• We teach our friends what to talk to us about by only paying attention to topics that
interest us.
• We often reward ourselves, or reinforce behaviour, so we buy ourselves a treat if we
study hard all day.
• Often people give up cigarettes, and save the money to go on a holiday. They use the
money saved as an incentive to stay off the cigarettes.
• We teach children to eat dinner by telling them they can have a dessert afterwards, or
we tell them they must do their homework before they can watch TV.
• We may deliberately ignore minor misbehaviour by a child (e.g. complaining about
having to clean up a mess) because we know that if we give the child attention for it,
they will learn to do it more often.
• Supermarkets give us points or tokens that have no value other than the fact that they
can be exchanged for items from a catalogue. The same principle applies to the driving
licence penalty points system. This is just a token system, which is designed to make
people take a long, hard look at their driving habits.
• People are now smoking outside pubs because of the smoking ban.
Smoking ban in pubs and restaurants
Think about the smoking ban in pubs introduced into the UK in 2007. How has this shaped
peoples behaviour? A fine was introduced for smoking in pubs so to avoid the penalty people
went outside to smoke. What effect did this have on smoking did people smoke less? Did
people avoid pubs and stay at home where they could smoke? An interesting development,
which was not anticipated, is that the smokers corner became very popular with adults looking
to meet a partner and encouraged some people to take up smoking who had never smoked
before!

All of the above examples are based on sound behavioural principles.
We might not use the technical terms for it, but we can guarantee you that you use these
principles every day. So let us begin by looking at ways in which behaviour is measured.

F Why measure behaviour?
If we do not measure behaviour, we do not know if we are actually making a difference or
impacting on that behaviour. If we measure behaviour, we can see very small changes and this
tells us that progress is being made. If no improvement is seen, then the programme is not
working and needs to be modified. In applied behaviour analysis the data tells us what to do.
We cannot rely on memory to tell us how often behaviour occurred we may easily remember
what happened yesterday but we may not remember what happened three days ago or even six
days ago. In applied behaviour analysis one of the first principles is to measure behaviour and
record it, i.e. data-collection. This data tells us what to do it can tell us whether or when to
intervene, whether a programme is working or not, and when to fade out prompts or
reinforcers.
Baseline measurement is the term used to describe the

In applied behaviour analysis
gathering of information without any form of intervention.
one of the first principles is to
This is what we do before we begin a programme or
measure behaviour and record it
treatment. It tells us the level the behaviour is currently at.
Before taking a baseline we may think that a behaviour occurs all the time. After recording
baseline data, we may realise that it only occurs in the morning. Baseline data also gives us
information on what skills the person has if we are about to teach a new programme. If we are
to teach hand washing and we observe the child on three or four occasions, we may find that
the child can turn on the tap and complete some steps in the hand-washing sequence already.
When we take a baseline, everyone knows where they stand.
If you want to increase a behaviour, it is essential to show that the baseline data has a stable or
a decreasing pattern. If you conduct an intervention to increase a behaviour when the
behaviour is increasing on its own without intervention then you cannot truly say that the
intervention was successful in increasing the behaviour.
Similarly, if you want to decrease a behaviour then you must begin intervention on a baseline
that shows the behaviour is static or is on the increase. If the behaviour was decreasing
anyway it may continue to decrease anyway without your intervention. Whatever your
intentions, the first step in taking a baseline or in measuring a behaviour is to agree what
behaviour we are measuring.

G What is behaviour? Painting the picture
What is behaviour? This seems like a simple question but when you begin to think about
defining behaviour you can end up in the philosophical debates do you need an observer for it
to be behaviour? Behaviourists would say that it has to be observable and that it must have an
effect on the environment which can be observed. What qualifies as behaviour? Is nail biting
behaviour? Is having a pleasant personality behaviour? What about studying or having brown
hair? Or feeling hot?
Nail biting is an act the person is performing so this is a behaviour. Having a pleasant
personality is not a behaviour itself, but you could identify behaviours (what you can see and
hear) such as smiling, number of positive comments, number of times that the person agrees
to help, number of times the person does things for others, as behaviours that might constitute
a pleasant personality. Studying is active and is a behaviour. Having brown hair is not a
behaviour it is a fact! Feeling hot is not an observable behaviour but sweating is the result of
feeling hot which can be observed.
The term behaviour is usually used in reference to a larger set or class

of movements holding in common certain dimensions or functions.
(Cooper et al., 1987)
In order to measure behaviour it first has to be defined. A working or operational definition is

produced. How does one go about writing a definition of behaviour? The description should
be limited to what is seen and heard. Paint the picture if the definition is good then it should
be possible to repeat the behaviour by following the definition. If it is a skill that is composed
of multiple steps then the behaviour should be written down as each step is completed. This is
best done in draft form and then modified as you go through it a couple of times. The
behavioural or operational definition has to be written so that it is clear to any person reading
it what would constitute an example of this behaviour and what would not. It has to be a
black-and-white definition stating very clearly what is and what is not the behaviour.
If a good definition of the behaviour is not written out,

It has to be a black-and-white
then two people who are running a programme may run it
definition stating very clearly
in very different ways, or measure different behaviours.
what is and what is not the
For example, if we were asked to describe hitting
behaviour
behaviour what would we say? One person might count
any swiping movement with arm or hand as hitting, while another person will define it as
contact made by the swiping movement. Yet another might say it has to cause pain.
Striking out at someone or some object, making contact with that person or object, or
attempting to make contact with that person or object is this comprehensive enough?
Probably, but you would have to observe the behaviour and see if you caught all the incidents
of the behaviour in order to fulfil this definition.
Take another example: a dressing programme. John will dress himself on three out of three
mornings. What does dress mean? Does it involve picking out his clothes? Does it involve
doing up all the snaps and buttons and zips? If he gets help, is this counted? Again, we must
be very specific. We might start from the point where Johns clothes are all laid out on his bed
and ready for him in the morning. In this case, we could say: when asked to get dressed, John

will put on his clothes in the right order and close all the buttons, fastenings, and zips without
any prompts on three out of three mornings.
Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer (1991) identify the steps in writing the behaviour objective or
target. The first step is to identify the problem behaviour, next state the goal, then state the
context or conditions, the criterion level and the behavioural dimensions and from this come
up with the behavioural objective.
Example
Problem what we want to increase or decrease.
Goal where we want to get.
Context conditions where or how this is to happen.
Criterion level level of behaviour you want to achieve at the end of the programme.
Behaviour dimensions (rate, frequency, topography, etc.)
Behaviour objective a statement combining all of the above.
Let us work through an example. Danielle is six years old and is in a special class. She has
been diagnosed as having a moderate learning disability. She has no disruptive behaviours but
bites her nails, causing them to bleed. This then interferes with her progress at home and in
school, as she finds it difficult to engage in any fine motor activity she says sore when asked
to engage in fine motor activities. Her parents dress her in the morning and are not making
any progress on her dressing programme. In school, her class teacher reports that she has not
done any written exercises for days because she cannot hold a pencil or crayon without
crying.
Problem nail biting, to decrease it.
Goal the goal is that Danielle will not bite her nails.
Context conditions a programme will be implemented in the home and the school setting.
Using praise to reinforce hands down (e.g. "Good hands down" in a positive tone of voice to
increase the hands down behaviour), Danielle will be reinforced for hands down by the
classroom assistant every five minutes. When Danielle is unattended her nails will be painted
with Stop n Grow or alternatively she will be reinforced for wearing gloves (verbal praise,
"Good, wearing gloves Danielle"). Twice a day for 10 minutes Danielle will be reinforced for
rubbing nail cream onto her nails (incompatible behaviour) and reinforced by saying, "Nice,
letting your nails grow".
Criterion level the only acceptable level of this is zero. If Danielle has one bad episode of
nail biting then she could do severe damage to her nails and set off all the difficulties
described above. The only acceptable rate is zero occurrence of the behaviour over three
consecutive weeks.

Behaviour dimensions Danielle bites her nails. This is measured as putting her hand to her
mouth, one of her nails in her mouth and biting down or tearing at the nail with her teeth. This
occurs on average five times per day. In school it happens when there is a break in the
programme or after snack time. At home it occurs when she gets home and after supper when
she is watching the television.
Behaviour objective Danielle will not bite her nails for three consecutive weeks.
The behavioural definitions are very specific. Take a look at some of these definitions of
behaviour taken from journal articles:
Praise: any form of verbal approval delivered contingent on correct responding to the task
(e.g. "Thats right") or contingent on general co-operative behaviour (e.g. "I like the way you
are working today"). (Carr and Durand, 1985).
Head banging: contact of the head against a solid object.
Head or knee hitting: audible contact of a hand, knee, shin or foot with any part of the face
or head.
Hand mouthing: any contact of the fingers with the mouth that broke the plane of the lips.
Slapping: any audible contact of one body part against another (other the face or head) or
contact against stationary item such as furniture walls or floor (Mazaleski et al., 1993).
The behavioural definition should be:
• Objective;
• Clear;
• Complete;
• Concise.
(Cooper et al., 1987)
Getting an accurate definition is the first step, now how can we measure the behaviour we
have defined? There are a number of different types of measurement systems. The nature of
the behaviour and the frequency of the behaviour decide which measure to use.

H Types of measurement
Product
This is one of the easiest ways to record behaviour. Some behaviour by its nature produces a
permanent product or evidence. In the example of nail biting, we could measure the nails with
a ruler or we could take a photograph before, during, and after Danielles programme.
Photographs are also useful in measuring self-injury. Other examples would include the
number of sums completed on a page, number of wet pants at the end of a day, number of
broken pencils or torn books at the end of the class, whether the bed has been made, whether
the child has washed her hair or whether the child has put on her coat. For other more frequent
behaviours such as self-stimulatory behaviour or tantrum behaviour, you can set up a
permanent product by transferring a coin from your left pocket to your right pocket each time
the child engages in the behaviour. At the end of the session or the day, you can simply count
the number of coins you transferred.
This is an example of the number of letters copied in a 10-minute period.
1 Technology
Computers
Computers can be used to count behaviours, such as the number of letters typed or the number
of answers given or the level the child achieves on a programme. In laboratory situations
computers can be used to measure how long it takes to respond to an instruction or the
amount of time it takes to complete a task. Computers can be used to measure or log our
phone calls and the length of a phone call. Computers have also been used to measure height
and weight.
Video or audio tape
Video is a permanent record of a behaviour or group of behaviours. It is often used in

research. The advantage is that the observers do not have to be present at the time the
behaviour occurred but can watch and score the video tape later on. Audio tape is useful if
you specifically want to capture verbal behaviour. Again, the advantage is that you can then
replay it and score it at your leisure.

I Methods of measurement
Frequency/rate
Frequency simply means the number of times that behaviour occurs. Some people do this by
simply keeping a tally on a page during the day. The number of times a child spits during the
day is an example of frequency.
Rate is the number of times the response occurs in a particular period of time, usually per
minute/per hour. So if you have a behaviour that occurs very frequently you would not be able
to count it all day or you would get nothing else done so you might decide to count it at a set
time in the morning and the afternoon. So, for example, you might decide to count head
stimulation (rocking head back and forth from right to left or left to right) from 10 am to
10.30 am and from 3 pm to 3.30 pm. The number of times a child follows a direction when
asked over a half-hour period is another example of rate. Rate is the frequency of behaviour
over a specific time period.
Example
How would you measure out-of-seat behaviour in John, a 10-year-old boy with Down
syndrome and a mild learning disability in a mainstream classroom?
What is an acceptable number of times to be out of your seat in the classroom? Look at the
peers and how often they are out of the seat. In this situation, it is likely that your goal would
not be zero or no out-of-seat behaviour as this is not typical behaviour in a class of ten year
olds. However, when working on a written assignment it is reasonable to expect them all to
stay seated for 10 minutes or until their work is finished.
What measure would you use and how would you decide? Frequency or rate? If the child is
constantly out of his seat, then the behaviour occurs too often to use frequency and so rate
might be more appropriate. You might decide to take count of the behaviour during the
English writing class from 2pm to 2.30pm every day or even do the count on two days per
week (e.g. Monday and Friday or Tuesdays and Thursdays) depending on what suits your
schedule.
Next, you would write a behavioural definition of the target behaviour. Out of seat if the
childs buttocks are off the seat for three seconds or longer it is counted as out of seat.
Next, decide your criterion so you may decide that he has to be in his seat unless he puts up
his hand and is given permission to leave his seat. While you would like him to sit for the
whole half hour, you might allow him to get up on one occasion. John will only get out of his
seat on one occasion during English writing on three out of three consecutive days.
Alternatively, you could measure in-seat behaviour or duration of in-seat behaviour.

1 Duration
Duration the extent of time a behaviour occurs during an observation

period or
Duration per occurrence the extent of time of each occurrence of the

behaviour.
(Cooper et al., p.71)
Duration is the length of time to complete a response or how long the behaviour lasts when it
occurs. Duration can also be the extent of time behaviour occurs in an observation interval.
The behaviour has to have a discrete onset and offset. When a child has a tamper tantrum it is
often useful to measure the length of time it lasts. The length of time each incident lasts
provides more information then the total time per day. This measure gives you the number of
tantrums plus how long each one lasted, as opposed to simply measuring the minutes spent
having tantrums all day. Sometimes you can impact on the amount of time a temper tantrum
lasts but it still occurs with the same frequency.
Example
Michael is 12 years old and he has been diagnosed as having autism. He is in a special class in
a mainstream school and lives at home with his parents and his older brother. He has severe
temper tantrums, which occur once per day. He begins by rocking his body back and forth in
his chair while seated and making a loud screeching noise. He then stands up and kicks the
chair behind him. He will run around tearing at his clothes (often ripping his shirt jumper or t-
shirt). He will go to the corner of the room opposite the door and throw himself on the ground
face down kicking and punching the ground with his legs and fists. This can last up to 10
minutes and then he sobs for a further 10 minutes before standing up.
In this example, the behaviour is not frequent but it would be important to time the temper
tantrums and note the topography or the shape of them. If, in conducting the analysis, it
became clear that the temper tantrums were associated with a particular activity then teaching
an escape response might impact on the behaviour. If you were only counting frequency, and
Michael just began his tantrum and finished by kicking back the seat without any of the rest
of the cycle of behaviour, you would impact on the duration and the topography, but if you
only tracked frequency you would not know this and think your programme was not working.
2 Latency
In some instances, the key variable is the length of time from some specified cue to the onset
of behaviour. It assumes that once the onset occurs the rest of the behaviour will follow. We
might be interested to note the time it takes from the moment the teacher tells the child to sit
in her chair until the child sits in her chair. We may want to decrease this time. Or the length
of time between each question or request for assistance from the child to the teacher this time
we would want to increase the latency. Or the length of time from taking a drink to urinating
if we were setting up a toilet training programme. In this case we have no control over the
latency but by learning the persons schedule we can assist them to become toilet trained by
developing a toileting schedule around the latency.

Example
Albert is an 18-year-old man with autism. He has good expressive language skills, but poor
comprehension. He has become very dependent on verbal and physical prompts in order to
complete behaviours he is well capable of completing independently. In this situation, you
might look at the time it takes from Alberts alarm clock going off to Albert getting dressed, or
from the time the dinner plate is placed on the table to the time Albert takes his first bite of
food.
Fintan is a five-year-old boy with multiple sensory disabilities and moderate level of
disability. He eats his food very fast, stuffing the food into his mouth without taking a break
between mouthfuls. You might look at the latency from taking one bite to taking the next bite.
3 Magnitude
The strength force or intensity of each instance of a response.

(Cooper et al., p.78)
Sometimes the topography of the behaviour stays the same but may increase in magnitude, for
example, blood pressure or noise levels in a classroom or severity of aggression or self-injury
can change in level of intensity. It is important that we factor this in, because we could start a
programme and the intensity of the behaviour could change, but if we were measuring by just
the number of times it occurred we would miss this crucial data.
Example
Marie is an eight-year-old girl who has been diagnosed as partially deaf and autistic. She
engages in self-injury. She will slap her face on the right side with her open hand. This is
severe enough to leave a red mark and cause a loud noise. She repeats this behaviour five to
six times in rapid succession and then makes a high-pitched screaming noise and finally she
will cry. This crying can last anywhere between three and five minutes. Over time, the nature
of this behaviour changed to a gentle tapping on the face not leaving a mark.
Example
Dean is a three-year-old boy who has been diagnosed with Downs syndrome and is said to be
functioning in the low-average range of ability. Dean picks at any scab on his skin. Over time,
this behaviour has increased and Dean now picks at the scab and makes it bleed. In this
situation, you might want to measure the scab and then measure after Dean has picked at it.
Photographs can help measure this behaviour.
4 Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring can be a very effective way to improve behaviour. Many adults can change
their behaviour by just keeping track of it. For example, if you decide to count the number of
cigarettes you smoke, you will probably smoke less just by virtue of the fact that you are
counting. The same applies to calorie or caffeine intake. If you are working with someone
who can count or track their own behaviour then this is an easy way to monitor behaviour.

Example
Drew is an adult with dual diagnosis of mild mental handicap and schizophrenia. Drew has
difficulty managing his temper and this has actually caused him to assault others resulting in a
prosecution. Drew was asked to monitor his outbursts in the training centre he attends. He had
to write out any incidents where he lost his temper during the day identifying the lead-up to
his behaviour and the consequences of his behaviour. The staff at the training centre also
monitored his behaviour one day per week. Drew did not know when the staff would be
monitoring his behaviour. Drew was highly motivated to work on anger management as he
did not want to end up in prison again. Having him monitor his own behaviour not only
helped him to look at the lead-up to his outburst, but also gave him the responsibility for his
behaviour and involved him in working on the problem.
These methods of measurement are fine, but what if the behaviour occurs very frequently?
What if you require very detailed accurate data for research purposes? There are structured
ways of gathering this information using systems of measurement.

J Systems of recording
In interval recording you are noting the presence or absence of a behaviour in the time period
specified. To use the next two systems of recording behaviour you would actually need a
person just collecting the data and therefore these methods are usually used in research
studies. It is possible to use these systems in a classroom or at home, if you have someone
assigned to data collection only for the period of time you are going to collect the data. The
other caution is that these systems underestimate or overestimate the behaviour so decide if
your goal is to increase a behaviour or decrease a behaviour and then pick the interval.
(Cooper et al., 1987).
1 Partial interval
With partial interval you tick the box if the behaviour occurred at any time in the interval. If,
for example, you decide to collect information on initiating conversation with a peer at
lunchtime (between 11am and 11.30am) you would set up a data sheet like this one. The
person observing the child would have a timer to signal the five-minute intervals and the
person would record if the child initiated conversation with peer any time in the interval. If
your goal is to decrease a behaviour you would use partial interval because it is overestimates
behaviour and it is better to overestimate a behaviour we want to decrease (Van Houten and
Hall, 2001).
This is an example of a data sheet used in partial interval recording (five-minute

intervals from 11am to 11.30am)
2 Whole interval
Using whole-interval recording, the behaviour has to occur during the whole of the interval to
be scored. In whole interval you underestimate the behaviour and so this is used when the
behaviour is one that you want to increase (Van Houten and Hall, 2001).
The example is as above, except the behaviour has to occur for the whole interval, meaning
we would be looking at initiating and sustaining conversation over the full five-minute period.
This is an example of a data sheet used in whole-interval recording.

In the partial interval the child gets credit for even just asking the peer one thing in the five-
minute interval and in the whole interval the child does not get credit unless they sustain the
conversation for the whole five minutes. In one system you are over inclusive and in the other
you are excluding relevant information or not giving the child credit if they sustained
interaction for four minutes and 30 seconds.
You lose a lot of information using these systems and so most people use duration or
frequency count instead.
3 Momentary time sampling

Momentary time sampling is where you record the occurrence or non-occurrence of a
behaviour at the end of an interval. So you see if you catch the behaviour at that second at the
end of an interval. When the timer signals the observer, you look up and score yes or no for
the target behaviour. This is useful in a classroom and can be used for behaviours such as on
task, or in seat, etc. The advantage is the teacher can decide to count the behaviour every hour
on the hour. This is manageable while continuing with other tasks in the classroom, as it does
not require your full attention for the observation period. This technique is used for behaviour
that occurs at high rates.
On-task behaviour = engaged in the appropriate activity with the correct books/equipment and
with his attention focused on relevant material/teacher/student.
This is an example of momentary time sampling hourly intervals between 10am and
2pm.
This data can then be compared to the schedule of activities to see which activities engage the
student.
4 How to choose
The most important thing about a measurement and a recording system is that it is something
you can live with. It does not have to be very elaborate or extensive. Many behaviour
therapists take data on behaviours once or twice per week. They implement a programme
every day but only do the analysis of data on two days per week. Once you start to analyse
behaviour this way and record very specific details of behaviour the benefits reinforce your
behaviour. You can quickly see small improvements in behaviour or small steps towards a
goal. You can set more realistic goals and if something is not working you can act quickly.
The data you are collecting tells you very quickly if a programme is working.
What about very difficult behaviour? It is useful to try to define the behaviour and set up a
measurement system but some challenging behaviour has a long history and can be very
complex. It takes time to understand the function or cause of a particular behaviour. There are

a number of systems for looking at challenging behaviour. They all share common ground
analysis and identification of the lead-up events, the actual problem or challenging behaviour
and the consequences of the behaviour for the individual. Let us examine them now.

K Functional assessment and analysis of behaviour
Anyone who has ever looked at the data on a behaviour to try to identify the lead-up to the
actual sequence of the behaviour and the consequences to try to understand the behaviour has
conducted a functional assessment. Functional assessment is a structured way to observe and
record behaviour, setting, events, and motivational factors influencing the problem behaviour.
There are five outcomes of functional assessment as identified by ONeill et al. (1997):
• A clear description of the problem behaviour;

• Identification of times, events;
• Places that predict the problem behaviour;
• Identification of consequences that maintain the behaviour;
• Summary statements of what the behaviour is about and data that has been collected
by directly observing the person and the problem behaviour.
It is important to separate out the child and the behaviour. Behaviour analysts are concerned
with the circumstances in which a behaviour occurs as well as the behaviour. A child is not a
biter or a kicker. The child is seen as a child first and then a description of the circumstances
in which the behaviour occurs is analysed. The biting behaviour occurs when the child is
being changed or dressed. This is a child who bites when being changed or dressed. This is a
child who kicks when he is told he cannot leave the classroom. This is a very important
distinction but is critical in the functional analysis.
Functional assessment can be done in a number of ways. It is important to remember that the
cornerstone of the functional assessment is the ABC or Antecedent, Behaviour and
Consequences analysis. The information collected can be through questionnaire assessment,
observational assessment, and experimental functional analysis (Martin and Pear, 1999).
Whatever way the information is collected it is analysed looking at the ABCs (Reese et al.,
1977).
To print off a copy of the ABC chart, click here.

To begin a functional analysis of any challenging
If you want to change the
behaviour, the behaviour (B in the ABC) needs to be behaviour, you make a change
defined as objectively as possible. This is referred to as the in the antecedent or the
operational definition. When there is a detailed description consequence
of the behaviour, the next step is to look for the factors
that are triggering the behaviour and those that are maintaining it. The antecedent (A in the
ABC) includes factors within the child and within the environment that might trigger the
unwanted behaviour. The behaviour is what the child actually does. The consequences (C in
the ABC) are what happens as a result of the behaviour. It is vital to examine the
consequences, as they are often the source of reinforcement for the childs behaviour. The
reactions of the child and the actions of others are important to observe as they may act as a
reinforcement of the unwanted behaviours. If you want to change the behaviour, you make a
change in the antecedent or the consequence. For example the child stands up on a chair to
look out the window. In this scenario there the chair can be removed from the window area
and so interrupt the behaviour or the blinds can be closed which prevents the child getting
reinforced for looking out. The ABC analysis also allows you to monitor progress. So, for
example, if you describe and time the temper tantrum you may notice that with intervention
the tantrum is not as severe but lasts the same amount of time. The data collected tells you if
you are on the right track with your intervention. A video may be a useful way of supporting
observations. The ABC analysis is not as easy as it looks. Human behaviour can be
maintained by many factors and multiple factors at different times and different places. We
have all attempted either formally or informally to identify why a behaviour is occurring, the
functional assessment just provides a more structured way to do this.
The information collected can be through questionnaire assessment, observational assessment,

and experimental functional analysis (Martin and Pear, 1999).
1 Methods of conducting a functional assessment

Questionnaire assessment
There are a number of formal questionnaires available to establish the functions of a

behaviour. The person themselves or others who have observed the behaviour are interviewed
to try to establish the function of the behaviour. The problem with this method is that you are
relying on others to tell you what they think are relevant issues. You can miss critical
information and then the assessment takes much longer as you end up revising the assessment
over and over until you get the right information. The Behavioural Assessment Guide (Willis
et al., 1987) is an example of a comprehensive questionnaire.
Another method for looking at disruptive behaviour and its function is the Motivation
Assessment Scale (Durand and Crimmins, 1988). This scale helps to classify behaviour into
one of four areas: sensory feedback, escape form aversive conditions, attention from others or
tangible reinforcers. There are problems with this scale as there are some behaviours which do
not fit into these categories and also some behaviours which serve multiple functions. For
example, self-stimulatory behaviour such as hand flapping may provide visual stimulation,
which is reinforcing, but it may also allow the child to avoid social interaction because other
children stay away and it may also be used to gat a teachers attention as the teacher has to stop
teaching to tell the child to stop.

2 Observational assessment
If you can actually go and observe the behaviour as it occurs it is much more efficient in
completing the assessment. However, some behaviour occurs very infrequently. If behaviour
only occurs once a week or once a month then if would not be efficient to go and observe the
behaviour directly. Video cameras are often useful for infrequent behaviour. If behaviour
occurs more regularly then the best way to understand it is to go out and observe it.
ONeill and his colleagues (1997) suggest using the FAO form (functional assessment
observation) as it maximises the information obtained without going into lengthy summaries.
Also, they suggest that this form is easily summarised. Each incident of behaviour is given the
number of sequence in which it occurs and it is then recorded on the form. The incident is
logged under behaviours, predictors (demand-request, difficult task, transitions, interruptions,
alone/no attention), perceived function (get/obtain, escape/avoid), and the actual
consequences. So it is similar to the ABC but the behaviour or B is first, predictors or A is
next and then a detailed section similar to C (consequences) called perceived function
get/obtain, escape/avoid.
Another variation on the ABC analysis, which combines observation and interview of
informed people in assessing the behaviour, is the STAR system. Zarkowska and Clements
(1988) introduced the STAR (Setting, Trigger, Action and Result) model to analyse and
manage problem behaviours.
Settings are the stable features of the environment or the general context in which actions
occur. Settings can be places, people, times, tension in the environment, hunger, pain,
discomfort, etc.
Triggers are signals that 'set off' or stop actions in a given situation. A whistle was the trigger
for the tantrum on the playground. A swimming costume will suggest to a child that it is time
for swimming. However, if swimming does not follow this trigger, the child may become
confused and anxious and this may lead to challenging behaviour.
Actions are the observable behaviours. They can be challenging behaviours but they can also
be existing skills which need to be encouraged.
Results are the events that follow an action. They provide information to the child about the
appropriateness of an action. They also serve as reinforcers to either encourage or discourage
the child from performing that action again.
A final approach to functional assessment is the experimental functional analysis.
3 Experimental functional analysis

Functional analysis has been described as a powerful tool for identifying sources of
reinforcement that maintain behaviour and for developing treatment interventions (Iwata et
al., 2000). Functional analysis means manipulating the conditions in which a behaviour
occurs to see if you can identify why it is occurring. You are conducting an experiment with
the antecedents or the consequences to try to change the behaviour.

In a recent article (Moore, 2002) teachers were taught to assess behaviour in a number of
conditions (attention, demand/escape, and play). What you do is actually set up a situation and
see if the behaviour occurs. Then systematically change some aspects of the situation and see
what happens to the behaviour. In conducting a functional analysis you might change the
consequences for a behaviour (ignore it) or you might change the task method of presentation,
length of task, difficulty of task, etc.
The disadvantages of this is that it is time consuming, however, you can be sure of an accurate
analysis at the end of it. Also, it is not possible ethically to set up a situation where self-injury
occurs so it excludes certain severe behaviours.
Click on this link to access the functional assessment There is always a pattern to the
checklist.
behaviour but sometimes we
miss critical information or
The functional assessment is a tool to help understand sometimes there are two
behaviour and put it in context. Any of the above methods patterns contributing to the
will assist you in this. It can be a difficult task. On same behaviour.
occasions it appears as if there is no pattern to a behaviour.
There is always a pattern to the behaviour but sometimes we miss critical information or
sometimes there are two patterns contributing to the same behaviour. Once all the information
is gathered the next step is to put in place a treatment programme. If your analysis is correct
the treatment programme will work. If it is not correct then you have to revise your
assessment and go back and redo it until you come up with the correct analysis and solve the
problem. There are other observation methods, which look not only at challenging behaviour
but also at the students level of interest in a programme or activity.
4 Other observation systems

Scatter plot
This assessment was developed to help record temporal factors in challenging behaviour
(Touchette et al., 1985). A scatter plot is simply a graph of times and days where you track
the occurrence or non-occurrence of behaviour (aggression, temper tantrums, self-injury).
This then tells you when the behaviour occurs and when it does not and so by changing the
conditions of the person it is possible to change the behaviour. It is a graphic presentation of
the behaviour and allows for the functional analysis by manipulating the daily schedule to
change the behaviour.

Example
In this example, you can see Saras tantrum behaviour typically does not occur at 10-10.30am,
12-1.30pm, 4-4.30pm and 5-6.30pm. It rarely occurs at snack or mealtimes. By looking at the
activities scheduled, we can identify the preferred tasks or activities for Sara. If it is possible
to increase the preferred tasks throughout the day, this may help to reduce the behaviour.
Also, it may be that the tantrums are related to hunger so by moving the mealtimes forward it
may be possible to improve Saras behaviour. Another alternative is to teach Sara how to
access food or snacks independently when she is hungry. By simply rearranging events or the
schedule, you may be able to decrease the challenging behaviour.
5 PLA Check
PLA Check is a variation of momentary time sampling (remember where you look up at the
end of the time interval and see if you can catch the behaviour) but for using with a group.
PLA Check was developed by Doke and Risley (1972). They compared participation in
before-school group activities. In a further study (Risley and Cataldo, 1973) examined the
behaviour of preschool children using PLA Check. At particular times observers scored the
number of children who were engaged in an activity. By dividing this by the total number of

children in the group and multiplying by 100, you can get a percentage of the children
engaged in the activity.
Example
From this example you can see that during the first activity observed, table work, eight out of
20 children were on task for the first three minutes then the figures dropped to only four
children on task by nine minutes. If advising the teacher in this situation, you would suggest
modifying the task or decreasing the time spent at the task. By comparison, the number of
children engaged in free play was between 14 and 19 out of 20. So this is a high-interest
activity. By using PLA Check you can see what activities hold the childrens interest and what
activities do not. By making some modification in the daily schedule, you may be able to
increase the amount of time the children spend on task.
We have looked at a range of measurement and assessment tools and systems of measurement
There is a tendency for people to want to take this information and, in a rush of enthusiasm,
dash off to set up data collection systems. But be cautious, if you wait you can avoid some
mistakes that are common when beginning a behavioural programme. We have highlighted
some of these below.

L Common Mistakes
Simple explanations
Behaviour is complex and often we go for a very simple analysis. The most common analysis
is that the child was looking for attention. If we then decide to implement a programme based
on the child seeking attention and the behaviour has another function such as self-stimulation,
then our programme will not work. The data tells us what to do. If we have the analysis right,
the behaviour changes very quickly. It is worth putting the time in early on and getting the
analysis right before we move in and try to change the behaviour.
Stay positive
Another common problem is setting negative targets and writing programmes with the focus
on negative behaviour. Many children are discouraged and feel incompetent. By setting goals
in negative language we add to this. When writing a goal, ask yourself, “Is there a way I can
phrase this in the positive?” Try these examples. What would be the positive of hand flapping,
rocking, not paying attention, making screeching noises, and stripping off clothes?
Overload
Another common error is to try to work on too many behaviours at the same time. The best
thing to do is to have a meeting to plan the programme and set priorities to work on. Involve
as many people as possible who can contribute information about the child. Once you have
gathered the information then try to decide what behaviours you want to work on. How do
you pick the behaviours? Brown’s six questions provide a good guide. Also, you have to take
the age of the child and the child’s level of ability into account. While Brown talks about the
criterion of ultimate functioning with younger children it is often worth looking at the next
stage, so with a toddler you would prioritise increasing skills needed for preschool and
decreasing any behaviours which would prevent the child from attending preschool.
Goals for preschoolers have been well-documented (Lovaas, 2002, Maurice et al., 1996, Leaf
et al., 1999). With a preschool-aged child, again look at the next environment – primary
school and what skills the child requires and what will prevent the child from going to school.
Once in primary school think about secondary school and what are the skills needed to
progress onto this environment? The new legislation in the United States IDEA (1995/1997)
requires planning for transition from school to start at 12 years. So from the age of 12 years
the individual education plan contains goals towards this transition from school to a work or
after-school college or further training centre.
Keep it simple
Another problem is we try too hard and set ourselves, as teachers and parents, goals that are
too elaborate and data collection systems that are too extensive. The methods selected to
gather information depend on the information required and the resources available. Often we
get too ambitious and set up very elaborate data sheets. It is important that whatever way you
decide to track the behaviour that it is possible in the setting you work in and with the
resources you have. Here are some examples of data collection procedure.

There is a lull in the behaviour from 2.30pm to 3pm so you would try to reason why this
might be the case; in fact no behaviour occurs from 2.30pm to 2.40pm. With these behaviours
you try to figure out the reason for it – is banging the windows and walls more stimulating in
terms of sound? What is the lead-up to these behaviours and what are the consequences of the
behaviours? All these questions have still to be answered so we might do an FAO (functional
analysis observation) next to see if we can see patterns or alternatively a functional analysis
actually manipulating the conditions to assess the function of the behaviour.
Example
One seven-year-old is out of bed during the early part of the night. This observation system
was set up to track this behaviour.

Operational definition
From this we can see that the child was out of bed more frequently in the early hours of the
night. On Thursday night it was noted that the child was agitated (she was louder then usual
and engaged in more motor activity) – if this pattern continued on Thursdays then you would
look at the activities the child engages in on Thursday and see if this could be part of the
problem. Tracking this data over a number of weeks would help you establish a clear pattern.
Then an intervention could be planned including a bedtime routine, wind-down activities,
perhaps setting the bedtime later if this is an option. The data will guide you in the process. If
you set the bedtime later and find that the behaviour just moves to 9pm then going to bed later
is not working and you revert back to the earlier bedtime.
Example
Shane makes loud noises, which disrupt the class. It was decided to take a count between 2pm
and 2.30pm three days per week in school when the class is working on independent
assignments.
Operational definition
This again is a rate, as the behaviour is too frequent to do an all-day count.

M References
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the Reinforcement and Extinction Components in DRO Contingencies with Self
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(2002). Teacher Acquisitionof Functional Analysis Methodology. Journal of Applied
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Module 1: Overview of Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

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Module 1: Overview of Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

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Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

Module 1: Overview of Applied Behaviour Analysis

C Introduction to Measurement ........................................................................................ 6

D A Tale of Dogs and Rats! ................................................................................................ 8

E Behaviour: What's in a name? ..................................................................................... 10

1 Back to basics .............................................................................................................. 10

2 What to teach: Choosing goals .................................................................................... 11

3 How to teach: Respect, dignity and choice ................................................................. 12

4 Teach your children well ............................................................................................. 13

F Why measure behaviour? ............................................................................................. 15

G What is behaviour? Painting the picture .................................................................... 16

H Types of measurement .................................................................................................. 19

J Systems of recording ..................................................................................................... 24

1 Partial interval ............................................................................................................. 24

2 Whole interval ............................................................................................................. 24

3 Momentary time sampling .......................................................................................... 25

4 How to choose ............................................................................................................. 25

K Functional assessment and analysis of behaviour ...................................................... 27

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3 Experimental functional analysis ................................................................................ 29

4 Other observation systems .......................................................................................... 30

5 PLA Check .................................................................................................................. 31

L Common Mistakes ......................................................................................................... 33

Note: Supplemental documents and additional resources featured in the online

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• Introduce you to applied behaviour analysis;

Upon completion, you should:

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Having a good understanding of ABA is particularly

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A good behavioural definition or operational definition paints a picture. An operational

A good behavioural objective contains:

• An operational definition of the behaviour you are interested in;

There are many methods for measuring behaviour, including:

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Functional assessment is a structured way to look at and analyse challenging behaviour.

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Therapists sometimes use classical conditioning to teach clients to associate feelings of

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Behaviour modification = behaviour therapy + applied behaviour analysis.

Let us examine some of the basic principles of applied behaviour analysis.

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2 What to teach: Choosing goals

Because ABA is essentially a systematic method for It is important to always keep in

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• Why should we engage in this activity?

(Adapted from Brown et al., 1976)

3 How to teach: Respect, dignity and choice

Similarly, when selecting activities, toys, or clothes we

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4 Teach your children well

Smoking ban in pubs and restaurants

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Baseline measurement is the term used to describe the

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The term behaviour is usually used in reference to a larger set or class

In order to measure behaviour it first has to be defined. A working or operational definition is

If a good definition of the behaviour is not written out,

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Goal where we want to get.

Context conditions where or how this is to happen.

Behaviour dimensions (rate, frequency, topography, etc.)

Behaviour objective a statement combining all of the above.

Problem nail biting, to decrease it.

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Head banging: contact of the head against a solid object.

The behavioural definition should be:

(Cooper et al., 1987)

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This is an example of the number of letters copied in a 10-minute period.

Video or audio tape

Video is a permanent record of a behaviour or group of behaviours. It is often used in

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