STATISTICS

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Division of Statistics
1.2 Parameter and Statistics
1.3 Variables
1.3.1 Discrete Variables
1.3.2 Continuous Variables
1.3.3 Independent and Dependent Variables
1.4 Levels of Measurement
1.4.1 Nominal Level
1.4.2 Ordinal Level
1.4.3 Interval Level
1.4.4 Ratio Level
1.5 The Summation Notation, Sigma
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Every day, we experience statistics. Social weather stations would evaluate the
president’s performance based on surveys. Sports journalist would explain how a
basketball player become the Year’s MVP based on statistical points. The university
Registrar would announce the year’s enrollment increase or decrease.
Statistics is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection,
organization, preparation, computation and interpretation of the data. Sources data can
range from house-to-house surveys to the radar signals of the sum. After these data are
collected, statistical methods and tools are applied to produce meaningful output within
the form of TOP 40charts, NCEE Grades, or Stock Exchange reports.
 DIVISION OF STATISTICS
The science of statistics has two main divisions: Descriptive and inferential.
Differential statistics deals with the collection, organization, presentation, and
computation of data to describe the samples under investigation. Inferential statistics
gives information, inferences and implications regarding the population by studying its
representative samples. In statistics, the totality of objects or of a set is referred to as
population, while a small representative cross-section of this population is called
sample. The population can be all the songs played in the radio, all respondents of
social weather station’s, presidential survey’s, or the university enrollment for the last 10
years. Since the bulk of data is difficult to handle in its totality, the sampling method is
utilized. Sampling method is the process of choosing a representative part of the
population the sample obtained is then used in inferential statistics to reach conclusions
of detailed reliability about the given population.
 PARAMETER AND STATISTICS
A parameter is some numerical or nominal characteristic of a population. An
example is the mean IQ score of all grade one pupils in the CEU integrated school. A
statistic is a numerical or nominal characteristic of sample. The mean IQ score of 50
first graders is a statistic and so the observation that all are female. A parameter
constant, it does not change unless the population itself changes. Only one number can
be the mean of population is un measurable, so we use statistics as an estimate of the
parameter.
 Variables
A variable is a statistical quantity (often denoted by X) that is capable of
assuming several values. It may represent specific element such as number of
rebounds per game, Filipinos who died of AIDS, or power rate increase. A variable is
used to stand for something which does not have permanent value.

 Discrete variables

Variables can be classified into two types: Discrete and Continuous. Discrete variables
are quantities that can assume finite values only. If we toss a coin, the side off a coin
facing up can either be head or tail. If we consider X to be the variable denoting the
possibilities in flipping a coin, we can say the X is a discrete variable. Discrete variables
are variables who values can be counted such as number of enrollees/drop-outs in a
college, items in a test, weekly sale of appliance dealer, number of babies born every
minute, or the registered voters in a barangay for definite period of time

 Continuous Variables

If we denote by Y the average number of heartbeats in a minute, we can come up with

 Independent and Dependent Variables

Two variables are independent, if the occurrence of the first is not relative to the
existence of the second. Normally, the number of fishes is independent of the number of
deaths in a given province. If a study is made to analyze the case of deaths, and it was
found out that a huge amount of number of deaths were caused by certain breed of
poisonous fishes, then the two variables will now be related. In a study, the dependent
variables is the number of deaths since its value is determined by number of poisonous
fishes caught, sold, and then eaten. The number of fishes is the independent variables.
 Levels of Measurement
Another common way to classify data is to use four levels of measurement:
Nominal level of measurement is characterized by data that consist of names,
labels or categories only, and the data cannot be arrange in an ordering scheme.
Example: a) collection of “yes, no, undecided” responses to a survey question.
b) responses consisting of 10 nurses, 15 teachers, 16 engineers, 5
priests, 20 businessmen.
Ordinal level of measurement involves data that may be arranged in some order,
but differences between data values either cannot be determine or are meaningless.
Examples: a) in a sample of 24 batteries, 15 were rated “good,” 6 were rated “better,”
and 3 were rated “best.”
b) in the last board examination if accountants, mike ranked 1 st; sally, 4th;
ruth, 8th; and ray 12th.
Interval level of measurement is like the ordinal level but meaningful amounts of
differences can be determined between data. Data at this level may lack an inherent
zero starting point.
Examples: a) temperature reading of 25˚ F and 50˚ F
b) Body temperature in Celsius scale
Ratio level of measurement is actually the intervals level modified to include the
inherent zero starting point. For values at this level, difference and ratio are meaningful.
Examples: a) temperature readings on the Kevin Scale since the scale has an
absolute zero
b) heights of pine trees along session road
 The Summation Notation, Sigma

The Greek letter sigma ( Σ ) corresponds to a very useful statistical tool called
summation. If we want to compute for the number of students in a university, we can
assign the variable X to denote the university’s population. In its first school year,
enrollment can be expressed as X (read X as sub 1), X for the second year and so on.
So, the number of students in the university for the first 10 years can be expressed as
X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 + X6 + X7 + X8 + X9 + X10 + X11 . Imagine if a school existed for 50
years and we have to express its enrollment in the same manner. Statistician came up
with summation notation to simplify things. Enrollment for 8 years can be simplify
expressed as:

80
∑ Xi
X=1

(read as: the summation of all x subs i’s, I ranging from 1 to 80) which means all the
scores X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = …. X80 are to be added in the rotation, i is called the
subscript. If we want to add all the given scores, X 1, X2, X3……Xn, we simply write

n
∑ xi
X=i
 where Xi means the sum of X1 + X2, …Xn. the subscript however, may be omitted if
no ambiguity will result. Just write ΣX.
CHAPTER 1
EXERCISE:
A. Identify each item as being discrete or continuous
_____ 1. Among the 50 installed computers in the laboratory, 14 are not working
_____ 2. The square root of an integer X.
_____ 3. In tossing a die, the possibility of each outcome.
_____ 4. The varying speed of typhoon Yoling in a day
_____ 5. The operation was complete in 3 hours and 15 minutes
_____ 6. ATM numbers
_____ 7. Speed of Beta particles.
_____ 8. f(x)=1
____ 9. Among the 24 senators, 20 voted yes, 3 voted no and 1 abstained
____ 10. All rational numbers.

B. Expand the following:

4
2. Σ (Xi + Yi)
I =1

3
3. Σ (Xi - 5)
I=1