MySQL by Examples For Beginners

MySQL by Examples for Beginners
Read "How to Install MySQL and Get Started" on how to install, customize, and get started with
MySQL.
1. Summary of MySQL Commands Used in this Tutorial
For detailed syntax, check MySQL manual "SQL Statement Syntax"
@ http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/sql-syntax.html.
-- Database-Level
DROP DATABASE databaseName -- Delete the database (irrecoverable!)
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS databaseName -- Delete if it exists
CREATE DATABASE databaseName -- Create a new database
CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS databaseName -- Create only if it does not exists
SHOW DATABASES -- Show all the databases in this server
USE databaseName -- Set the default (current) database
SELECT DATABASE() -- Show the default database
SHOW CREATE DATABASE databaseName -- Show the CREATE DATABASE statement
-- Table-Level
DROP TABLE [IF EXISTS] tableName, ...
CREATE TABLE [IF NOT EXISTS] tableName (
columnName columnType columnAttribute, ...
PRIMARY KEY(columnName),
FOREIGN KEY (columnNmae) REFERENCES tableName (columnNmae)
)
SHOW TABLES -- Show all the tables in the default database
DESCRIBE|DESC tableName -- Describe the details for a table
ALTER TABLE tableName ... -- Modify a table, e.g., ADD COLUMN and DROP COLUMN
ALTER TABLE tableName ADD columnDefinition
ALTER TABLE tableName DROP columnName
ALTER TABLE tableName ADD FOREIGN KEY (columnNmae) REFERENCES tableName (columnNmae)
ALTER TABLE tableName DROP FOREIGN KEY constraintName
SHOW CREATE TABLE tableName -- Show the CREATE TABLE statement for this
tableName
-- Row-Level
INSERT INTO tableName
VALUES (column1Value, column2Value,...) -- Insert on all Columns
VALUES (column1Value, column2Value,...), ... -- Insert multiple rows
INSERT INTO tableName (column1Name, ..., columnNName)
VALUES (column1Value, ..., columnNValue) -- Insert on selected
Columns
DELETE FROM tableName WHERE criteria
UPDATE tableName SET columnName = expr, ... WHERE criteria
SELECT * | column1Name AS alias1, ..., columnNName AS aliasN
FROM tableName
WHERE criteria
GROUP BY columnName
ORDER BY columnName ASC|DESC, ...
HAVING groupConstraints
LIMIT count | offset count
-- Others
SHOW WARNINGS; -- Show the warnings of the previous statement
2. An Example for the Beginners (But NOT for the

dummies)
A MySQL database server contains many databases (or schemas). Each database consists of one or
more tables. A table is made up of columns (or fields) and rows (records).
The SQL keywords and commands are NOT case-sensitive. For clarity, they are shown in uppercase.
The names or identifiers (database names, table names, column names, etc.) are case-sensitive in
some systems, but not in other systems. Hence, it is best to treat identifiers as case-sensitive.
You can use SHOW DATABASES to list all the existing databases in the server.
mysql> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| mysql |
| performance_schema |
| test |
+--------------------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)
The databases "mysql", "information_schema" and "performance_schema" are system databases

used internally by MySQL. A "test" database is provided during installation for your testing.
Let us begin with a simple example - a product sales database. A product sales database typically
consists of many tables, e.g., products, customers, suppliers, orders, payments, employees, among
others. Let's call our database " southwind" (inspired from Microsoft's Northwind Trader sample
database). We shall begin with the first table called " products" with the following columns (with the
data types as indicated) and rows:
Database: southwind
Table: products
productID productCode name quantity price
INT CHAR(3) VARCHAR(30) INT DECIMAL(10,2
1001 PEN Pen Red 5000 1.23
1002 PEN Pen Blue 8000 1.25
1003 PEN Pen Black 2000 1.25
1004 PEC Pencil 2B 10000 0.48
1005 PEC Pencil 2H 8000 0.49
2.1 Creating and Deleting a Database - CREATE
DATABASE and DROP DATABASE
CREATE DATABASE and DROP DATABASE
You can create a new database using SQL command " CREATE DATABASE databaseName"; and
delete a database using "DROP DATABASE databaseName". You could optionally apply condition
"IF EXISTS" or "IF NOT EXISTS" to these commands. For example,
mysql> CREATE DATABASE southwind;
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03 sec)
mysql> DROP DATABASE southwind;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.11 sec)
mysql> CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS southwind;

mysql> DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS southwind;

IMPORTANT: Use SQL DROP (and DELETE) commands with extreme care, as the deleted entities are
irrecoverable. THERE IS NO UNDO!!!
SHOW CREATE DATABASE
The CREATE DATABASE commands uses some defaults. You can issue a " SHOW CREATE
DATABASE databaseName" to display the full command and check these default values. We
use \G (instead of ';') to display the results vertically. (Try comparing the outputs produced
by ';' and \G.)
mysql> CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS southwind;
mysql> SHOW CREATE DATABASE southwind \G

*************************** 1. row ***************************
Database: southwind
Create Database: CREATE DATABASE `southwind` /*!40100 DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 */
Back-Quoted Identifiers (`name`)

Unquoted names or identifiers (such as database name, table name and column name) cannot
contain blank and special characters or crash with MySQL keywords (such as ORDER and DESC). You
can include blanks and special characters or use MySQL keyword as identifier by enclosing it with a
pair of back-quote, i.e., `name`. For robustness, the SHOW command back-quotes all the identifiers,
as illustrated in the above example.
MySQL Version Comments
MySQL multi-line comments are enclosed within /* and */; end-of-line comments begins
with -- (followed by a space) or #.
The /*!40100 ...... */ is known as version comment, which will only be run if the server is at or
above this version number 4.01.00. To check the version of your MySQL server, issue query " SELECT
version()".
2.2 Setting the Default Database - USE
The command "USE databaseName" selects a particular database as the default (or current)
database. You can refer to a table in the default database using tableName directly; but you need
to use the fully-qualified databaseName.tableName to refer to a table NOT in the default database.
In our example, we have a database named " southwind" with a table named " products". If we issue
"USE southwind" to set southwind as the default database, we can simply call the table as
"products". Otherwise, we need to reference the table as "southwind.products".
To display the current default database, issue command "SELECT DATABASE()".
2.3 Creating and Deleting a Table - CREATE TABLE and DROP
TABLE
You can create a new table in the default database using command "CREATE TABLE tableName"
and "DROP TABLE tableName". You can also apply condition " IF EXISTS" or "IF NOT EXISTS". To
create a table, you need to define all its columns, by providing the columns' name, type,
and attributes.
Let's create the table "products" for our database "southwind".
-- Remove the database "southwind", if it exists.
-- Beware that DROP (and DELETE) actions are irreversible and not recoverable!
mysql> DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS southwind;
-- Create the database "southwind"

mysql> CREATE DATABASE southwind;
-- Show all the databases in the server

-- to confirm that "southwind" database has been created.
mysql> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| southwind |
| ...... |
+--------------------+
-- Set "southwind" as the default database so as to reference its table directly.

mysql> USE southwind;
Database changed
-- Show the current (default) database

mysql> SELECT DATABASE();
+------------+
| DATABASE() |
+------------+
| southwind |
+------------+
-- Show all the tables in the current database.

-- "southwind" has no table (empty set).
mysql> SHOW TABLES;
Empty set (0.00 sec)
-- Create the table "products". Read "explanations" below for the column defintions
mysql> CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS products (
productID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
productCode CHAR(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
quantity INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
price DECIMAL(7,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 99999.99,
PRIMARY KEY (productID)
);
-- Show all the tables to confirm that the "products" table has been created
mysql> SHOW TABLES;
+---------------------+
| Tables_in_southwind |
+---------------------+
| products |
+---------------------+
-- Describe the fields (columns) of the "products" table

mysql> DESCRIBE products;
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
| productID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment |
| productCode | char(3) | NO | | | |
| name | varchar(30) | NO | | | |
| quantity | int(10) unsigned | NO | | 0 | |
| price | decimal(7,2) | NO | | 99999.99 | |
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
-- Show the complete CREATE TABLE statement used by MySQL to create this table
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE products \G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: products
Create Table:
CREATE TABLE `products` (
`productID` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`productCode` char(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`name` varchar(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`quantity` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`price` decimal(7,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '99999.99',
PRIMARY KEY (`productID`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1
Explanations
We define 5 columns in the table products: productID, productCode, name, quantity and price.
The data types are:
 productID is INT UNSIGNED - non-negative integers.
 productCode is CHAR(3) - a fixed-length alphanumeric string of 3 characters.
 name is VARCHAR(30) - a variable-length string of up to 30 characters.
We use fixed-length string for productCode, as we assume that the productCode contains
exactly 3 characters. On the other hand, we use variable-length string for name, as its length
varies - VARCHARis more efficient than CHAR.
 quantity is also INT.
 price is DECIMAL(10,2) - a decimal number with 2 decimal places.
DECIMAL is precise (represented as integer with a fix decimal point). On the other
hand, FLOAT and DOUBLE (real numbers) are not precise and are approximated. DECIMAL type is
recommended for currency.
The attribute "NOT NULL" specifies that the column cannot contain the NULL value. NULL is a special
value indicating "no value", "unknown value" or "missing value". We also set the default values of all
the columns. The column will take on its default value, if no value is specified during the record
creation.
We set the column productID as the so-called primary key. Values of the primary-key column must
be unique. Every table shall contain a primary key. This ensures that every row can be distinguished
from other rows. You can specify a single column or a set of columns as the primary key. An index is
build automatically on the primary-key column to facilitate fast search. Primary key is also used as
reference for other tables.
We set the column productID to AUTO_INCREMENT. with default starting value of 1. When you insert
a NULL (recommended) (or 0, or a missing value), into an AUTO_INCREMENT column, the maximum
value of that column plus 1 would be inserted. You can also insert a valid value to
an AUTO_INCREMENT column, bypassing the auto-increment.
2.4 Inserting Rows - INSERT INTO
Let's fill up our "products" table with rows. We set the productID of the first record to 1001, and
use AUTO_INCREMENT for the rest of records by inserting a NULL, or with a missing column value. Take
note that strings must be enclosed with a pair of single quotes (or double quotes).
-- Insert a row with all the column values
mysql> INSERT INTO products VALUES (1001, 'PEN', 'Pen Red', 5000, 1.23);
-- Insert multiple rows

-- Inserting NULL to an auto_increment column results in max_value + 1
mysql> INSERT INTO products VALUES
(NULL, 'PEN', 'Pen Blue', 8000, 1.25),
(NULL, 'PEN', 'Pen Black', 2000, 1.25);
Records: 2 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0
-- Insert value to selected columns

-- Missing value for an auto_increment column also results in max_value + 1
mysql> INSERT INTO products (productCode, name, quantity, price) VALUES
('PEC', 'Pencil 2B', 10000, 0.48),
('PEC', 'Pencil 2H', 8000, 0.49);
-- Missing columns get their default values

mysql> INSERT INTO products (productCode, name) VALUES ('PEC', 'Pencil HB');
-- 2nd column is defined to be NOT NULL

mysql> INSERT INTO products values (NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL);
ERROR 1048 (23000): Column 'productCode' cannot be null
-- Query the table

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
| productID | productCode | name | quantity | price |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 8000 | 0.49 |
| 1006 | PEC | Pencil HB | 0 | 9999999.99 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
-- Remove the last row

mysql> DELETE FROM products WHERE productID = 1006;
Syntex
We can use the INSERT INTO statement to insert a new row with all the column values, using the
following syntax:
INSERT INTO tableName VALUES (firstColumnValue, ..., lastColumnValue) -- All columns
You need to list the values in the same order in which the columns are defined in the CREATE TABLE,
separated by commas. For columns of string data type ( CHAR, VARCHAR), enclosed the value with a
pair of single quotes (or double quotes). For columns of numeric data type
(INT, DECIMAL, FLOAT, DOUBLE), simply place the number.
You can also insert multiple rows in one INSERT INTO statement:
INSERT INTO tableName VALUES
(row1FirstColumnValue, ..., row1lastColumnValue),
(row2FirstColumnValue, ..., row2lastColumnValue),
...
To insert a row with values on selected columns only, use:
-- Insert single record with selected columns

INSERT INTO tableName (column1Name, ..., columnNName) VALUES (column1Value, ...,
columnNValue)
-- Alternately, use SET to set the values
INSERT INTO tableName SET column1=value1, column2=value2, ...
-- Insert multiple records

(column1Name, ..., columnNName)
VALUES
(row1column1Value, ..., row2ColumnNValue),
(row2column1Value, ..., row2ColumnNValue),
...
The remaining columns will receive their default value, such as AUTO_INCREMENT, default, or NULL.
2.5 Querying the Database - SELECT
The most common, important and complex task is to query a database for a subset of data that
meets your needs - with the SELECT command. The SELECT command has the following syntax:
-- List all the rows of the specified columns
SELECT column1Name, column2Name, ... FROM tableName
-- List all the rows of ALL columns, * is a wildcard denoting all columns
SELECT * FROM tableName
-- List rows that meet the specified criteria in WHERE clause

SELECT column1Name, column2Name,... FROM tableName WHERE criteria
SELECT * FROM tableName WHERE criteria
For examples,
-- List all rows for the specified columns

mysql> SELECT name, price FROM products;
+-----------+-------+
| name | price |
+-----------+-------+
| Pen Red | 1.23 |
| Pen Blue | 1.25 |
| Pen Black | 1.25 |
| Pencil 2B | 0.48 |
| Pencil 2H | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------+
-- List all rows of ALL the columns. The wildcard * denotes ALL columns
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 8000 | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
SELECT without Table

You can also issue SELECT without a table. For example, you can SELECT an expression or evaluate a
built-in function.
mysql> SELECT 1+1;
+-----+
| 1+1 |
+-----+
| 2 |
+-----+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT NOW();

+---------------------+
| NOW() |
+---------------------+
| 2012-10-24 22:13:29 |
+---------------------+
// Multiple columns
mysql> SELECT 1+1, NOW();
+-----+---------------------+
| 1+1 | NOW() |
+-----+---------------------+
| 2 | 2012-10-24 22:16:34 |
+-----+---------------------+
Comparison Operators
For numbers (INT, DECIMAL, FLOAT), you could use comparison operators: '=' (equal to), '<>' or '!
=' (not equal to), '>' (greater than), '<' (less than), '>=' (greater than or equal to), '<=' (less than
or equal to), to compare two numbers. For example, price > 1.0, quantity <= 500.
mysql> SELECT name, price FROM products WHERE price < 1.0;
+-----------+-------+
| name | price |
+-----------+-------+
| Pencil 2B | 0.48 |
| Pencil 2H | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------+
mysql> SELECT name, quantity FROM products WHERE quantity <= 2000;
+-----------+----------+
| name | quantity |
+-----------+----------+
| Pen Black | 2000 |
+-----------+----------+
CAUTION: Do not compare FLOATs (real numbers) for equality ( '=' or '<>'), as they are not precise.
On the other hand, DECIMAL are precise.
For strings, you could also use '=', '<>', '>', '<', '>=', '<=' to compare two strings
(e.g., productCode = 'PEC'). The ordering of string depends on the so-called collation chosen. For
example,
mysql> SELECT name, price FROM products WHERE productCode = 'PEN';
-- String values are quoted
+-----------+-------+
| name | price |
+-----------+-------+
| Pen Red | 1.23 |
| Pen Blue | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------+
String Pattern Matching - LIKE and NOT LIKE

For strings, in addition to full matching using operators like '=' and '<>', we can perform pattern
matching using operator LIKE (or NOT LIKE) with wildcard characters. The wildcard '_' matches any
single character; '%' matches any number of characters (including zero). For example,
 'abc%' matches strings beginning with 'abc';
 '%xyz' matches strings ending with 'xyz';
 '%aaa%' matches strings containing 'aaa';
 '___' matches strings containing exactly three characters; and
 'a_b%' matches strings beginning with 'a', followed by any single character, followed
by 'b', followed by zero or more characters.
-- "name" begins with 'PENCIL'
mysql> SELECT name, price FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'PENCIL%';
+-----------+-------+
| name | price |
+-----------+-------+
| Pencil 2B | 0.48 |
| Pencil 2H | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------+
-- "name" begins with 'P', followed by any two characters,

-- followed by space, followed by zero or more characters
mysql> SELECT name, price FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'P__ %';
+-----------+-------+
| name | price |
+-----------+-------+
| Pen Red | 1.23 |
| Pen Blue | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------+
MySQL also support regular expression matching via the REGEXE operator.

Arithmetic Operators
You can perform arithmetic operations on numeric fields using arithmetic operators, as tabulated
below:
Operator Description
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
DIV Integer Division
% Modulus (Remainder)
Logical Operators - AND, OR, NOT, XOR
You can combine multiple conditions with boolean operators AND, OR, XOR. You can also invert a
condition using operator NOT. For examples,
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE quantity >= 5000 AND name LIKE 'Pen %';
+-----------+-------------+----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+----------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------------+----------+----------+-------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE quantity >= 5000 AND price < 1.24 AND name LIKE
'Pen %';
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE NOT (quantity >= 5000 AND name LIKE 'Pen %');
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 8000 | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
IN, NOT IN
You can select from members of a set with IN (or NOT IN) operator. This is easier and clearer than the
equivalent AND-OR expression.
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name IN ('Pen Red', 'Pen Black');
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
BETWEEN, NOT BETWEEN
To check if the value is within a range, you could use BETWEEN ... AND ... operator. Again, this is
easier and clearer than the equivalent AND-OR expression.
mysql> SELECT * FROM products

WHERE (price BETWEEN 1.0 AND 2.0) AND (quantity BETWEEN 1000 AND 2000);
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
IS NULL, IS NOT NULL

NULL is a special value, which represent "no value", "missing value" or "unknown value". You can
checking if a column contains NULL by IS NULL or IS NOT NULL. For example,
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE productCode IS NULL;
Using comparison operator (such as = or <>) to check for NULL is a mistake - a very common mistake.
For example,
SELECT * FROM products WHERE productCode = NULL;
-- This is a common mistake. NULL cannot be compared.
ORDER BY Clause
You can order the rows selected using ORDER BY clause, with the following syntax:
SELECT ... FROM tableName
WHERE criteria
ORDER BY columnA ASC|DESC, columnB ASC|DESC, ...
The selected row will be ordered according to the values in columnA, in either ascending (ASC)
(default) or descending (DESC) order. If several rows have the same value in columnA, it will be
ordered according to columnB, and so on. For strings, the ordering could be case-sensitive or case-
insensitive, depending on the so-called character collating sequence used. For examples,
-- Order the results by price in descending order
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'Pen %' ORDER BY price DESC;
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
-- Order by price in descending order, followed by quantity in ascending (default)

order
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'Pen %' ORDER BY price DESC, quantity;
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
You can randomize the returned records via function RAND(), e.g.,

mysql> SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY RAND();
LIMIT Clause
A SELECT query on a large database may produce many rows. You could use the LIMIT clause to
limit the number of rows displayed, e.g.,
-- Display the first two rows
mysql> SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY price LIMIT 2;
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 8000 | 0.49 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
To continue to the following records , you could specify the number of rows to be skipped, followed
by the number of rows to be displayed in the LIMIT clause, as follows:
-- Skip the first two rows and display the next 1 row
mysql> SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY price LIMIT 2, 1;
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
AS - Alias
You could use the keyword AS to define an alias for an identifier (such as column name, table name).
The alias will be used in displaying the name. It can also be used as reference. For example,
mysql> SELECT productID AS ID, productCode AS Code, name AS Description, price AS
Ùnit Price`
-- Define aliases to be used as display names
FROM products
ORDER BY ID;
-- Use alias ID as reference
+------+------+-------------+------------+
| ID | Code | Description | Unit Price |
+------+------+-------------+------------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 1.25 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 1.25 |
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 0.49 |
+------+------+-------------+------------+
Take note that the identifier "Unit Price" contains a blank and must be back-quoted.
Function CONCAT()
You can also concatenate a few columns as one (e.g., joining the last name and first name) using
function CONCAT(). For example,
mysql> SELECT CONCAT(productCode, ' - ', name) AS `Product Description`, price FROM
products;
+---------------------+-------+
| Product Description | price |
+---------------------+-------+
| PEN - Pen Red | 1.23 |
| PEN - Pen Blue | 1.25 |
| PEN - Pen Black | 1.25 |
| PEC - Pencil 2B | 0.48 |
| PEC - Pencil 2H | 0.49 |
+---------------------+-------+
2.6 Producing Summary Reports

To produce a summary report, we often need to aggregate related rows.
DISTINCT
A column may have duplicate values, we could use keyword DISTINCT to select only distinct values.
We can also apply DISTINCT to several columns to select distinct combinations of these columns. For
examples,
-- Without DISTINCT
mysql> SELECT price FROM products;
+-------+
| price |
+-------+
| 1.23 |
| 1.25 |
| 1.25 |
| 0.48 |
| 0.49 |
+-------+
-- With DISTINCT on price

mysql> SELECT DISTINCT price AS `Distinct Price` FROM products;
+----------------+
| Distinct Price |
+----------------+
| 1.23 |
| 1.25 |
| 0.48 |
| 0.49 |
+----------------+
-- DISTINCT combination of price and name

mysql> SELECT DISTINCT price, name FROM products;
+-------+-----------+
| price | name |
+-------+-----------+
| 1.23 | Pen Red |
| 1.25 | Pen Blue |
| 1.25 | Pen Black |
| 0.48 | Pencil 2B |
| 0.49 | Pencil 2H |
+-------+-----------+
GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause allows you to collapse multiple records with a common value into groups. For
example,
mysql> SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY productCode, productID;
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 8000 | 0.49 |
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.25 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.25 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM products GROUP BY productCode;
-- Only first record in each group is shown
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.48 |
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
GROUP BY by itself is not meaningfull. It is used together with GROUP BY aggregate functions (such
as COUNT(), AVG(), SUM()) to produce group summary.
GROUP BY Aggregate Functions: COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG, SUM, STD, GROUP_CONCAT
We can apply GROUP BY Aggregate functions to each group to produce group summary report.
The function COUNT(*) returns the rows selected; COUNT(columnName) counts only the non-
NULL values of the given column. For example,
-- Function COUNT(*) returns the number of rows selected
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) AS `Count` FROM products;
-- All rows without GROUP BY clause
+-------+
| Count |
+-------+
| 5 |
+-------+
mysql> SELECT productCode, COUNT(*) FROM products GROUP BY productCode;

+-------------+----------+
| productCode | COUNT(*) |
+-------------+----------+
| PEC | 2 |
| PEN | 3 |
+-------------+----------+
-- Order by COUNT - need to define an alias to be used as reference

mysql> SELECT productCode, COUNT(*) AS count
FROM products
GROUP BY productCode
ORDER BY count DESC;
+-------------+-------+
| productCode | count |
+-------------+-------+
| PEN | 3 |
| PEC | 2 |
+-------------+-------+
Besides COUNT(), there are many other GROUP BY aggregate functions such

as AVG(), MAX(), MIN() and SUM(). For example,
mysql> SELECT MAX(price), MIN(price), AVG(price), STD(price), SUM(quantity)
FROM products;
-- Without GROUP BY - All rows
+------------+------------+------------+------------+---------------+
| MAX(price) | MIN(price) | AVG(price) | STD(price) | SUM(quantity) |
+------------+------------+------------+------------+---------------+
| 1.25 | 0.48 | 0.940000 | 0.371591 | 33000 |
+------------+------------+------------+------------+---------------+
mysql> SELECT productCode, MAX(price) AS `Highest Price`, MIN(price) AS `Lowest

Price`
FROM products
GROUP BY productCode;
+-------------+---------------+--------------+
| productCode | Highest Price | Lowest Price |
+-------------+---------------+--------------+
| PEC | 0.49 | 0.48 |
| PEN | 1.25 | 1.23 |
+-------------+---------------+--------------+
mysql> SELECT productCode, MAX(price), MIN(price),

CAST(AVG(price) AS DECIMAL(7,2)) AS Àverage`,
CAST(STD(price) AS DECIMAL(7,2)) AS `Std Dev`,
SUM(quantity)
FROM products
GROUP BY productCode;
-- Use CAST(... AS ...) function to format floating-point numbers
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------------+
| productCode | MAX(price) | MIN(price) | Average | Std Dev | SUM(quantity) |
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------------+
| PEC | 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.01 | 18000 |
| PEN | 1.25 | 1.23 | 1.24 | 0.01 | 15000 |
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------------+
HAVING clause
HAVING is similar to WHERE, but it can operate on the GROUP BY aggregate functions;
whereas WHERE operates only on columns.
mysql> SELECT
productCode AS `Product Code`,
COUNT(*) AS `Count`,
CAST(AVG(price) AS DECIMAL(7,2)) AS Àverage`
FROM products
HAVING Count >=3;
-- CANNOT use WHERE count >= 3
+--------------+-------+---------+
| Product Code | Count | Average |
+--------------+-------+---------+
| PEN | 3 | 1.24 |
+--------------+-------+---------+
WITH ROLLUP
The WITH ROLLUP clause shows the summary of group summary, e.g.,
mysql> SELECT
productCode,
MAX(price),
MIN(price),
CAST(AVG(price) AS DECIMAL(7,2)) AS Àverage`,
SUM(quantity)
FROM products
WITH ROLLUP; -- Apply aggregate functions to all groups
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------------+
| productCode | MAX(price) | MIN(price) | Average | SUM(quantity) |
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------------+
| PEC | 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 18000 |
| PEN | 1.25 | 1.23 | 1.24 | 15000 |
| NULL | 1.25 | 0.48 | 0.94 | 33000 |
+-------------+------------+------------+---------+---------------+
2.7 Modifying Data - UPDATE

To modify existing data, use UPDATE ... SET command, with the following syntax:
UPDATE tableName SET columnName = {value|NULL|DEFAULT}, ... WHERE criteria
For example,
-- Increase the price by 10% for all products

mysql> UPDATE products SET price = price * 1.1;

+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 5000 | 1.35 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.38 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.38 |
| 1004 | PEC | Pencil 2B | 10000 | 0.53 |
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 2H | 0 | 9999999.99 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+
-- Modify selected rows

mysql> UPDATE products SET quantity = quantity - 100 WHERE name = 'Pen Red';
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name = 'Pen Red';

+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 4900 | 1.35 |
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
-- You can modify more than one values

mysql> UPDATE products SET quantity = quantity + 50, price = 1.23 WHERE name = 'Pen
Red';
mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name = 'Pen Red';

+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 4950 | 1.23 |
+-----------+-------------+---------+----------+-------+
CAUTION: If the WHERE clause is omitted in the UPDATE command, ALL ROWS will be updated. Hence,

it is a good practice to issue a SELECT query, using the same criteria, to check the result set before
issuing the UPDATE. This also applies to the DELETE statement in the following section.
2.8 Deleting Rows - DELETE FROM
Use the DELELE FROM command to delete row(s) from a table, with the following syntax:
-- Delete all rows from the table. Use with extreme care! Records are NOT
recoverable!!!
DELETE FROM tableName
-- Delete only row(s) that meets the criteria
DELETE FROM tableName WHERE criteria
For example,
mysql> DELETE FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'Pencil%';


+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1001 | PEN | Pen Red | 4950 | 1.23 |
| 1002 | PEN | Pen Blue | 8000 | 1.38 |
| 1003 | PEN | Pen Black | 2000 | 1.38 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
-- Use this with extreme care, as the deleted records are irrecoverable!
mysql> DELETE FROM products;

Beware that "DELETE FROM tableName" without a WHERE clause deletes ALL records from the table.
Even with a WHERE clause, you might have deleted some records unintentionally. It is always advisable
to issue a SELECT command with the same WHERE clause to check the result set before issuing
the DELETE (and UPDATE).
2.9 Loading/Exporting Data from/to a Text File
There are several ways to add data into the database: (a) manually issue the INSERT commands; (b)
run the INSERT commands from a script; or (c) load raw data from a file using LOAD DATA or
viamysqlimport utility.
LOAD DATA LOCAL INFILE ... INTO TABLE ...
Besides using INSERT commands to insert rows, you could keep your raw data in a text file, and load
them into the table via the LOAD DATA command. For example, create the following text file called
"products_in.csv", where the values are separated by ','. The file extension of ".csv" stands
for Comma-Separated Values text file.
\N,PEC,Pencil 3B,500,0.52
You can load the raw data into the products table as follows:

mysql> LOAD DATA LOCAL INFILE 'd:/path-to/products_in.csv' INTO TABLE products
COLUMNS TERMINATED BY ','
LINES TERMINATED BY '\r\n';
Records: 4 Deleted: 0 Skipped: 0 Warnings: 0

+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
| 1005 | PEC | Pencil 3B | 500 | 0.52 |
| 1006 | PEC | Pencil 4B | 200 | 0.62 |
| 1007 | PEC | Pencil 5B | 100 | 0.73 |
| 1008 | PEC | Pencil 6B | 500 | 0.47 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+
Notes:
 You need to provide the path (absolute or relative) and the filename. Use Unix-style forward-
slash '/' as the directory separator, instead of Windows-style back-slash '\'.
 The default line delimiter (or end-of-line) is '\n' (Unix-style). If the text file is prepared in
Windows, you need to include LINES TERMINATED BY '\r\n'. For Mac, use LINES TERMINATED
BY '\r'.
 The default column delimiter is "tab" (in a so-called TSV file - Tab-Separated Values). If you
use another delimiter, e.g. ',', include COLUMNS TERMINATED BY ','.
 You must use \N (back-slash + uppercase 'N') for NULL.
mysqlimport Utility
You can also use the mysqlimport utility to load data from a text file. For example,
-- Syntax
> mysqlimport -u username -p --local databaseName tableName.tsv
-- The raw data must be kept in a TSV file of filename the same as tablename
> mysqlimport --help
-- Example
> mysqlimport -u username -p --local southwind d:/myproject/products_in.tsv
SELECT ... INTO OUTFILE ...
Complimenting LOAD DATA command, you can use SELECT ... INTO
OUTFILE fileName FROM tableName to export data from a table to a text file. For example,
mysql> SELECT * FROM products INTO OUTFILE 'd:/path-to/products_out.csv'
COLUMNS TERMINATED BY ','
LINES TERMINATED BY '\r\n';
2.10 Running a SQL Script

Instead of manually entering each of the SQL statements, you can keep many SQL statements in a
text file, called SQL script, and run the script. For example, use a programming text editor to prepare
the following script and save as " load_products.sql" in a directory of your choice (e.g.,
"d:\myproject").
DELETE FROM products;

INSERT INTO products VALUES (2001, 'PEC', 'Pencil 3B', 500, 0.52),
(NULL, 'PEC', 'Pencil 4B', 200, 0.62),
(NULL, 'PEC', 'Pencil 5B', 100, 0.73),
(NULL, 'PEC', 'Pencil 6B', 500, 0.47);
SELECT * FROM products;
You can run the script either:

1. via the "source" command in an interactive client. For example, to restore
the southwind backup earlier:
2. -- Start mysql client
3. D:\myproject\mysql\bin> mysql -u username -p
4. ......
5. mysql> source d:/myproject/load_products.sql
6. -- You can provide either absolute or relative filename of the script
-- Use Unix-style forward slash (/) as directory separator
7. via the "batch mode" of the mysql client program, by re-directing the input from the script:
> mysql -u username -p southwind < d:\myproject\load_products.sql
3. More Than One Tables

Our example so far involves only one table " products". A practical database contains
many related tables.
Products have suppliers. If each product has one supplier, and each supplier supplies only one
product (known as one-to-one relationship), we can simply add the supplier's data (name, address,
phone number) into the products table. Suppose that each product has one supplier, and a supplier
may supply zero or more products (known as one-to-many relationship). Putting the supplier's data
into theProduct table results in duplication of data. This is because one supplier may supply many
products, hence, the same supplier's data appear in many rows. This not only wastes the storage but
also easily leads to inconsistency (as all duplicate data must be updated simultaneously). The
situation is even more complicated if one product has many suppliers, and each supplier can supply
many products, in a many-to-many relationship.
3.1 One-To-Many Relationship
Suppose that each product has one supplier, and each supplier supplies one or more products. We
could create a table called suppliers to store suppliers' data (e.g., name, address and phone
number). We create a column with unique value called supplierID to identify every suppliers. We
set supplierID as the primary key for the table suppliers (to ensure uniqueness and facilitate fast
search).
To relate the suppliers table to the products table, we add a new column into the products table -
the supplierID. We then set the supplierID column of the products table as a foreign key
references the supplierID column of the suppliers table to ensure the so-called referential
integrity.
Database: southwind
Table: suppliers
supplierID name phone
INT VARCHAR(3) CHAR(8)
501 ABC Traders 88881111
502 XYZ Company 88882222
503 QQ Corp 88883333
Database: southwind
Table: products
INT CHAR(3) VARCHAR(30) INT DECIMAL(10,2)
2001 PEC Pencil 3B 500 0.52
2002 PEC Pencil 4B 200 0.62
2003 PEC Pencil 5B 100 0.73
2004 PEC Pencil 6B 500 0.47
We need to first create the suppliers table, because the products table references
the suppliers table. The suppliers table is known as the parent table; while the products table is
known as the childtable in this relationship.
mysql> USE southwind;
mysql> DROP TABLE IF EXISTS suppliers;
mysql> CREATE TABLE suppliers (

supplierID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
phone CHAR(8) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
PRIMARY KEY (supplierID)
);
mysql> DESCRIBE suppliers;

+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
| supplierID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment |
| name | varchar(30) | NO | | | |
| phone | char(8) | NO | | | |
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
mysql> INSERT INTO suppliers VALUE

(501, 'ABC Traders', '88881111'),
(502, 'XYZ Company', '88882222'),
(503, 'QQ Corp', '88883333');
mysql> SELECT * FROM suppliers;

+------------+-------------+----------+
| supplierID | name | phone |
+------------+-------------+----------+
| 501 | ABC Traders | 88881111 |
| 502 | XYZ Company | 88882222 |
| 503 | QQ Corp | 88883333 |
+------------+-------------+----------+
ALTER TABLE
Instead of deleting and re-creating the products table, we shall use the statement " ALTER TABLE" to
add a new column supplierID into the products table.
mysql> ALTER TABLE products
ADD COLUMN supplierID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;

+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
| productID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment |
| productCode | char(3) | NO | | | |
| name | varchar(30) | NO | | | |
| quantity | int(10) unsigned | NO | | 0 | |
| price | decimal(10,2) | NO | | 9999999.99 | |
| supplierID | int(10) unsigned | NO | | NULL | |
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
Next, we shall add a foreign key constraint on the supplierID columns of the products child table to

the suppliers parent table, to ensure that every supplierID in the products table always refers to
a valid supplierID in the suppliers table - this is called referential integrity.
Before we can add the foreign key, we need to set the supplierID of the existing records in
the products table to a valid supplierID in the suppliers table (say supplierID=501).
-- Set the supplierID of the existing records to a valid supplierID of supplier table
mysql> UPDATE products SET supplierID = 501;
-- Add a foreign key constrain

mysql> ALTER TABLE products
ADD FOREIGN KEY (supplierID) REFERENCES suppliers (supplierID);

+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
......
| supplierID | int(10) unsigned | NO | MUL | | |
+-------------+------------------+------+-----+------------+----------------+
mysql> UPDATE products SET supplierID = 502 WHERE productID = 2004;

+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+------------+
| productID | productCode | name | quantity | price | supplierID |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+------------+
| 2001 | PEC | Pencil 3B | 500 | 0.52 | 501 |
| 2002 | PEC | Pencil 4B | 200 | 0.62 | 501 |
| 2003 | PEC | Pencil 5B | 100 | 0.73 | 501 |
| 2004 | PEC | Pencil 6B | 500 | 0.47 | 502 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------+----------+-------+------------+
The syntax for ALTER TABLE is as follows:

ALTER TABLE tableName
{ADD [COLUMN] columnName columnDefinition}
{ALTER|MODIFY [COLUMN] columnName columnDefinition
{SET DEFAULT columnDefaultValue} | {DROP DEFAULT}}
{DROP [COLUMN] columnName [RESTRICT|CASCADE]}
{ADD tableConstraint}
{DROP tableConstraint [RESTRICT|CASCADE]}
SELECT with JOIN
SELECT command can be used to query and join data from two related tables. For example, to list the
product's name (in products table) and supplier's name (in suppliers table), we could join the two
table via the two common supplierID columns:
-- ANSI style: JOIN ... ON ...
mysql> SELECT products.name, price, suppliers.name
FROM products
JOIN suppliers ON products.supplierID = suppliers.supplierID
WHERE price < 0.6;
+-----------+-------+-------------+
| name | price | name |
+-----------+-------+-------------+
| Pencil 3B | 0.52 | ABC Traders |
| Pencil 6B | 0.47 | XYZ Company |
+-----------+-------+-------------+
-- Need to use products.name and suppliers.name to differentiate the two "names"
-- Join via WHERE clause (lagacy and not recommended)

mysql> SELECT products.name, price, suppliers.name
FROM products, suppliers
WHERE products.supplierID = suppliers.supplierID
AND price < 0.6;
+-----------+-------+-------------+
| name | price | name |
+-----------+-------+-------------+
+-----------+-------+-------------+
In the above query result, two of the columns have the same heading " name". We could
create aliases for headings.
-- Use aliases for column names for display
mysql> SELECT products.name AS `Product Name`, price, suppliers.name AS `Supplier
Name`
FROM products
JOIN suppliers ON products.supplierID = suppliers.supplierID
WHERE price < 0.6;
+--------------+-------+---------------+
| Product Name | price | Supplier Name |
+--------------+-------+---------------+
+--------------+-------+---------------+
-- Use aliases for table names too

mysql> SELECT p.name AS `Product Name`, p.price, s.name AS `Supplier Name`
FROM products AS p
JOIN suppliers AS s ON p.supplierID = s.supplierID
WHERE p.price < 0.6;
The database diagram is as illustrated. The link indicates a one-to-many relationship

between products and suppliers.
3.2 Many-To-Many Relationship
Suppose that a product has many suppliers; and a supplier supplies many products in a so-called
many-to-many relationship. The above solution breaks. You cannot include the supplierID in
the productstable, as you cannot determine the number of suppliers, and hence, the number of
columns needed for the supplierIDs. Similarly, you cannot include the productID in
the suppliers table, as you cannot determine the number of products.
To resolve this problem, you need to create a new table, known as a junction table (or joint table), to
provide the linkage. Let's call the junction table products_suppliers, as illustrated.
Database: southwind
Table: products_suppliers
productID supplierID
INT INT
(Foreign Key) (Foreign Key)
2001 501
2002 501
2003 501
2004 502
2001 503
Database: southwind
Table: suppliers
supplierID name phone
INT VARCHAR(30) CHAR(8)
501 ABC Traders 88881111
502 XYZ Company 88882222
503 QQ Corp 88883333
Database: southwind
Table: products
INT CHAR(3) VARCHAR(30) INT DECIMAL(10,2
2001 PEC Pencil 3B 500 0.52
2002 PEC Pencil 4B 200 0.62
2003 PEC Pencil 5B 100 0.73
2004 PEC Pencil 6B 500 0.47
Let's create the products_suppliers table. The primary key of the table consists of two
columns: productID and supplierID, as their combination uniquely identifies each rows. This
primary key is defined to ensure uniqueness. Two foreign keys are defined to set the constraint to
the two parent tables.
mysql> CREATE TABLE products_suppliers (
productID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
supplierID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
-- Same data types as the parent tables
PRIMARY KEY (productID, supplierID),
-- uniqueness
FOREIGN KEY (productID) REFERENCES products (productID),
FOREIGN KEY (supplierID) REFERENCES suppliers (supplierID)
);
mysql> DESCRIBE products_suppliers;

+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| productID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| supplierID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | |
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
mysql> INSERT INTO products_suppliers VALUES (2001, 501), (2002, 501),

(2003, 501), (2004, 502), (2001, 503);
-- Values in the foreign-key columns (of the child table) must match
-- valid values in the columns they reference (of the parent table)
mysql> SELECT * FROM products_suppliers;

+-----------+------------+
| productID | supplierID |
+-----------+------------+
| 2001 | 501 |
| 2002 | 501 |
| 2003 | 501 |
| 2004 | 502 |
| 2001 | 503 |
+-----------+------------+
Next, remove the supplierID column from the products table. (This column was added to establish
the one-to-many relationship. It is no longer needed in the many-to-many relationship.)
Before this column can be removed, you need to remove the foreign key that builds on this column.
To remove a key in MySQL, you need to know its constraint name, which was generated by the
system. To find the constraint name, issue a " SHOW CREATE TABLE products" and take note of the
foreign key's constraint name in the clause " CONSTRAINT constraint_name FOREIGN KEY .... ". You
can then drop the foreign key using " ALTER TABLE products DROP FOREIGN
KEY constraint_name"
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE products \G
Create Table: CREATE TABLE `products` (
`productID` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`productCode` char(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`name` varchar(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`quantity` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`price` decimal(7,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '99999.99',
`supplierID` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL DEFAULT '501',
PRIMARY KEY (`productID`),
KEY `supplierID` (`supplierID`),
CONSTRAINT `products_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`supplierID`)
REFERENCES `suppliers` (`supplierID`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=1006 DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1
mysql> ALTER TABLE products DROP FOREIGN KEY products_ibfk_1;
Now, we can remove the column redundant supplierID column.

mysql> ALTER TABLE products DROP supplierID;
Querying
Similarly, we can use SELECT with JOIN to query data from the 3 tables, for examples,
mysql> SELECT products.name AS `Product Name`, price, suppliers.name AS `Supplier
Name`
FROM products_suppliers
JOIN products ON products_suppliers.productID = products.productID
JOIN suppliers ON products_suppliers.supplierID = suppliers.supplierID
WHERE price < 0.6;
+--------------+-------+---------------+
| Product Name | price | Supplier Name |
+--------------+-------+---------------+
| Pencil 3B | 0.52 | QQ Corp |
+--------------+-------+---------------+
-- Define aliases for tablenames too

mysql> SELECT p.name AS `Product Name`, s.name AS `Supplier Name`
FROM products_suppliers AS ps
JOIN products AS p ON ps.productID = p.productID
JOIN suppliers AS s ON ps.supplierID = s.supplierID
WHERE p.name = 'Pencil 3B';
+--------------+---------------+
| Product Name | Supplier Name |
+--------------+---------------+
| Pencil 3B | ABC Traders |
| Pencil 3B | QQ Corp |
+--------------+---------------+
-- Using WHERE clause to join (lagacy and not recommended)

mysql> SELECT p.name AS `Product Name`, s.name AS `Supplier Name`
FROM products AS p, products_suppliers AS ps, suppliers AS s
WHERE p.productID = ps.productID
AND ps.supplierID = s.supplierID
AND s.name = 'ABC Traders';
+--------------+---------------+
| Product Name | Supplier Name |
+--------------+---------------+
+--------------+---------------+
The database diagram is as follows. Both products and suppliers tables exhibit a one-to-many

relationship to the junction table. The many-to-many relationship is supported via the junction table.
3.3 One-to-one Relationship
Suppose that some products have optional data (e.g., photo, comment). Instead of keeping these
optional data in the products table, it is more efficient to create another table
called product_details, and link it to products with a one-to-one relationship, as illustrated.
mysql> CREATE TABLE product_details (
productID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
-- same data type as the parent table
comment TEXT NULL,
-- up to 64KB
PRIMARY KEY (productID),
FOREIGN KEY (productID) REFERENCES products (productID)
);
mysql> DESCRIBE product_details;

+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| productID | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| comment | text | YES | | NULL | |
+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE product_details \G

*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: product_details
Create Table: CREATE TABLE `product_details` (
`productID` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL,
`comment` text,
PRIMARY KEY (`productID`),
CONSTRAINT `product_details_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`productID`) REFERENCES `products`
(`productID`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1
3.4 Backup and Restore
Backup: Before we conclude this example, let's run the mysqldump utility program to dump out
(backup) the entire southwind database.
-- Change the current working directory to <MYSQL_HOME>\bin
> mysqldump -u guser -p --databases southwind > "d:\myproject\backup_southwind.sql"
Study the output file, which contains CREATE DATABASE, CREATE TABLE and INSERT statements to re-

create the tables dumped.
The syntax for the mysqldump program is as follows:
-- Dump selected databases with --databases option
> mysqldump -u username -p --databases database1Name [database2Name ...] >
backupFile.sql
-- Dump all databases in the server with --all-databases option, except mysql.user
table (for security)
> mysqldump -u root -p --all-databases --ignore-table=mysql.user > backupServer.sql
-- Dump all the tables of a particular database

> mysqldump -u username -p databaseName > backupFile.sql
-- Dump selected tables of a particular database
> mysqldump -u username -p databaseName table1Name [table2Name ...] > backupFile.sql
Restore: The utility mysqldump produces a SQL script (consisting of CREATE

TABLE and INSERT commands to re-create the tables and loading their data). You can restore from
the backup by running the script either:
1. via the "source" command in an interactive client. For example, to restore
the southwind backup earlier:
2. -- Start mysql client
3. D:\myproject\mysql\bin> mysql -u username -p
4. ......
5. mysql> source d:/myproject/backup_southwind.sql
6. -- Provide absolute or relative filename of the script
-- Use Unix-style forward slash (/) as path separator
7. via the "batch mode" of the mysql client program by re-directing the input from the script:
> mysql -u username -p southwind < d:\myproject\backup_southwind.sql
4. More on Primary Key, Foreign Key and Index

4.1 Primary Key
In the relational model, a table shall not contain duplicate rows, because that would create ambiguity
in retrieval. To ensure uniqueness, each table should have a column (or a set of columns),
called primary key, that uniquely identifies every record of the table. For example, an unique
number customerID can be used as the primary key for
the customers table; productCode for products table; isbn for bookstable. A primary key is called
a simple key if it is a single column; it is called a composite key if it is made up of several columns.
Most RDBMSs build an index on the primary key to facilitate fast search. The primary key is often
used to relate to other tables.
4.2 Foreign Key
A foreign key of a child table is used to reference the parent table. Foreign key constraint can be
imposed to ensure so-called referential integrity - values in the child table must be valid values in the
parent table.
We define the foreign key when defining the child table, which references a parent table, as follows:
-- Child table definition

CREATE TABLE tableName (
......
......
CONSTRAINT constraintName FOREIGN KEY (columName) REFERENCES parentTableName
(columnName)
[ON DELETE RESTRICT | CASCADE | SET NULL | NO ACTION] -- On DELETE reference
action
[ON UPDATE RESTRICT | CASCADE | SET NULL | NO ACTION] -- On UPDATE reference
action
)
You can specify the reference action for UPDATE and DELETE via the optional ON UPDATE and ON

DELETE clauses:
1. RESTRICT (default): disallow DELETE or UPDATE of the parent's row, if there are matching rows
in child table.
2. CASCADE: cascade the DELETE or UPDATE action to the matching rows in the child table.
3. SET NULL: set the foreign key value in the child table to NULL (if NULL is allowed).
4. NO ACTION: a SQL term which means no action on the parent's row. Same as RESTRICT in
MySQL, which disallows DELETE or UPDATE (do nothing).
Try deleting a record in the suppliers (parent) table that is referenced
by products_suppliers (child) table, e.g.,
mysql> SELECT * FROM products_suppliers;
+-----------+------------+
| productID | supplierID |
+-----------+------------+
| 2001 | 501 |
| 2002 | 501 |
| 2003 | 501 |
| 2004 | 502 |
| 2001 | 503 |
+-----------+------------+
-- Try deleting a row from parent table with matching rows in the child table
mysql> DELETE FROM suppliers WHERE supplierID = 501;
ERROR 1451 (23000): Cannot delete or update a parent row: a foreign key constraint
fails
(`southwind`.`products_suppliers`, CONSTRAINT `products_suppliers_ibfk_2`
FOREIGN KEY (`supplierID`) REFERENCES `suppliers` (`supplierID`))
The record cannot be deleted as the default "ON DELETE RESTRICT" constraint was imposed.
4.3 Indexes (or Keys)
Indexes (or Keys) can be created on selected column(s) to facilitate fast search. Without index, a
"SELECT * FROM products WHERE productID= x" needs to match with the productID column of all
the records in the products table. If productID column is indexed (e.g., using a binary tree), the
matching can be greatly improved (via the binary tree search).
You should index columns which are frequently used in the WHERE clause; and as JOIN columns.
The drawback about indexing is cost and space. Building and maintaining indexes require
computations and memory spaces. Indexes facilitate fast search but deplete the performance on
modifying the table (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE), and need to be justified. Nevertheless, relational
databases are typically optimized for queries and retrievals, but NOT for updates.
In MySQL, the keyword KEY is synonym to INDEX.
In MySQL, indexes can be built on:

1. a single column (column-index)
2. a set of columns (concatenated-index)
3. on unique-value column (UNIQUE INDEX or UNIQUE KEY)
4. on a prefix of a column for strings (VARCHAR or CHAR), e.g., first 5 characters.
There can be more than one indexes in a table. Index are automatically built on the primary-key
column(s).
You can build index via CREATE TABLE, CREATE INDEX or ALTER TABLE.
CREATE TABLE tableName (
......
[UNIQUE] INDEX|KEY indexName (columnName, ...),
-- The optional keyword UNIQUE ensures that all values in this column are
distinct
-- KEY is synonym to INDEX
......
PRIMAY KEY (columnName, ...) -- Index automatically built on PRIMARY KEY column
);
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX indexName ON tableName(columnName, ...);
ALTER TABLE tableName ADD UNIQUE|INDEX|PRIMARY KEY indexName (columnName, ...)
SHOW INDEX FROM tableName;
Example
mysql> CREATE TABLE employees (
emp_no INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
gender ENUM ('M','F') NOT NULL,
birth_date DATE NOT NULL,
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (emp_no) -- Index built automatically on primary-key column
);
mysql> DESCRIBE employees;

+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
| emp_no | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment |
| name | varchar(50) | NO | | NULL | |
| gender | enum('M','F') | NO | | NULL | |
| birth_date | date | NO | | NULL | |
| hire_date | date | NO | | NULL | |
+------------+------------------+------+-----+---------+----------------+
mysql> SHOW INDEX FROM employees \G

*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: employees
Non_unique: 0
Key_name: PRIMARY
Seq_in_index: 1
Column_name: emp_no
.......
mysql> CREATE TABLE departments (

dept_no CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
dept_name VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (dept_no), -- Index built automatically on primary-key column
UNIQUE INDEX (dept_name) -- Build INDEX on this unique-value column
);
mysql> DESCRIBE departments;

+-----------+-------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
+-----------+-------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| dept_no | char(4) | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| dept_name | varchar(40) | NO | UNI | NULL | |
+-----------+-------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
mysql> SHOW INDEX FROM departments \G

*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: departments
Non_unique: 0
Key_name: PRIMARY
Seq_in_index: 1
Column_name: dept_no
.......
*************************** 2. row ***************************
Table: departments
Non_unique: 0
Key_name: dept_name
Seq_in_index: 1
Column_name: dept_name
.......
-- Many-to-many junction table between employees and departments

mysql> CREATE TABLE dept_emp (
emp_no INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
dept_no CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
from_date DATE NOT NULL,
to_date DATE NOT NULL,
INDEX (emp_no), -- Build INDEX on this non-unique-value
column
INDEX (dept_no), -- Build INDEX on this non-unique-value
column
FOREIGN KEY (emp_no) REFERENCES employees (emp_no)
ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (dept_no) REFERENCES departments (dept_no)
ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE,
PRIMARY KEY (emp_no, dept_no) -- Index built automatically
);
mysql> DESCRIBE dept_emp;

+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| emp_no | int(10) unsigned | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| dept_no | char(4) | NO | PRI | NULL | |
| from_date | date | NO | | NULL | |
| to_date | date | NO | | NULL | |
+-----------+------------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
mysql> SHOW INDEX FROM dept_emp \G

*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: dept_emp
Non_unique: 0
Key_name: PRIMARY
Seq_in_index: 1
Column_name: emp_no
........
*************************** 2. row ***************************
Table: dept_emp
Non_unique: 0
Key_name: PRIMARY
Seq_in_index: 2
........
*************************** 3. row ***************************
Table: dept_emp
Non_unique: 1
Key_name: emp_no
Seq_in_index: 1
Column_name: emp_no
........
*************************** 4. row ***************************
Table: dept_emp
Non_unique: 1
Key_name: dept_no
Seq_in_index: 1
........
5. More SQL
5.1 Sub-Query
Results of one query can be used in another SQL statement. Subquery is useful if more than one
tables are involved.
SELECT with Subquery
In the previous many-to-many product sales example, how to find the suppliers that do not supply
any product? You can query for the suppliers that supply at least one product in
the products_supplierstable, and then query the suppliers table for those that are not in the
previous result set.
mysql> SELECT suppliers.name from suppliers

WHERE suppliers.supplierID
NOT IN (SELECT DISTINCT supplierID from products_suppliers);
Can you do this without sub-query?

A subquery may return a scalar, a single column, a single row, or a table. You can use comparison
operator (e.g., '=', '>') on scalar, IN or NOT IN for single row or column, EXISTS or NOT EXIST to
test for empty set.
INSERT|UPDATE|DELETE with Subquery
You can also use a subquery with other SQL statements such as INSERT, DELETE, or UPDATE. For
example,
-- Supplier 'QQ Corp' now supplies 'Pencil 6B'
-- You need to put the SELECT subqueies in parentheses
mysql> INSERT INTO products_suppliers VALUES (
(SELECT productID FROM products WHERE name = 'Pencil 6B'),
(SELECT supplierID FROM suppliers WHERE name = 'QQ Corp'));
-- Supplier 'QQ Copr' no longer supplies any item
mysql> DELETE FROM products_suppliers
WHERE supplierID = (SELECT supplierID FROM suppliers WHERE name = 'QQ Corp');
5.2 Working with Date and Time

Date and time are of particular interest for database applications. This is because business records
often carry date/time information (e.g., orderDate, deliveryDate, paymentDate, dateOfBirth), as
well as the need to time-stamp the creation and last-update of the records for auditing and security.
With date/time data types, you can sort the results by date, search for a particular date or a range of
dates, calculate the difference between dates, compute a new date by adding/subtracting an interval
from a given date.
Date By Example
Let's begin with Date (without Time) with the following example. Take note that date value must be
written as a string in the format of 'yyyy-mm-dd', e.g., '2012-01-31'.
-- Create a table 'patients' of a clinic
mysql> CREATE TABLE patients (
patientID INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
dateOfBirth DATE NOT NULL,
lastVisitDate DATE NOT NULL,
nextVisitDate DATE NULL,
-- The 'Date' type contains a date value in 'yyyy-mm-dd'
PRIMARY KEY (patientID)
);
mysql> INSERT INTO patients VALUES

(1001, 'Ah Teck', '1991-12-31', '2012-01-20', NULL),
(NULL, 'Kumar', '2011-10-29', '2012-09-20', NULL),
(NULL, 'Ali', '2011-01-30', CURDATE(), NULL);
-- Date must be written as 'yyyy-mm-dd'
-- Function CURDATE() returns today's date
mysql> SELECT * FROM patients;

+-----------+---------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
| patientID | name | dateOfBirth | lastVisitDate | nextVisitDate |
+-----------+---------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
| 1001 | Ah Teck | 1991-12-31 | 2012-01-20 | NULL |
| 1002 | Kumar | 2011-10-29 | 2012-09-20 | NULL |
| 1003 | Ali | 2011-01-30 | 2012-10-21 | NULL |
+-----------+---------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
-- Select patients who last visited on a particular range of date

mysql> SELECT * FROM patients
WHERE lastVisitDate BETWEEN '2012-09-15' AND CURDATE()
ORDER BY lastVisitDate;
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
| 1002 | Kumar | 2011-10-29 | 2012-09-20 | NULL |
| 1003 | Ali | 2011-01-30 | 2012-10-21 | NULL |
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
-- Select patients who were born in a particular year and sort by birth-month
-- Function YEAR(date), MONTH(date), DAY(date) returns
-- the year, month, day part of the given date
WHERE YEAR(dateOfBirth) = 2011
ORDER BY MONTH(dateOfBirth), DAY(dateOfBirth);
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
| 1003 | Ali | 2011-01-30 | 2012-10-21 | NULL |
| 1002 | Kumar | 2011-10-29 | 2012-09-20 | NULL |
+-----------+-------+-------------+---------------+---------------+
-- Select patients whose birthday is today

WHERE MONTH(dateOfBirth) = MONTH(CURDATE())
AND DAY(dateOfBirth) = DAY(CURDATE());
-- List the age of patients

-- Function TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit, start, end) returns the difference in the unit
specified
mysql> SELECT name, dateOfBirth, TIMESTAMPDIFF(YEAR, dateOfBirth, CURDATE()) AS age
FROM patients
ORDER BY age, dateOfBirth;
+---------+-------------+------+
| name | dateOfBirth | age |
+---------+-------------+------+
| Kumar | 2011-10-29 | 0 |
| Ali | 2011-01-30 | 1 |
| Ah Teck | 1991-12-31 | 20 |
+---------+-------------+------+
-- List patients whose last visited more than 60 days ago

mysql> SELECT name, lastVisitDate FROM patients
WHERE TIMESTAMPDIFF(DAY, lastVisitDate, CURDATE()) > 60;
-- Functions TO_DAYS(date) converts the date to days
mysql> SELECT name, lastVisitDate FROM patients
WHERE TO_DAYS(CURDATE()) - TO_DAYS(lastVisitDate) > 60;
-- Select patients 18 years old or younger

-- Function DATE_SUB(date, INTERVAL x unit) returns the date
-- by subtracting the given date by x unit.
WHERE dateOfBirth > DATE_SUB(CURDATE(), INTERVAL 18 YEAR);
-- Schedule Ali's next visit to be 6 months from now

-- Function DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL x unit) returns the date
-- by adding the given date by x unit
mysql> UPDATE patients
SET nextVisitDate = DATE_ADD(CURDATE(), INTERVAL 6 MONTH)
WHERE name = 'Ali';
Date/Time Functions
MySQL provides these built-in functions for getting the current date, time and datetime:
 NOW(): returns the current date and time in the format of 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'.
 CURDATE() (or CURRENT_DATE(), or CURRENT_DATE): returns the current date in the format
of 'YYYY-MM-DD'.
 CURTIME() (or CURRENT_TIME(), or CURRENT_TIME): returns the current time in the format
of 'HH:MM:SS'.
For examples,
mysql> select now(), curdate(), curtime();

+---------------------+------------+-----------+
| now() | curdate() | curtime() |
+---------------------+------------+-----------+
| 2012-10-19 19:53:20 | 2012-10-19 | 19:53:20 |
+---------------------+------------+-----------+
SQL Date/Time Types
MySQL provides these date/time data types:

 DATETIME: stores both date and time in the format of 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'. The valid
range is '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. You can set a value using the
valid format (e.g., '2011-08-15 00:00:00'). You could also apply
functions NOW() or CURDATE() (time will be set to '00:00:00'), but not CURTIME().
 DATE: stores date only in the format of 'YYYY-MM-DD'. The range is '1000-01-01' to '9999-
12-31'. You could apply CURDATE() or NOW() (the time discarded) on this field.
 TIME: stores time only in the format of 'HH:MM:SS'. You could apply CURTIME() or NOW() (the
date discarded) for this field.
 YEAR(4|2): in 'YYYY' or 'YY'. The range of years is 1901 to 2155. Use DATE type for year
outside this range. You could apply CURDATE() to this field (month and day discarded).
 TIMESTAMP: similar to DATETIME but stored the number of seconds since January 1, 1970 UTC
(Unix-style). The range is '1970-01-01 00:00:00' to '2037-12-31 23:59:59'.
The differences between DATETIME and TIMESTAMP are:
1. the range,
2. support for time zone,
3. TIMESTAMP column could be declared with DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP to set the
default value to the current date/time. (All other data types' default, including DATETIME,
must be a constant and not a function return value). You can also declare
a TIMESTAMP column with "ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP" to capture the timestamp of
the last update.
The date/time value can be entered manually as a string literal (e.g., '2010-12-31
23:59:59' for DATAETIME). MySQL will issue a warning and insert all zeros (e.g., '0000-00-00
00:00:00' forDATAETIME), if the value of date/time to be inserted is invalid or out-of-range. '0000-
00-00' is called a "dummy" date.
More Date/Time Functions
Reference: MySQL's "Date and Time Functions" @ http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/date-
and-time-functions.html.
There are many date/time functions:

 Extracting part of a date/time: YEAR(), MONTH(), DAY(), HOUR(), MINUTE(), SECOND(), e.g.,
 mysql> SELECT YEAR(NOW()), MONTH(NOW()), DAY(NOW()), HOUR(NOW()),

MINUTE(NOW()), SECOND(NOW());
 +-------------+--------------+------------+-------------+---------------
+---------------+
 | YEAR(NOW()) | MONTH(NOW()) | DAY(NOW()) | HOUR(NOW()) | MINUTE(NOW()) |
SECOND(NOW()) |
 +-------------+--------------+------------+-------------+---------------
+---------------+
 | 2012 | 10 | 24 | 11 | 54 |
45 |
+-------------+--------------+------------+-------------+---------------
+---------------+
 Extracting
infomation: DAYNAME() (e.g., 'Monday'), MONTHNAME() (e.g., 'March'), DAYOFWEEK() (1=Sunday,
…, 7=Saturday), DAYOFYEAR() (1-366), ...
 mysql> SELECT DAYNAME(NOW()), MONTHNAME(NOW()), DAYOFWEEK(NOW()),
DAYOFYEAR(NOW());
 +----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 | DAYNAME(NOW()) | MONTHNAME(NOW()) | DAYOFWEEK(NOW()) | DAYOFYEAR(NOW()) |
 +----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 | Wednesday | October | 4 | 298 |
+----------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 Computing another date/time: DATE_SUB(date, INTERVAL expr unit), DATE_ADD(date,

INTERVAL expr unit), TIMESTAMPADD(unit, interval, timestamp), e.g.,
 mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('2012-01-31', INTERVAL 5 DAY);
 2012-02-05

 mysql> SELECT DATE_SUB('2012-01-31', INTERVAL 2 MONTH);
2011-11-30
 Computing
interval: DATEDIFF(end_date, start_date), TIMEDIFF(end_time, start_time), TIME
STAMPDIFF(unit, start_timestamp, end_timestamp), e.g.,
 mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF('2012-02-01', '2012-01-28');
 4

 mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(DAY, '2012-02-01', '2012-01-28');
-4
 Representation: TO_DAYS(date) (days since year 0), FROM_DAYS(day_number), e.g.,

 mysql> SELECT TO_DAYS('2012-01-31');
 734898

 mysql> SELECT FROM_DAYS(734899);
2012-02-01
 Formatting: DATE_FORMAT(date, formatSpecifier), e.g.,
 mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('2012-01-01', '%W %D %M %Y');
 Sunday 1st January 2012
 -- %W: Weekday name
 -- %D: Day with suffix
 -- %M: Month name
 -- %Y: 4-digit year
 -- The format specifiers are case-sensitive

 mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('2011-12-31 23:59:30', '%W %D %M %Y %r');
 Saturday 31st December 2011 11:59:30 PM
 -- %r: Time in 12-hour format with suffix AM/PM
Example
1. Create a table with various date/time columns. Only the TIMESTAMP column can have
the DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP.
2. mysql> CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `datetime_arena` (
3. `description` VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT NULL,
4. `cDateTime` DATETIME DEFAULT '0000-00-00 00:00:00',
5. `cDate` DATE DEFAULT '0000-00-00',
6. `cTime` TIME DEFAULT '00:00:00',
7. `cYear` YEAR DEFAULT '0000',
8. `cYear2` YEAR(2) DEFAULT '00',
9. `cTimeStamp` TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
10. );
11.
12. mysql> DESCRIBE `datetime_arena`;
13. +-------------+-------------+------+-----+---------------------
+-----------------------------+
14. | Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra
|
15. +-------------+-------------+------+-----+---------------------
+-----------------------------+
16. | description | varchar(50) | YES | | NULL |
|
17. | cDateTime | datetime | YES | | 0000-00-00 00:00:00 |
|
18. | cDate | date | YES | | 0000-00-00 |
|
19. | cTime | time | YES | | 00:00:00 |
|
20. | cYear | year(4) | YES | | 0000 |
|
21. | cYear2 | year(2) | YES | | 00 |
|
22. | cTimeStamp | timestamp | NO | | CURRENT_TIMESTAMP | on update
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP |
+-------------+-------------+------+-----+---------------------
+-----------------------------+
23. Insert values manually using string literals.
24. mysql> INSERT INTO `datetime_arena`

25. (`description`, `cDateTime`, `cDate`, `cTime`, `cYear`, `cYear2`)
26. VALUES
27. ('Manual Entry', '2001-01-01 23:59:59', '2002-02-02', '12:30:30',
'2004', '05');
28.
29. mysql> SELECT * FROM `datetime_arena` WHERE description='Manual Entry';
30. +--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
31. | description | cDateTime | cDate | cTime | cYear | cYear2
| cTimeStamp |
32. +--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
33. | Manual Entry | 2001-01-01 23:59:59 | 2002-02-02 | 12:30:30 | 2004 | 05
| 2010-04-08 14:44:37 |
+--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
34. Checking the on-update for TIMSTAMP.

35. mysql> UPDATE `datetime_arena` SET `cYear2`='99' WHERE description='Manual
Entry';
36.
37. mysql> SELECT * FROM `datetime_arena` WHERE description='Manual Entry';
38. +--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
39. | description | cDateTime | cDate | cTime | cYear | cYear2
| cTimeStamp |
40. +--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
41. | Manual Entry | 2001-01-01 23:59:59 | 2002-02-02 | 12:30:30 | 2004 | 99
| 2010-04-08 14:44:48 |
+--------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
42. Insert values using MySQL built-in functions now(), curdate(), curtime().

45. VALUES
46. ('Built-in Functions', now(), curdate(), curtime(), now(), now());
47.
48. mysql> SELECT * FROM `datetime_arena` WHERE description='Built-in Functions';
49. +--------------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------
+--------+---------------------+
50. | description | cDateTime | cDate | cTime | cYear |
cYear2 | cTimeStamp |
51. +--------------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------
+--------+---------------------+
52. | Built-in Functions | 2010-04-08 14:45:48 | 2010-04-08 | 14:45:48 | 2010 |
10 | 2010-04-08 14:45:48 |
+--------------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------
+--------+---------------------+
53. Insert invalid or out-of-range values. MySQL replaces with all zeros.

56. VALUES
57. ('Error Input', '2001-13-31 23:59:59', '2002-13-31', '12:61:61',
'99999', '999');
58.
59. mysql> SELECT * FROM `datetime_arena` WHERE description='Error Input';
60. +-------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
61. | description | cDateTime | cDate | cTime | cYear | cYear2 |
cTimeStamp |
62. +-------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
63. | Error Input | 0000-00-00 00:00:00 | 0000-00-00 | 00:00:00 | 0000 | 00 |
2010-04-08 14:46:10 |
+-------------+---------------------+------------+----------+-------+--------
+---------------------+
64. An useful built-in function INTERVAL can be used to compute a future date, e.g.,

65. mysql> SELECT `cDate`, `cDate` + INTERVAL 30 DAY, `cDate` + INTERVAL 1 MONTH
FROM `datetime_arena`;
66. +------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+
67. | cDate | `cDate` + INTERVAL 30 DAY | `cDate` + INTERVAL 1 MONTH |
68. +------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+
69. | 2002-02-02 | 2002-03-04 | 2002-03-02 |
70. | 2010-04-08 | 2010-05-08 | 2010-05-08 |
71. | 0000-00-00 | NULL | NULL |
+------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+
5.3 View
A view is a virtual table that contains no physical data. It provide an alternative way to look at the
data.
Example
-- Define a VIEW called supplier_view from products, suppliers and products_suppliers
tables
mysql> CREATE VIEW supplier_view
AS
SELECT suppliers.name as `Supplier Name`, products.name as `Product Name`
FROM products
JOIN suppliers ON products.productID = products_suppliers.productID
JOIN products_suppliers ON suppliers.supplierID =
products_suppliers.supplierID;
-- You can treat the VIEW defined like a normal table

mysql> SELECT * FROM supplier_view;
+---------------+--------------+
| Supplier Name | Product Name |
+---------------+--------------+
| ABC Traders | Pencil 3B |
| XYZ Company | Pencil 6B |
+---------------+--------------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM supplier_view WHERE `Supplier Name` LIKE 'ABC%';

+---------------+--------------+
| Supplier Name | Product Name |
+---------------+--------------+
+---------------+--------------+
Example
mysql> DROP VIEW IF EXISTS patient_view;
mysql> CREATE VIEW patient_view

AS
SELECT
patientID AS ID,
name AS Name,
dateOfBirth AS DOB,
TIMESTAMPDIFF(YEAR, dateOfBirth, NOW()) AS Age
FROM patients
ORDER BY Age, DOB;
mysql> SELECT * FROM patient_view WHERE Name LIKE 'A%';

+------+---------+------------+------+
| ID | Name | DOB | Age |
+------+---------+------------+------+
| 1003 | Ali | 2011-01-30 | 1 |
| 1001 | Ah Teck | 1991-12-31 | 20 |
+------+---------+------------+------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM patient_view WHERE age >= 18;

+------+---------+------------+------+
| ID | Name | DOB | Age |
+------+---------+------------+------+
| 1001 | Ah Teck | 1991-12-31 | 20 |
+------+---------+------------+------+
5.4 Transactions
A atomic transaction is a set of SQL statements that either ALL succeed or ALL fail. Transaction is
important to ensure that there is no partial update to the database, given an atomic of SQL
statements. Transactions are carried out via COMMIT and ROLLBACK.
Example
mysql> CREATE TABLE accounts (
name VARCHAR(30),
balance DECIMAL(10,2)
);
mysql> INSERT INTO accounts VALUES ('Paul', 1000), ('Peter', 2000);

mysql> SELECT * FROM accounts;
+-------+---------+
| name | balance |
+-------+---------+
| Paul | 1000.00 |
| Peter | 2000.00 |
+-------+---------+
-- Transfer money from one account to another account

mysql> START TRANSACTION;
mysql> UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE name = 'Paul';
mysql> UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE name = 'Peter';
mysql> COMMIT; -- Commit the transaction and end transaction
+-------+---------+
| name | balance |
+-------+---------+
| Paul | 900.00 |
| Peter | 2100.00 |
+-------+---------+
mysql> START TRANSACTION;

mysql> ROLLBACK; -- Discard all changes of this transaction and end Transaction
+-------+---------+
| name | balance |
+-------+---------+
| Paul | 900.00 |
| Peter | 2100.00 |
+-------+---------+
If you start another mysql client and do a SELECT during the transaction (before the commit or
rollback), you will not see the changes.
Alternatively, you can also disable the so-called autocommit mode, which is set by default and
commit every single SQL statement.
-- Disable autocommit by setting it to false (0)
mysql> SET autocommit = 0;
mysql> COMMIT;
+-------+---------+
| name | balance |
+-------+---------+
| Paul | 800.00 |
| Peter | 2200.00 |
+-------+---------+
mysql> ROLLBACK;
+-------+---------+
| name | balance |
+-------+---------+
| Paul | 800.00 |
| Peter | 2200.00 |
+-------+---------+
mysql> SET autocommit = 1; -- Enable autocommit
A transaction groups a set of operations into a unit that meets the ACID test:
1. Atomicity: If all the operations succeed, changes are committed to the database. If any of the
operations fails, the entire transaction is rolled back, and no change is made to the database.
In other words, there is no partial update.
2. Consistency: A transaction transform the database from one consistent state to another
consistent state.
3. Isolation: Changes to a transaction are not visible to another transaction until they are
committed.
4. Durability: Committed changes are durable and never lost.
5.5 User Variables
In MySQL, you can define user variables via:
1. @varname :=value in a SELECT command, or
2. SET @varname := value or SET @varname = value command.
For examples,
mysql> SELECT @ali_dob := dateOfBirth FROM patients WHERE name = 'Ali';

mysql> SELECT name WHERE dateOfBirth < @ali_dob;
mysql> SET @today := CURDATE();

mysql> SELECT name FROM patients WHERE nextVisitDate = @today;
6. More on JOIN
6.1 INNER JOIN
In an inner join of two tables, each row of the first table is combined (joined) with every row of
second table. Suppose that there are n1 rows in the first table and n2 rows in the second table, INNER
JOINproduces all combinations of n1×n2 rows - it is known as Cartesian Product or Cross Product.
Example
mysql> DROP TABLE IF EXISTS t1, t2;
mysql> CREATE TABLE t1 (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
`desc` VARCHAR(30)
);
-- `desc` is a reserved word - must be back-quoted
mysql> CREATE TABLE t2 (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
`desc` VARCHAR(30)
);
mysql> INSERT INTO t1 VALUES

(1, 'ID 1 in t1'),
(2, 'ID 2 in t1'),
(3, 'ID 3 in t1');
mysql> INSERT INTO t2 VALUES

(2, 'ID 2 in t2'),
(3, 'ID 3 in t2'),
(4, 'ID 4 in t2');
mysql> SELECT * FROM t1;

+----+------------+
| id | desc |
+----+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 |
+----+------------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM t2;

+----+------------+
| id | desc |
+----+------------+
| 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
| 4 | ID 4 in t2 |
+----+------------+
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 INNER JOIN t2;
+----+------------+----+------------+
| id | desc | id | desc |
+----+------------+----+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | 4 | ID 4 in t2 |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 4 | ID 4 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 4 | ID 4 in t2 |
+----+------------+----+------------+
-- SELECT all columns in t1 and t2 (*)
-- INNER JOIN produces ALL combinations of rows in t1 and t2
You can impose constrain by using the ON clause, for example,

mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 INNER JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
+----+------------+----+------------+
+----+------------+----+------------+
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
+----+------------+----+------------+
Take note that the following are equivalent:
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 INNER JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id; -- default JOIN is INNER JOIN
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 CROSS JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id; -- Also called CROSS JOIN
-- You can use USING clause if the join-columns have the same name
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 INNER JOIN t2 USING (id);
+----+------------+------------+
| id | desc | desc |
+----+------------+------------+
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | ID 3 in t2 |
+----+------------+------------+
-- Only 3 columns in the result set, instead of 4 columns with ON clause
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 INNER JOIN t2 WHERE t1.id = t2.id; -- Use WHERE instead of ON
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1, t2 WHERE t1.id = t2.id; -- Use "commas" operator to join
6.2 OUTER JOIN - LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN
INNER JOIN with constrain (ON or USING) produces rows that are found in both tables. On the other
hand, OUTER JOIN can produce rows that are in one table, but not in another table. There are two
kinds of OUTER JOINs: LEFT JOIN produces rows that are in the left table, but may not in the right
table; whereas RIGHT JOIN produces rows that are in the right table but may not in the left table.
In a LEFT JOIN, when a row in the left table does not match with the right table, it is still selected but
by combining with a "fake" record of all NULLs for the right table.
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
+----+------------+------+------------+
+----+------------+------+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
+----+------------+------+------------+
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 USING (id);
+----+------------+------------+
+----+------------+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | NULL |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | ID 3 in t2 |
+----+------------+------------+
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 RIGHT JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
+------+------------+----+------------+
+------+------------+----+------------+
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | 2 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | 3 | ID 3 in t2 |
| NULL | NULL | 4 | ID 4 in t2 |
+------+------------+----+------------+
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 RIGHT JOIN t2 USING (id);
+----+------------+------------+
+----+------------+------------+
| 2 | ID 2 in t2 | ID 2 in t1 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t2 | ID 3 in t1 |
| 4 | ID 4 in t2 | NULL |
+----+------------+------------+
As the result, LEFT JOIN ensures that the result set contains every row on the left table. This is
important, as in some queries, you are interested to have result on every row on the left table, with
no match in the right table, e.g., searching for items without supplier. For example,
mysql> SELECT t1.id, t1.desc
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 USING (id)
WHERE t2.id IS NULL;
+----+------------+
| id | desc |
+----+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 |
+----+------------+
Take note that the followings are equivalent:
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT OUTER JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id;
mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 USING (id); -- join-columns have same name
+----+------------+------------+
+----+------------+------------+
| 1 | ID 1 in t1 | NULL |
| 2 | ID 2 in t1 | ID 2 in t2 |
| 3 | ID 3 in t1 | ID 3 in t2 |
+----+------------+------------+
-- WHERE clause CANNOT be used on OUTER JOIN

mysql> SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT JOIN t2 WHERE t1.id = t2.id;
ERROR 1064 (42000): You have an error in your SQL syntax;
7. Exercises
7.1 Rental System
Peter runs a small car rental company with 10 cars and 5 trucks. He engages you to design a web
portal to put his operation online.
For the initial phase, the web portal shall provide these basic functions:
1. Maintaining the records of the vehicles and customers.
2. Inquiring about the availability of vehicle, and
3. Reserving a vehicle for rental.
A customer record contains his/her name, address and phone number.

A vehicle, identified by the vehicle registration number, can be rented on a daily basis. The rental rate
is different for different vehicles. There is a discount of 20% for rental of 7 days or more.
A customer can rental a vehicle from a start date to an end date. A special customer discount,
ranging from 0-50%, can be given to preferred customers.
Database
The initial database contains 3 tables: vehicles, customers, and rental_records.
The rental_records is a junction table supporting many-to-many relationship
between vehicles and customers.
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS `rental_db`;

CREATE DATABASE `rental_db`;
USE `rental_db`;
-- Create `vehicles` table

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `vehicles`;
CREATE TABLE `vehicles` (
`veh_reg_no` VARCHAR(8) NOT NULL,
`category` ENUM('car', 'truck') NOT NULL DEFAULT 'car',
-- Enumeration of one of the items in the list
`brand` VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`desc` VARCHAR(256) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
-- desc is a keyword (for descending) and must be back-quoted
`photo` BLOB NULL, -- binary large object of up to 64KB
-- to be implemented later
`daily_rate` DECIMAL(6,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 9999.99,
-- set default to max value
PRIMARY KEY (`veh_reg_no`),
INDEX (`category`) -- Build index on this column for fast search
) ENGINE=InnoDB;
-- MySQL provides a few ENGINEs.
-- The InnoDB Engine supports foreign keys and transactions
DESC `vehicles`;
SHOW CREATE TABLE `vehicles` \G
SHOW INDEX FROM `vehicles` \G
-- Create `customers` table

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `customers`;
CREATE TABLE `customers` (
`customer_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
-- Always use INT for AUTO_INCREMENT column to avoid run-over
`name` VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
àddress` VARCHAR(80) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`phone` VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
`discount` DOUBLE NOT NULL DEFAULT 0.0,
PRIMARY KEY (`customer_id`),
UNIQUE INDEX (`phone`), -- Build index on this unique-value column
INDEX (`name`) -- Build index on this column
) ENGINE=InnoDB;
DESC `customers`;
SHOW CREATE TABLE `customers` \G
SHOW INDEX FROM `customers` \G
-- Create `rental_records` table

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `rental_records`;
CREATE TABLE `rental_records` (
`rental_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`veh_reg_no` VARCHAR(8) NOT NULL,
`customer_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
`start_date` DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00',
ènd_date` DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00',
`lastUpdated` TIMESTAMP NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
-- Keep the created and last updated timestamp for auditing and security
PRIMARY KEY (`rental_id`),
FOREIGN KEY (`customer_id`) REFERENCES `customers` (`customer_id`)
ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE,
-- Disallow deletion of parent record if there are matching records here
-- If parent record (customer_id) changes, update the matching records here
FOREIGN KEY (`veh_reg_no`) REFERENCES `vehicles` (`veh_reg_no`)
ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE
) ENGINE=InnoDB;
DESC `rental_records`;
SHOW CREATE TABLE `rental_records` \G
SHOW INDEX FROM `rental_records` \G
-- Inserting test records

INSERT INTO `vehicles` VALUES
('SBA1111A', 'car', 'NISSAN SUNNY 1.6L', '4 Door Saloon, Automatic', NULL, 99.99),
('SBB2222B', 'car', 'TOYOTA ALTIS 1.6L', '4 Door Saloon, Automatic', NULL, 99.99),
('SBC3333C', 'car', 'HONDA CIVIC 1.8L', '4 Door Saloon, Automatic', NULL,
119.99),
('GA5555E', 'truck', 'NISSAN CABSTAR 3.0L', 'Lorry, Manual ', NULL, 89.99),
('GA6666F', 'truck', 'OPEL COMBO 1.6L', 'Van, Manual', NULL, 69.99);
-- No photo yet, set to NULL
SELECT * FROM `vehicles`;
INSERT INTO `customers` VALUES

(1001, 'Tan Ah Teck', '8 Happy Ave', '88888888', 0.1),
(NULL, 'Mohammed Ali', '1 Kg Java', '99999999', 0.15),
(NULL, 'Kumar', '5 Serangoon Road', '55555555', 0),
(NULL, 'Kevin Jones', '2 Sunset boulevard', '22222222', 0.2);
SELECT * FROM `customers`;
INSERT INTO `rental_records` VALUES

(NULL, 'SBA1111A', 1001, '2012-01-01', '2012-01-21', NULL),
(NULL, 'SBA1111A', 1001, '2012-02-01', '2012-02-05', NULL),
(NULL, 'GA5555E', 1003, '2012-01-05', '2012-01-31', NULL),
(NULL, 'GA6666F', 1004, '2012-01-20', '2012-02-20', NULL);
SELECT * FROM `rental_records`;
Exercises
1. Customer 'Tan Ah Teck' has rented 'SBA1111A' from today for 10 days. (Hint: You need to
insert a rental record. Use a SELECT subquery to get the customer_id.
Use CURDATE() (or NOW()) for today; and DATE_ADD(CURDATE(), INTERVAL x unit) to
compute a future date.)
2. INSERT INTO rental_records VALUES

3. (NULL,
4. 'SBA1111A',
5. (SELECT customer_id FROM customers WHERE name='Tan Ah Teck'),
6. CURDATE(),
7. DATE_ADD(CURDATE(), INTERVAL 10 DAY),
NULL);
8. Customer 'Kumar' has rented 'GA5555E' from tomorrow for 3 months.

9. List all rental records (start date, end date) with vehicle's registration number, brand, and
customer name, sorted by vehicle's categories followed by start date.
10. SELECT
11. r.start_date AS `Start Date`,
12. r.end_date AS Ènd Date`,
13. r.veh_reg_no AS `Vehicle No`,
14. v.brand AS `Vehicle Brand`,
15. c.name AS `Customer Name`
16. FROM rental_records AS r
17. INNER JOIN vehicles AS v USING (veh_reg_no)
18. INNER JOIN customers AS c USING (customer_id)
ORDER BY v.category, start_date;
19. List all the expired rental records (end_date before CURDATE()).

20. List the vehicles rented out on '2012-01-10' (not available for rental), in columns of vehicle
registration no, customer name, start date and end date. (Hint: the given date is in between
the start_dateand end_date.)
21. List all vehicles rented out today, in columns registration number, customer name, start date,
end date.
22. Similarly, list the vehicles rented out (not available for rental) for the period from '2012-01-
03' to '2012-01-18'. (Hint: start_date is inside the range; or end_date is inside the range;
orstart_date is before the range and end_date is beyond the range.)
23. List the vehicles (registration number, brand and description) available for rental (not rented
out) on '2012-01-10' (Hint: You could use a subquery based on a earlier query).
24. Similarly, list the vehicles available for rental for the period from '2012-01-03' to '2012-01-
18'.
25. Similarly, list the vehicles available for rental from today for 10 days.
26. Foreign Key Test:
1. Try deleting a parant row with matching row(s) in child table(s), e.g.,
delete 'GA6666F' from vehicles table (ON DELETE RESTRICT).
2. Try updating a parent row with matching row(s) in child table(s), e.g.,
rename 'GA6666F' to 'GA9999F' in vehicles table. Check the effects on the child
table rental_records (ON UPDATE CASCADE).
3. Remove 'GA6666F' from the database (Hints: Remove it from child
table rental_records; then parent table vehicles.)
b. Payments: A rental could be paid over a number of payments (e.g., deposit, installments, full
payment). Each payment is for one rental. Create a new table called payments. Need to create
columns to facilitate proper audit check (such
as create_date, create_by, last_update_date, last_update_by, etc.)
c. DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `payments`;

d. CREATE TABLE payments (
e. `payment_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
f. `rental_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
g. àmount` DECIMAL(8,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
h. `mode` ENUM('cash', 'credit card', 'check'),
i. `type` ENUM('deposit', 'patial', 'full') NOT NULL DEFAULT 'full',
j. `remark` VARCHAR(255),
k. `created_date` DATETIME NOT NULL,
l. `created_by` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, -- staff_id
m. -- Use a trigger to update create_date and create_by
automatically
n. `last_updated_date` TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
o. -- Updated by the system automatically
p. `last_updated_by` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
q. -- Use a trigger to update created_by
r. PRIMARY KEY (`payment_id`),
s. INDEX (`rental_id`),
t. FOREIGN KEY (`rental_id`) REFERENCES rental_records (`rental_id`)
u. ) ENGINE=InnoDB;
v. DESC `payments`;
w. SHOW CREATE TABLE `payments` \G
SHOW INDEX FROM `payments` \G
x. Staff: Keeping track of staff serving the customers. Create a new staff table. Assume that
each transaction is handled by one staff, we can add a new column called staff_id in
the rental_recordstable,
y. DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `staff`;

z. CREATE TABLE `staff` (
aa. `staff_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
bb. -- Always use INT for AUTO_INCREMENT column to prvent run-over
cc. `name` VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
dd. `title` VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
ee. àddress` VARCHAR(80) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
ff. `phone` VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
gg. `report_to` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
hh. -- Reports to manager staff_id. Boss reports to himself
ii. PRIMARY KEY (`staff_id`),
jj. UNIQUE INDEX (`phone`), -- Build index on this unique-value column
kk. INDEX (`name`), -- Build index on this column
ll. FOREIGN KEY (`report_to`) REFERENCES `staff` (`staff_id`)
mm. -- Reference itself
nn. ) ENGINE=InnoDB;
oo. DESC `staff`;
pp. SHOW INDEX FROM `staff` \G
qq.
rr. INSERT INTO staff VALUE (8001, 'Peter Johns', 'Managing Director', '1 Happy
Ave', '12345678', 8001);
ss. SELECT * FROM staff;
tt.
uu. -- Add a new column to rental_records table
vv. ALTER TABLE `rental_records` ADD COLUMN `staff_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;
ww. -- Need to set to a valid value, before adding the foreign key
xx. UPDATE `rental_records` SET `staff_id` = 8001;
yy. ALTER TABLE `rental_records` ADD FOREIGN KEY (`staff_id`) REFERENCES staff
(`staff_id`)
zz. ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE;
aaa.
bbb. SHOW CREATE TABLE `rental_records` \G
ccc. SHOW INDEX FROM `rental_records` \G
ddd.
eee. -- Also Add a new column to payments table
fff. ALTER TABLE `payments` ADD COLUMN `staff_id` INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;
ggg. -- Need to set to a valid value, before adding the foreign key
hhh. UPDATE `payments` SET `staff_id` = 8001;
iii. ALTER TABLE `payments` ADD FOREIGN KEY (`staff_id`) REFERENCES staff
(`staff_id`)
jjj. ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE CASCADE;
kkk.
lll. SHOW CREATE TABLE `payments` \G
SHOW INDEX FROM `payments` \G
Advanced Exercises
1. Adding Photo: We could store photo in MySQL using data type of BLOB (Binary Large Object)
(up to 64KB), MEDIUMBLOB (up to 16MBytes), LONGBOLB (up to 4GBytes). For example,
2. -- Use function LOAD_FILE to load a picture file into a BLOB field
3. UPDATE vehicles SET photo=LOAD_FILE('d:/temp/car.jpg') WHERE veh_reg_no =
'SBA1111A';
SELECT * FROM vehicles WHERE veh_reg_no = 'SBA1111A' \G
You can conveniently load and view the photo via graphical tools such as MySQL Workbench.
To load a image in MySQL Workbench ⇒ right-click on the cell ⇒ Load Value From File ⇒
Select the image file. To view the image ⇒ right-click on the BLOB cell ⇒ Open Value in Editor
⇒ choose "Image" pane.
I also include a Java program for reading and writing image BLOB from/to the database, based
on this example: "TestImageBLOB.java".
4. VIEW: Create a VIEW called rental_prices on the rental_records with an additional column
called price. Show all the records of the VIEW.
5. DROP VIEW IF EXISTS rental_prices;

6. CREATE VIEW rental_prices
7. AS
8. SELECT
9. v.veh_reg_no AS `Vehicle No`,
10. v.daily_rate AS `Daily Rate`,
11. c.name AS `Customer Name`,
12. c.discount*100 AS `Customer Discount (%)`,
13. r.start_date AS `Start Date`,
14. r.end_date AS Ènd Date`,
15. DATEDIFF(r.end_date, r.start_date) AS `Duration`,
16. -- Compute the rental price
17. -- Preferred customer has discount, 20% discount for 7 or more days
18. -- CAST the result from DOUBLE to DECIMAL(8,2)
19. CAST(
20. IF (DATEDIFF(r.end_date, r.start_date) < 7,
21. DATEDIFF(r.end_date, r.start_date)*daily_rate*(1-discount),
22. DATEDIFF(r.end_date, r.start_date)*daily_rate*(1-discount)*0.8)
23. AS DECIMAL(8,2)) AS price
24. FROM rental_records AS r
25. INNER JOIN vehicles AS v USING (veh_reg_no)
26. INNER JOIN customers AS c USING (customer_id);
27.
28. DESC `rental_prices`;
29. SHOW CREATE VIEW `rental_prices` \G
30.
31. -- Try selecting all rows
SELECT * FROM `rental_prices`;
It is probably easier to compute the price using a program/procedure, instead of inside the
view.
32. From the payments table, create a view to show the outstanding balance.
33. Define more views.
34. FUNCTION: Write a function to compute the rental price.
35. Define more procedures and functions.
36. TRIGGER: Write a trigger for the created_date and created_by columns of
the payments table.
37. Define more triggers.
38. Implement discount on weekday (Monday to Friday, except public holiday): Need to set up a
new table called public_hoilday with columns date and description. Use
function DAYOFWEEK(1=Sunday, …, 7=Saturday) to check for weekday or weekend.
39. -- pseudocode for calculating rental price
40. price = 0;
41. for each date from start_date to end_date {
42. if date is weekend or public_holiday, price += daily_rate;
43. else price += daily_rate*(1-discount);
44. }
45. if (duration >= 7) price *= (1 - long_duration_discount);
price *= (1 - perferred_customer_discount);
7.2 Product Sales Database

[TODO] Explanation
Link to MySQL References & Resources

Latest version tested: MySQL Community Server 5.5.28
Last modified: October, 2012
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MySQL by Examples For Beginners

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MySQL by Examples for Beginners

2. An Example for the Beginners (But NOT for the

The databases "mysql", "information_schema" and "performance_schema" are system databases

mysql> DROP DATABASE southwind;

mysql> CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS southwind;

mysql> DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS southwind;

mysql> SHOW CREATE DATABASE southwind \G

Back-Quoted Identifiers (`name`)

-- Create the database "southwind"

-- Show all the databases in the server

-- Set "southwind" as the default database so as to reference its table directly.

-- Show the current (default) database

-- Show all the tables in the current database.

-- Describe the fields (columns) of the "products" table

-- Insert multiple rows

-- Insert value to selected columns

-- Missing columns get their default values

-- 2nd column is defined to be NOT NULL

-- Query the table

-- Remove the last row

To insert a row with values on selected columns only, use:

-- Insert single record with selected columns

-- Insert multiple records

-- List rows that meet the specified criteria in WHERE clause

-- List all rows for the specified columns

SELECT without Table

mysql> SELECT NOW();

String Pattern Matching - LIKE and NOT LIKE

-- "name" begins with 'P', followed by any two characters,

MySQL also support regular expression matching via the REGEXE operator.

mysql> SELECT * FROM products

IS NULL, IS NOT NULL

-- Order by price in descending order, followed by quantity in ascending (default)

You can randomize the returned records via function RAND(), e.g.,

2.6 Producing Summary Reports

-- With DISTINCT on price

-- DISTINCT combination of price and name

mysql> SELECT productCode, COUNT(*) FROM products GROUP BY productCode;

-- Order by COUNT - need to define an alias to be used as reference

Besides COUNT(), there are many other GROUP BY aggregate functions such

mysql> SELECT productCode, MAX(price) AS `Highest Price`, MIN(price) AS `Lowest

mysql> SELECT productCode, MAX(price), MIN(price),

2.7 Modifying Data - UPDATE

-- Increase the price by 10% for all products

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;

-- Modify selected rows

mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name = 'Pen Red';

-- You can modify more than one values

mysql> SELECT * FROM products WHERE name = 'Pen Red';

CAUTION: If the WHERE clause is omitted in the UPDATE command, ALL ROWS will be updated. Hence,

mysql> DELETE FROM products WHERE name LIKE 'Pencil%';

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;

You can load the raw data into the products table as follows:

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;

2.10 Running a SQL Script

DELETE FROM products;

You can run the script either:

3. More Than One Tables

mysql> DROP TABLE IF EXISTS suppliers;

mysql> CREATE TABLE suppliers (

mysql> DESCRIBE suppliers;

mysql> INSERT INTO suppliers VALUE

mysql> SELECT * FROM suppliers;

mysql> DESCRIBE products;

Next, we shall add a foreign key constraint on the supplierID columns of the products child table to

-- Add a foreign key constrain

mysql> DESCRIBE products;

mysql> UPDATE products SET supplierID = 502 WHERE productID = 2004;

mysql> SELECT * FROM products;

The syntax for ALTER TABLE is as follows:

-- Join via WHERE clause (lagacy and not recommended)

-- Use aliases for table names too

The database diagram is as illustrated. The link indicates a one-to-many relationship

mysql> DESCRIBE products_suppliers;

mysql> INSERT INTO products_suppliers VALUES (2001, 501), (2002, 501),