Debian Reference i

Debian Reference

Osamu Aoki
Debian Reference ii

Copyright © 2013-2021 Osamu Aoki

This Debian Reference (version 2.88) (2021-11-14 06:09:41 UTC) is intended to provide a broad overview of the Debian system
as a post-installation user’s guide. It covers many aspects of system administration through shell-command examples for non-
developers.
Debian Reference iii

COLLABORATORS

TITLE :

Debian Reference

ACTION NAME DATE SIGNATURE

WRITTEN BY Osamu Aoki November 14, 2021

REVISION HISTORY

NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION NAME

Debian Reference iv

Contents

1 GNU/Linux tutorials 1
1.1 Console basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 The shell prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The shell prompt under GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 The root account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 The root shell prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 GUI system administration tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Virtual consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 How to leave the command prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.8 How to shutdown the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.9 Recovering a sane console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.10 Additional package suggestions for the newbie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.11 An extra user account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.12 sudo configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.13 Play time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Unix-like filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Unix file basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Filesystem internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Filesystem permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Control of permissions for newly created files: umask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Permissions for groups of users (group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.6 Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.7 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.8 Named pipes (FIFOs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.9 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.10 Device files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.11 Special device files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.12 procfs and sysfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.13 tmpfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Midnight Commander (MC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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1.3.1 Customization of MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Starting MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3 File manager in MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.4 Command-line tricks in MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.5 The internal editor in MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.6 The internal viewer in MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.7 Auto-start features of MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.8 FTP virtual filesystem of MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 The basic Unix-like work environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1 The login shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.2 Customizing bash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.3 Special key strokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.4 Mouse operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.5 The pager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.6 The text editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.7 Setting a default text editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.8 Using vim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.9 Recording the shell activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.10 Basic Unix commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 The simple shell command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.1 Command execution and environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.2 The ”$LANG” variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.3 The ”$PATH” variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.4 The ”$HOME” variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.5 Command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.6 Shell glob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.7 Return value of the command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.8 Typical command sequences and shell redirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.9 Command alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6 Unix-like text processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6.1 Unix text tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6.2 Regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.3 Replacement expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6.4 Global substitution with regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6.5 Extracting data from text file table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.6.6 Script snippets for piping commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
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2 Debian package management 37

2.1 Debian package management prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.1 Package configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.2 Basic precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.3 Life with eternal upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1.4 Debian archive basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.5 Debian is 100% free software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.6 Package dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1.7 The event flow of the package management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.8 First response to package management troubles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2 Basic package management operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.1 apt vs. apt-get / apt-cache vs. aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2 Basic package management operations with the commandline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.3 Interactive use of aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.4 Key bindings of aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.5 Package views under aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.6 Search method options with aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.7 The aptitude regex formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.8 Dependency resolution of aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.9 Package activity logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3 Examples of aptitude operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.1 Listing packages with regex matching on package names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.2 Browsing with the regex matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.3 Purging removed packages for good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.4 Tidying auto/manual install status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.5 System wide upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4 Advanced package management operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.1 Advanced package management operations with commandline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.2 Verification of installed package files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.3 Safeguarding for package problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.4 Searching on the package meta data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Debian package management internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5.1 Archive meta data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5.2 Top level ”Release” file and authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.3 Archive level ”Release” files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.4 Fetching of the meta data for the package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.5.5 The package state for APT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5.6 The package state for aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5.7 Local copies of the fetched packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
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2.5.8 Debian package file names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.5.9 The dpkg command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.10 The update-alternatives command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.11 The dpkg-statoverride command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.12 The dpkg-divert command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6 Recovery from a broken system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.1 Incompatibility with old user configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.2 Different packages with overlapped files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.3 Fixing broken package script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.4 Rescue with the dpkg command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.5 Recovering package selection data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 Tips for the package management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.1 How to pick Debian packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.2 Packages from mixed source of archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.3 Tweaking candidate version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7.4 Updates and Backports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.7.5 Blocking packages installed by ”Recommends” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.7.6 Tracking testing with some packages from unstable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.7.7 Tracking unstable with some packages from experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.7.8 Automatic download and upgrade of packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.7.9 Limiting download bandwidth for APT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.7.10 Emergency downgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.7.11 Who uploaded the package? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.7.12 The equivs package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.7.13 Porting a package to the stable system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.7.14 Proxy server for APT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.7.15 More readings for the package management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3 The system initialization 75

3.1 An overview of the boot strap process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.1 Stage 1: the UEFI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.2 Stage 2: the boot loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.3 Stage 3: the mini-Debian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.4 Stage 4: the normal Debian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2 Systemd init . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.1 The hostname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.2 The filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.2.3 Network interface initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3 The kernel message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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3.4 The system message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.5 System management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6 Other system monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.7 Customizing systemd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.7.1 Socket activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.8 The udev system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.8.1 The kernel module initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4 Authentication and access controls 85

4.1 Normal Unix authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Managing account and password information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 Good password . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4 Creating encrypted password . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 PAM and NSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5.1 Configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5.2 The modern centralized system management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5.3 ”Why GNU su does not support the wheel group” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5.4 Stricter password rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6 Security of authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.1 Secure password on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.2 Secure Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.3 Extra security measures for the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6.4 Securing the root password . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7 Other access controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.7.1 sudo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.7.2 PolicyKit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.7.3 Restricting access to some server services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.7.4 Linux security features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5 Network setup 95
5.1 The basic network infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.1 The hostname resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.2 The network interface name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.3 The network address range for the LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.4 The network device support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2 The modern network configuration for desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.1 GUI network configuration tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3 The modern network configuration without GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.4 The low level network configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
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5.4.1 Iproute2 commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5.4.2 Safe low level network operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.5 Network optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5.1 Finding optimal MTU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5.2 WAN TCP optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.6 Netfilter infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

6 Network applications 104

6.1 Web browsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.1.1 Browser configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2 The mail system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.1 Email basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.2 Modern mail service limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.2.3 Historic mail service expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.2.4 Mail transport agent (MTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.2.4.1 The configuration of exim4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.2.4.2 The configuration of postfix with SASL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.2.4.3 The mail address configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.2.4.4 Basic MTA operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3 The remote access server and utilities (SSH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3.1 Basics of SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.2 User name on the remote host . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.3 Connecting without remote passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.4 Dealing with alien SSH clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.5 Setting up ssh-agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.6 Sending a mail from a remote host . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.7 Port forwarding for SMTP/POP3 tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.3.8 How to shutdown the remote system on SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.3.9 Troubleshooting SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.4 The print server and utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5 Other network application servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.6 Other network application clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.7 The diagnosis of the system daemons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7 GUI System 118

7.1 GUI desktop environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2 GUI communication protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3 GUI infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4 GUI applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
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7.5 Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

7.5.1 Basic fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.5.2 Font rastarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.6 Sandbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.7 Remote desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.8 X server connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.8.1 X server local connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.8.2 X server remote connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.8.3 X server chroot connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.9 Clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

8 I18N and L10N 128

8.1 The locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.1 Rationale for UTF-8 locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1.2 The reconfiguration of the locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.1.3 Filename encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.1.4 Localized messages and translated documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.1.5 Effects of the locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.2 The keyboard input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.1 The keyboard input for Linux console and X Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.2 The keyboard input for Wayland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.3 The input method support with IBus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2.4 An example for Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3 The display output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.4 East Asian Ambiguous Character Width Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

9 System tips 134

9.1 The console tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.1.1 Recording the shell activities cleanly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.1.2 The screen program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1.3 Navigating around directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1.4 Readline wrapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2 Customizing vim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2.1 Customizing vim with internal features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2.2 Customizing vim with external packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3 Data recording and presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3.1 The log daemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3.2 Log analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3.3 Customized display of text data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Debian Reference xi

9.3.4 Customized display of time and date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

9.3.5 Colorized shell echo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.6 Colorized commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.3.7 Recording the editor activities for complex repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.3.8 Recording the graphic image of an X application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.3.9 Recording changes in configuration files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4 Monitoring, controlling, and starting program activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4.1 Timing a process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4.2 The scheduling priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4.3 The ps command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.4 The top command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.5 Listing files opened by a process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.6 Tracing program activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.7 Identification of processes using files or sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4.8 Repeating a command with a constant interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4.9 Repeating a command looping over files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4.10 Starting a program from GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4.11 Customizing program to be started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.4.12 Killing a process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.4.13 Scheduling tasks once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.4.14 Scheduling tasks regularly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.4.15 Alt-SysRq key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.5 System maintenance tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.5.1 Who is on the system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.5.2 Warning everyone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.5.3 Hardware identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.5.4 Hardware configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.5.5 System and hardware time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.5.6 The terminal configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.5.7 The sound infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.5.8 Disabling the screen saver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.5.9 Disabling beep sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.5.10 Memory usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.5.11 System security and integrity check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.6 Data storage tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.6.1 Disk space usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.6.2 Disk partition configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.6.3 Accessing partition using UUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.6.4 LVM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
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9.6.5 Filesystem configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

9.6.6 Filesystem creation and integrity check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.6.7 Optimization of filesystem by mount options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.6.8 Optimization of filesystem via superblock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.6.9 Optimization of hard disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.6.10 Optimization of solid state drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.6.11 Using SMART to predict hard disk failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.6.12 Specify temporary storage directory via $TMPDIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.6.13 Expansion of usable storage space via LVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.6.14 Expansion of usable storage space by mounting another partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.6.15 Expansion of usable storage space by bind-mounting another directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.6.16 Expansion of usable storage space by overlay-mounting another directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.6.17 Expansion of usable storage space using symlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.7 The disk image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.7.1 Making the disk image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.7.2 Writing directly to the disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.7.3 Mounting the disk image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.7.4 Cleaning a disk image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.7.5 Making the empty disk image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.7.6 Making the ISO9660 image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.7.7 Writing directly to the CD/DVD-R/RW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.7.8 Mounting the ISO9660 image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.8 The binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.8.1 Viewing and editing binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.8.2 Manipulating files without mounting disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.8.3 Data redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.8.4 Data file recovery and forensic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.8.5 Splitting a large file into small files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.8.6 Clearing file contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.8.7 Dummy files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.8.8 Erasing an entire hard disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.8.9 Erasing unused area of an hard disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.8.10 Undeleting deleted but still open files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.8.11 Searching all hardlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.8.12 Invisible disk space consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.9 Data encryption tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.9.1 Removable disk encryption with dm-crypt/LUKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.9.2 Mounting encrypted disk with dm-crypt/LUKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.10 The kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Debian Reference xiii

9.10.1 Kernel parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

9.10.2 Kernel headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.10.3 Compiling the kernel and related modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.10.4 Compiling the kernel source: Debian Kernel Team recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.10.5 Hardware drivers and firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.11 Virtualized system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.11.1 Virtualization and emulation tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.11.2 Virtualization work flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.11.3 Mounting the virtual disk image file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.11.4 Chroot system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.11.5 Multiple desktop systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

10 Data management 176

10.1 Sharing, copying, and archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
10.1.1 Archive and compression tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.1.2 Copy and synchronization tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10.1.3 Idioms for the archive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10.1.4 Idioms for the copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.1.5 Idioms for the selection of files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.1.6 Archive media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.1.7 Removable storage device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.1.8 Filesystem choice for sharing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.1.9 Sharing data via network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.2 Backup and recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.2.1 Backup and recovery policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.2.2 Backup utility suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.2.3 Personal backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.3 Data security infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.3.1 Key management for GnuPG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.3.2 Using GnuPG on files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.3.3 Using GnuPG with Mutt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.3.4 Using GnuPG with Vim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.3.5 The MD5 sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.3.6 Password keyring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.4 Source code merge tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.4.1 Extracting differences for source files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.4.2 Merging updates for source files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.4.3 Interactive merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.5 Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Debian Reference xiv

10.5.1 Configuration of Git client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

10.5.2 Basic Git commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.5.3 Git tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.5.4 Git references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.5.5 Other version control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

11 Data conversion 197

11.1 Text data conversion tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.1.1 Converting a text file with iconv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.1.2 Checking file to be UTF-8 with iconv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.1.3 Converting file names with iconv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.1.4 EOL conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.1.5 TAB conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.1.6 Editors with auto-conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.1.7 Plain text extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1.8 Highlighting and formatting plain text data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.2 XML data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.2.1 Basic hints for XML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.2.2 XML processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.2.3 The XML data extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.2.4 The XML data lint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.3 Type setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.3.1 roff typesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.3.2 TeX/LaTeX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.3.3 Pretty print a manual page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.3.4 Creating a manual page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4 Printable data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.1 Ghostscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.2 Merge two PS or PDF files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.3 Printable data utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.4 Printing with CUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.5 The mail data conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.5.1 Mail data basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.6 Graphic data tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.7 Miscellaneous data conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Debian Reference xv

12 Programming 212
12.1 The shell script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.1.1 POSIX shell compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.1.2 Shell parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.1.3 Shell conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.1.4 Shell loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.1.5 Shell environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.1.6 The shell command-line processing sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
12.1.7 Utility programs for shell script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.2 Scripting in interpreted languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.2.1 Debugging interpreted language codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.2.2 GUI program with the shell script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.2.3 Perl short script madness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12.3 Coding in compiled languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12.3.1 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
12.3.2 Simple C program (gcc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
12.3.3 Flex —a better Lex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.3.4 Bison —a better Yacc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.4 Static code analysis tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.5 Debug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.5.1 Basic gdb execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.5.2 Debugging the Debian package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.5.3 Obtaining backtrace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.5.4 Advanced gdb commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.5.5 Check dependency on libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.5.6 Dynamic call tracing tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.5.7 Debugging X Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.5.8 Memory leak detection tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.5.9 Disassemble binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.6 Build tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.6.1 Make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.6.2 Autotools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.6.2.1 Compile and install a program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.6.2.2 Uninstall program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.6.3 Meson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.7 Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.8 The source code translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.9 Making Debian package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

A Appendix 230
A.1 The Debian maze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A.2 Copyright history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A.3 Document format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Debian Reference xvi

List of Tables

1.1 List of interesting text-mode program packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 List of informative documentation packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 List of usage of key directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 List of the first character of ”ls -l” output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 The numeric mode for file permissions in chmod(1) commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 The umask value examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 List of notable system-provided groups for file access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 List of notable system provided groups for particular command executions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9 List of types of timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10 List of special device files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.11 The key bindings of MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.12 The reaction to the enter key in MC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.13 List of shell programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.14 List of key bindings for bash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.15 List of mouse operations and related key actions on Debian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.16 List of basic Vim key strokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.17 List of basic Unix commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.18 The 3 parts of locale value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.19 List of locale recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.20 List of ”$HOME” values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.21 Shell glob patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.22 Command exit codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.23 Shell command idioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.24 Predefined file descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.25 Metacharacters for BRE and ERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.26 The replacement expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.27 List of script snippets for piping commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.1 List of Debian package management tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.2 List of Debian archive sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Debian Reference xvii

2.3 List of Debian archive area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.4 The relationship between suite and codename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 List of key web site to resolving problems with a specific package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Basic package management operations with the commandline using apt(8), aptitude(8) and apt-get(8)
/apt-cache(8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Notable command options for aptitude(8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.8 List of key bindings for aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.9 List of views for aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.10 The categorization of standard package views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.11 List of the aptitude regex formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.12 The log files for package activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.13 List of advanced package management operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.14 The content of the Debian archive meta data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.15 The name structure of Debian packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.16 The usable characters for each component in the Debian package names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.17 The notable files created by dpkg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.18 List of notable Pin-Priority values for apt-pinning technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.19 List of the proxy tools specially for Debian archive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.1 List of boot loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.2 The meaning of the menu entry of the above part of /boot/grub/grub.cfg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3 List of boot utilities for the Debian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4 List of kernel error levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5 List of typical journalctl command snippets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6 List of typical systemctl command snippets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7 List of other monitoring command snippets under systemd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.1 3 important configuration files for pam_unix(8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.2 The second entry content of ”/etc/passwd” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3 List of commands to manage account information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4 List of tools to generate password . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 List of notable PAM and NSS systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.6 List of configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7 List of insecure and secure services and ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.8 List of tools to provide extra security measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5.1 List of network configuration tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.2 List of network address ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3 Translation table from obsolete net-tools commands to new iproute2 commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 List of low level network commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Debian Reference xviii

5.5 List of network optimization tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.6 Basic guide lines of the optimal MTU value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.7 List of firewall tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

6.1 List of web browsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

6.2 List of browser plugin packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3 List of mail user agent (MUA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4 List of basic mail transport agent related packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5 List of important postfix manual pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.6 List of mail address related configuration files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.7 List of basic MTA operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.8 List of remote access server and utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.9 List of SSH configuration files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.10 List of SSH client startup examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.11 List of free SSH clients for other platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.12 List of print servers and utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.13 List of other network application servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.14 List of network application clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.15 List of popular RFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.1 List of desktop environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

7.2 List of notable GUI infrastructure packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3 List of notable GUI applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.4 List of notable TrueType and OpenType fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.5 List of notable font environment and related packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.6 List of notable sandbox environment and related packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.7 List of notable remote access server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.8 List of connection methods to the X server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.9 List of programs related to manipulating character clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

8.1 List of IBus and its engine packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

9.1 List of programs to support console activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

9.2 List of key bindings for screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3 Information on the initialization of vim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.4 List of system log analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.5 Display examples of time and date for the ”ls -l” command with the time style value . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.6 List of graphic image manipulation tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.7 List of packages which can record configuration history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.8 List of tools for monitoring and controlling program activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Debian Reference xix

9.9 List of nice values for the scheduling priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

9.10 List of ps command styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.11 List of frequently used signals for kill command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.12 List of notable SAK command keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.13 List of hardware identification tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.14 List of hardware configuration tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.15 List of sound packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.16 List of commands for disabling the screen saver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.17 List of memory sizes reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.18 List of tools for system security and integrity check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.19 List of disk partition management packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.20 List of filesystem management packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.21 List of packages which view and edit binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.22 List of packages to manipulate files without mounting disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.23 List of tools to add data redundancy to files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.24 List of packages for data file recovery and forensic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.25 List of data encryption utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.26 List of key packages to be installed for the kernel recompilation on the Debian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.27 List of virtualization tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

10.1 List of archive and compression tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

10.2 List of copy and synchronization tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10.3 List of filesystem choices for removable storage devices with typical usage scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.4 List of the network service to chose with the typical usage scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.5 List of backup suite utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.6 List of data security infrastructure tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.7 List of GNU Privacy Guard commands for the key management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.8 List of the meaning of the trust code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.9 List of GNU Privacy Guard commands on files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.10List of source code merge tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.11List of git related packages and commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.12Main Git commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.13Git tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.14List of other version control system tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

11.1 List of text data conversion tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

11.2 List of encoding values and their usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11.3 List of EOL styles for different platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.4 List of TAB conversion commands from bsdmainutils and coreutils packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Debian Reference xx

11.5 List of tools to extract plain text data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

11.6 List of tools to highlight plain text data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.7 List of predefined entities for XML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.8 List of XML tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.9 List of DSSSL tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.10List of XML data extraction tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.11 List of XML pretty print tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.12List of type setting tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.13List of packages to help creating the manpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.14List of Ghostscript PostScript interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.15List of printable data utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.16List of packages to help mail data conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.17List of graphic data tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11.18List of miscellaneous data conversion tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

12.1 List of typical bashisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

12.2 List of shell parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.3 List of shell parameter expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.4 List of key shell parameter substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.5 List of file comparison operators in the conditional expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.6 List of string comparison operators in the conditional expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.7 List of packages containing small utility programs for shell scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.8 List of interpreter related packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.9 List of dialog programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.10List of compiler related packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
12.11List of Yacc-compatible LALR parser generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.12List of tools for static code analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.13List of debug packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.14List of advanced gdb commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.15List of memory leak detection tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.16List of build tool packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.17List of make automatic variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.18List of make variable expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.19List of source code translation tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
 Abstract

This book is free; you may redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License of any version
compliant to the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG).
Debian Reference xxii

Preface

This Debian Reference (version 2.88) (2021-11-14 06:09:41 UTC) is intended to provide a broad overview of the Debian system
administration as a post-installation user guide.
The target reader is someone who is willing to learn shell scripts but who is not ready to read all the C sources to figure out how
the GNU/Linux system works.
For installation instructions, see:

• Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide for current stable system

• Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide for current testing system

Disclaimer

All warranties are disclaimed. All trademarks are property of their respective trademark owners.
The Debian system itself is a moving target. This makes its documentation difficult to be current and correct. Although the
current unstable version of the Debian system was used as the basis for writing this, some contents may be already outdated by
the time you read this.
Please treat this document as the secondary reference. This document does not replace any authoritative guides. The author and
contributors do not take responsibility for consequences of errors, omissions or ambiguity in this document.

What is Debian

The Debian Project is an association of individuals who have made common cause to create a free operating system. It’s distri-
bution is characterized by the following.

• Commitment to the software freedom: Debian Social Contract and Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG)
• Internet based distributed unpaid volunteer effort: https://www.debian.org
• Large number of pre-compiled high quality software packages

• Focus on stability and security with easy access to the security updates
• Focus on smooth upgrade to the latest software packages in the unstable and testing archives
• Large number of supported hardware architectures

Free Software pieces in Debian come from GNU, Linux, BSD, X, ISC, Apache, Ghostscript, Common Unix Printing System ,
Samba, GNOME, KDE, Mozilla, LibreOffice, Vim, TeX, LaTeX, DocBook, Perl, Python, Tcl, Java, Ruby, PHP, Berkeley DB,
MariaDB, PostgreSQL, SQLite, Exim, Postfix, Mutt, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Plan 9 and many more independent free software
projects. Debian integrates this diversity of Free Software into one system.
Debian Reference xxiii

About this document

Guiding rules

Following guiding rules are followed while compiling this document.

• Provide overview and skip corner cases. (Big Picture)

• Keep It Short and Simple. (KISS)
• Do not reinvent the wheel. (Use pointers to the existing references)

• Focus on non-GUI tools and consoles. (Use shell examples)

• Be objective. (Use popcon etc.)

Tip
I tried to elucidate hierarchical aspects and lower levels of the system.

Prerequisites

Warning
You are expected to make good efforts to seek answers by yourself beyond this documentation. This doc-
ument only gives efficient starting points.

You must seek solution by yourself from primary sources.

• The Debian Administrator’s Handbook

• The Debian site at https://www.debian.org for the general information

• The documentation under the ”/usr/share/doc/package_name” directory

• The Unix style manpage: ”dpkg -L package_name |grep ’/man/man.*/’”
• The GNU style info page: ”dpkg -L package_name |grep ’/info/’”
• The bug report: http://bugs.debian.org/package_name

• The Debian Wiki at https://wiki.debian.org/ for the moving and specific topics
• The HOWTOs from The Linux Documentation Project (TLDP) at http://tldp.org/
• The Single UNIX Specification from the Open Group’s The UNIX System Home Page at http://www.unix.org/

• The free encyclopedia from Wikipedia at https://www.wikipedia.org/

Note
For detailed documentation, you may need to install the corresponding documentation package named with ”-doc”
as its suffix.
Debian Reference xxiv

Conventions

This document provides information through the following simplified presentation style with bash(1) shell command examples.
# command-in-root-account
$ command-in-user-account

These shell prompts distinguish account used and correspond to set environment variables as: ”PS1=’\$’” and ”PS2=’ ’”.
These values are chosen for the sake of readability of this document and are not typical on actual installed system.
All command examples are run under the English locale ”LANG=en_US.UTF8”. Please don’t expect the placeholder strings
such as command-in-root-account and command-in-user-account to be translated in command examples. This
is an intentional choice to keep all translated examples to be up-to-date.

Note
See the meaning of the ”$PS1” and ”$PS2” environment variables in bash(1).

Action required by the system administrator is written in the imperative sentence, e.g. ”Type Enter-key after typing each command
string to the shell.”
The description column and similar ones in the table may contain a noun phrase following the package short description con-
vention which drops leading articles such as ”a” and ”the”. They may alternatively contain an infinitive phrase as a noun phrase
without leading ”to” following the short command description convention in manpages. These may look funny to some people
but are my intentional choices of style to keep this documentation as simple as possible. These Noun phrases do not capitalize
their starting nor end with periods following these short description convention.

Note
Proper nouns including command names keeps their case irrespective of their location.

A command snippet quoted in a text paragraph is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as
”aptitude safe-upgrade”.
A text data from a configuration file quoted in a text paragraph is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks,
such as ”deb-src”.
A command is referred by its name in the typewriter font optionally followed by its manpage section number in parenthesis, such
as bash(1). You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following.
$ man 1 bash

A manpage is referred by its name in the typewriter font followed by its manpage section number in parenthesis, such as
sources.list(5). You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following.
$ man 5 sources.list

An info page is referred by its command snippet in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as ”info make”.
You are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following.
$ info make

A filename is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as ”/etc/passwd”. For configuration
files, you are encouraged to obtain information by typing the following.
$ sensible-pager ”/etc/passwd”

A directory name is referred by the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as ”/etc/apt/”. You are encouraged
to explore its contents by typing the following.
Debian Reference xxv

$ mc ”/etc/apt/”

A package name is referred by its name in the typewriter font, such as vim. You are encouraged to obtain information by typing
the following.
$ dpkg -L vim
$ apt-cache show vim
$ aptitude show vim

A documentation may indicate its location by the filename in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such as
”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.txt.gz” and ”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-an
or by its URL, such as https://www.debian.org. You are encouraged to read the documentation by typing the following.
$ zcat ”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.txt.gz” | sensible-pager
$ sensible-browser ”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html”
$ sensible-browser ”https://www.debian.org”

An environment variable is referred by its name with leading ”$” in the typewriter font between double quotation marks, such
as ”$TERM”. You are encouraged to obtain its current value by typing the following.
$ echo ”$TERM”

The popcon
The popcon data is presented as the objective measure for the popularity of each package. It was downloaded on 2021-11-14
06:04:38 UTC and contains the total submission of 209877 reports over 183175 binary packages and 25 architectures.

Note
Please note that the amd64 unstable archive contains only 64950 packages currently. The popcon data contains
reports from many old system installations.

The popcon number preceded with ”V:” for ”votes” is calculated by ”1000 * (the popcon submissions for the package executed
recently on the PC)/(the total popcon submissions)”.
The popcon number preceded with ”I:” for ”installs” is calculated by ”1000 * (the popcon submissions for the package installed
on the PC)/(the total popcon submissions)”.

Note
The popcon figures should not be considered as absolute measures of the importance of packages. There are many
factors which can skew statistics. For example, some system participating popcon may have mounted directories
such as ”/bin” with ”noatime” option for system performance improvement and effectively disabled ”vote” from
such system.

The package size

The package size data is also presented as the objective measure for each package. It is based on the ”Installed-Size:”
reported by ”apt-cache show” or ”aptitude show” command (currently on amd64 architecture for the unstable
release). The reported size is in KiB (Kibibyte = unit for 1024 bytes).

Note
A package with a small numerical package size may indicate that the package in the unstable release is a dummy
package which installs other packages with significant contents by the dependency. The dummy package enables
a smooth transition or split of the package.
Debian Reference xxvi

Note
A package size followed by ”(*)” indicates that the package in the unstable release is missing and the package
size for the experimental release is used instead.

Bug reports on this document

Please file bug reports on the debian-reference package using reportbug(1) if you find any issues on this document.
Please include correction suggestion by ”diff -u” to the plain text version or to the source.

Reminders for new users

Here are some reminders for new users:

• Backup your data

• Secure your password and security keys

• KISS (keep it simple stupid)

– Don’t over-engineer your system
• Read your log files

– The FIRST error is the one that counts

• RTFM (read the fine manual)
• Search the Internet before asking questions
• Don’t be root when you don’t have to be

• Don’t mess with the package management system

• Don’t type anything you don’t understand
• Don’t change the file permissions (before the full security review)
• Don’t leave your root shell until you TEST your changes

• Always have an alternative boot media (USB memory stick, CD, …)

Some quotes for new users

Here are some interesting quotes from the Debian mailing list which may help enlighten new users.

• ”This is Unix. It gives you enough rope to hang yourself.” --- Miquel van Smoorenburg <miquels at cistron.nl>
• ”Unix IS user friendly…It’s just selective about who its friends are.” --- Tollef Fog Heen <tollef at add.no>

Wikipedia has article ”Unix philosophy” which lists interesting quotes.

Debian Reference 1 / 231

Chapter 1

GNU/Linux tutorials

I think learning a computer system is like learning a new foreign language. Although tutorial books and documentation are
helpful, you have to practice it yourself. In order to help you get started smoothly, I elaborate a few basic points.
The powerful design of Debian GNU/Linux comes from the Unix operating system, i.e., a multiuser, multitasking operating
system. You must learn to take advantage of the power of these features and similarities between Unix and GNU/Linux.
Don’t shy away from Unix oriented texts and don’t rely solely on GNU/Linux texts, as this robs you of much useful information.

Note
If you have been using any Unix-like system for a while with command line tools, you probably know everything I
explain here. Please use this as a reality check and refresher.

1.1 Console basics

1.1.1 The shell prompt

Upon starting the system, you are presented with the character based login screen if you did not install any GUI environment such
as GNOME or KDE desktop system. Suppose your hostname is foo, the login prompt looks as follows.
If you installed a GUI environment, then you can still get to the character based login prompt by Ctrl-Alt-F3, and you can return
to the GUI environment via Ctrl-Alt-F2 (see Section 1.1.6 below for more).
foo login:

At the login prompt, you type your username, e.g. penguin, and press the Enter-key, then type your password and press the
Enter-key again.

Note
Following the Unix tradition, the username and password of the Debian system are case sensitive. The username is
usually chosen only from the lowercase. The first user account is usually created during the installation. Additional
user accounts can be created with adduser(8) by root.

The system starts with the greeting message stored in ”/etc/motd” (Message Of The Day) and presents a command prompt.
Debian GNU/Linux 11 foo tty1

foo login: penguin

Password:
Debian Reference 2 / 231

Linux foo 5.10.0-6-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 5.10.28-1 (2021-04-09) x86_64

The programs included with the Debian GNU/Linux system are free software;
the exact distribution terms for each program are described in the
individual files in /usr/share/doc/*/copyright.

Debian GNU/Linux comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, to the extent

permitted by applicable law.
Last login: Thu May 13 08:47:13 JST 2021 on tty1
foo:~$

Now you are in the shell. The shell interprets your commands.

1.1.2 The shell prompt under GUI

If you installed a GUI environment during the installation, you are presented with the graphical login screen upon starting your
system. You type your username and your password to login to the non-privileged user account. Use tab to navigate between
username and password, or use the primary click of the mouse.
You can gain the shell prompt under GUI environment by starting a x-terminal-emulator program such as gnome-terminal(1),
rxvt(1) or xterm(1). Under the GNOME Desktop environment, press SUPER-key (Windows-key) and typing in ”terminal”
to the search prompt does the trick.
Under some other Desktop systems (like fluxbox), there may be no obvious starting point for the menu. If this happens, just
try (right) clicking the background of the desktop screen and hope for a menu to pop-up.

1.1.3 The root account

The root account is also called superuser or privileged user. From this account, you can perform the following system adminis-
tration tasks.

• Read, write, and remove any files on the system irrespective of their file permissions
• Set file ownership and permissions of any files on the system
• Set the password of any non-privileged users on the system

• Login to any accounts without their passwords

This unlimited power of root account requires you to be considerate and responsible when using it.

Warning
Never share the root password with others.

Note
File permissions of a file (including hardware devices such as CD-ROM etc. which are just another file for the
Debian system) may render it unusable or inaccessible by non-root users. Although the use of root account is a
quick way to test this kind of situation, its resolution should be done through proper setting of file permissions and
user’s group membership (see Section 1.2.3).
Debian Reference 3 / 231

1.1.4 The root shell prompt

Here are a few basic methods to gain the root shell prompt by using the root password.

• Type root at the character based login prompt.

• Type ”su -l” from any user shell prompt.

– This does not preserve the environment of the current user.
• Type ”su” from any user shell prompt.
– This preserves some of the environment of the current user.

1.1.5 GUI system administration tools

When your desktop menu does not start GUI system administration tools automatically with the appropriate privilege, you can
start them from the root shell prompt of the terminal emulator, such as gnome-terminal(1), rxvt(1), or xterm(1). See
Section 1.1.4 and Section 7.8.

Warning
Never start the GUI display/session manager under the root account by typing in root to the prompt of the
display manager such as gdm3(1).
Never run untrusted remote GUI program under X Window when critical information is displayed since it
may eavesdrop your X screen.

1.1.6 Virtual consoles

In the default Debian system, there are six switchable VT100-like character consoles available to start the command shell di-
rectly on the Linux host. Unless you are in a GUI environment, you can switch between the virtual consoles by pressing the
Left-Alt-key and one of the F1 —F6 keys simultaneously. Each character console allows independent login to the account
and offers the multiuser environment. This multiuser environment is a great Unix feature, and very addictive.
If you are in the GUI environment, you gain access to the character console 3 by pressing Ctrl-Alt-F3 key, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key
the left-Alt-key, and the F3-key are pressed together. You can get back to the GUI environment, normally running on the
virtual console 2, by pressing Alt-F2.
You can alternatively change to another virtual console, e.g. to the console 3, from the commandline.
# chvt 3

1.1.7 How to leave the command prompt

You type Ctrl-D, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key and the d-key pressed together, at the command prompt to close the shell activity.
If you are at the character console, you return to the login prompt with this. Even though these control characters are referred as
”control D” with the upper case, you do not need to press the Shift-key. The short hand expression, ^D, is also used for Ctrl-D.
Alternately, you can type ”exit”.
If you are at x-terminal-emulator(1), you can close x-terminal-emulator window with this.
Debian Reference 4 / 231

1.1.8 How to shutdown the system

Just like any other modern OS where the file operation involves caching data in memory for improved performance, the Debian
system needs the proper shutdown procedure before power can safely be turned off. This is to maintain the integrity of files,
by forcing all changes in memory to be written to disk. If the software power control is available, the shutdown procedure
automatically turns off power of the system. (Otherwise, you may have to press power button for few seconds after the shutdown
procedure.)
You can shutdown the system under the normal multiuser mode from the commandline.
# shutdown -h now

You can shutdown the system under the single-user mode from the commandline.
# poweroff -i -f

See Section 6.3.8.

1.1.9 Recovering a sane console

When the screen goes berserk after doing some funny things such as ”cat some-binary-file”, type ”reset” at the
command prompt. You may not be able to see the command echoed as you type. You may also issue ”clear” to clean up the
screen.

1.1.10 Additional package suggestions for the newbie

Although even the minimal installation of the Debian system without any desktop environment tasks provides the basic Unix
functionality, it is a good idea to install few additional commandline and curses based character terminal packages such as mc
and vim with apt-get(8) for beginners to get started by the following.
# apt-get update
...
# apt-get install mc vim sudo
...

If you already had these packages installed, no new packages are installed.

package popcon size description

mc V:56, I:227 1508 A text-mode full-screen file manager
sudo V:605, I:814 4589 A program to allow limited root privileges to users
Unix text editor Vi IMproved, a programmers text editor (standard
vim V:103, I:394 3498
version)
Unix text editor Vi IMproved, a programmers text editor (compact
vim-tiny V:58, I:971 1666
version)
emacs-nox V:4, I:18 18364 GNU project Emacs, the Lisp based extensible text editor
w3m V:26, I:233 2367 Text-mode WWW browsers
gpm V:11, I:15 539 The Unix style cut-and-paste on the text console (daemon)

Table 1.1: List of interesting text-mode program packages

It may be a good idea to read some informative documentations.

You can install some of these packages by the following.
# apt-get install package_name
Debian Reference 5 / 231

package popcon size description

doc-debian I:855 166 Debian Project documentation, (Debian FAQ) and other documents
debian-policy I:27 4319 Debian Policy Manual and related documents
developers-reference
V:0, I:6 2016 Guidelines and information for Debian developers
debmake-doc I:0 11421 Guide for Debian Maintainers
debian-history I:0 4302 History of the Debian Project
debian-faq I:851 817 Debian FAQ

Table 1.2: List of informative documentation packages

1.1.11 An extra user account

If you do not want to use your main user account for the following training activities, you can create a training user account, e.g.
fish by the following.
# adduser fish

Answer all questions.

This creates a new account named as fish. After your practice, you can remove this user account and its home directory by the
following.
# deluser --remove-home fish

1.1.12 sudo configuration

For the typical single user workstation such as the desktop Debian system on the laptop PC, it is common to deploy simple
configuration of sudo(8) as follows to let the non-privileged user, e.g. penguin, to gain administrative privilege just with his
user password but without the root password.
# echo ”penguin ALL=(ALL) ALL” >> /etc/sudoers

Alternatively, it is also common to do as follows to let the non-privileged user, e.g. penguin, to gain administrative privilege
without any password.
# echo ”penguin ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD:ALL” >> /etc/sudoers

This trick should only be used for the single user workstation which you administer and where you are the only user.

Warning
Do not set up accounts of regular users on multiuser workstation like this because it would be very bad for
system security.

Caution
The password and the account of the penguin in the above example requires as much protection as the
root password and the root account.
Administrative privilege in this context belongs to someone authorized to perform the system administration
task on the workstation. Never give some manager in the Admin department of your company or your boss
such privilege unless they are authorized and capable.
Debian Reference 6 / 231

Note
For providing access privilege to limited devices and limited files, you should consider to use group to provide
limited access instead of using the root privilege via sudo(8).
With more thoughtful and careful configuration, sudo(8) can grant limited administrative privileges to other users
on a shared system without sharing the root password. This can help with accountability with hosts with multiple
administrators so you can tell who did what. On the other hand, you might not want anyone else to have such
privileges.

1.1.13 Play time

Now you are ready to play with the Debian system without risks as long as you use the non-privileged user account.
This is because the Debian system is, even after the default installation, configured with proper file permissions which prevent
non-privileged users from damaging the system. Of course, there may still be some holes which can be exploited but those who
worry about these issues should not be reading this section but should be reading Securing Debian Manual.
We learn the Debian system as a Unix-like system with the following.

• Section 1.2 (basic concept)

• Section 1.3 (survival method)

• Section 1.4 (basic method)

• Section 1.5 (shell mechanism)
• Section 1.6 (text processing method)

1.2 Unix-like filesystem

In GNU/Linux and other Unix-like operating systems, files are organized into directories. All files and directories are arranged
in one big tree rooted at ”/”. It’s called a tree because if you draw the filesystem, it looks like a tree but it is upside down.
These files and directories can be spread out over several devices. mount(8) serves to attach the filesystem found on some device
to the big file tree. Conversely, umount(8) detaches it again. On recent Linux kernels, mount(8) with some options can bind
part of a file tree somewhere else or can mount filesystem as shared, private, slave, or unbindable. Supported mount options for
each filesystem are available in ”/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-*/Documentation/filesystems/”.
Directories on Unix systems are called folders on some other systems. Please also note that there is no concept for drive such as
”A:” on any Unix system. There is one filesystem, and everything is included. This is a huge advantage compared to Windows.

1.2.1 Unix file basics

Here are some Unix file basics.

• Filenames are case sensitive. That is, ”MYFILE” and ”MyFile” are different files.
• The root directory means root of the filesystem referred as simply ”/”. Don’t confuse this with the home directory for the root
user: ”/root”.
• Every directory has a name which can contain any letters or symbols except ”/”. The root directory is an exception; its name
is ”/” (pronounced ”slash” or ”the root directory”) and it cannot be renamed.
• Each file or directory is designated by a fully-qualified filename, absolute filename, or path, giving the sequence of directories
which must be passed through to reach it. The three terms are synonymous.
Debian Reference 7 / 231

• All fully-qualified filenames begin with the ”/” directory, and there’s a ”/” between each directory or file in the filename.
The first ”/” is the top level directory, and the other ”/”’s separate successive subdirectories, until we reach the last entry
which is the name of the actual file. The words used here can be confusing. Take the following fully-qualified filename as an
example: ”/usr/share/keytables/us.map.gz”. However, people also refers to its basename ”us.map.gz” alone
as a filename.

• The root directory has a number of branches, such as ”/etc/” and ”/usr/”. These subdirectories in turn branch into still
more subdirectories, such as ”/etc/init.d/” and ”/usr/local/”. The whole thing viewed collectively is called the
directory tree. You can think of an absolute filename as a route from the base of the tree (”/”) to the end of some branch
(a file). You also hear people talk about the directory tree as if it were a family tree encompassing all direct descendants of
a single figure called the root directory (”/”): thus subdirectories have parents, and a path shows the complete ancestry of a
file. There are also relative paths that begin somewhere other than the root directory. You should remember that the directory
”../” refers to the parent directory. This terminology also applies to other directory like structures, such as hierarchical data
structures.
• There’s no special directory path name component that corresponds to a physical device, such as your hard disk. This differs
from RT-11, CP/M, OpenVMS, MS-DOS, AmigaOS, and Microsoft Windows, where the path contains a device name such as
”C:\”. (However, directory entries do exist that refer to physical devices as a part of the normal filesystem. See Section 1.2.2.)

Note
While you can use almost any letters or symbols in a file name, in practice it is a bad idea to do so. It is better to
avoid any characters that often have special meanings on the command line, including spaces, tabs, newlines, and
other special characters: { } ( ) [ ] ’  ̀ ” \ / > < | ; ! # & ^ * % @ $ . If you want to separate
words in a name, good choices are the period, hyphen, and underscore. You could also capitalize each word,
”LikeThis”. Experienced Linux users tend to avoid spaces in filenames.

Note
The word ”root” can mean either ”root user” or ”root directory”. The context of their usage should make it clear.

Note
The word path is used not only for fully-qualified filename as above but also for the command search path. The
intended meaning is usually clear from the context.

The detailed best practices for the file hierarchy are described in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (”/usr/share/doc/debian-pol
and hier(7)). You should remember the following facts as the starter.

directory usage of the directory

/ the root directory
/etc/ system wide configuration files
/var/log/ system log files
/home/ all the home directories for all non-privileged users

Table 1.3: List of usage of key directories

1.2.2 Filesystem internals

Following the Unix tradition, the Debian GNU/Linux system provides the filesystem under which physical data on hard disks
and other storage devices reside, and the interaction with the hardware devices such as console screens and remote serial consoles
are represented in an unified manner under ”/dev/”.
Debian Reference 8 / 231

Each file, directory, named pipe (a way two programs can share data), or physical device on a Debian GNU/Linux system has
a data structure called an inode which describes its associated attributes such as the user who owns it (owner), the group that it
belongs to, the time last accessed, etc. The idea of representing just about everything in the filesystem was a Unix innovation,
and modern Linux kernels have developed this idea ever further. Now, even information about processes running in the computer
can be found in the filesystem.
This abstract and unified representation of physical entities and internal processes is very powerful since this allows us to use the
same command for the same kind of operation on many totally different devices. It is even possible to change the way the kernel
works by writing data to special files that are linked to running processes.

Tip
If you need to identify the correspondence between the file tree and the physical entity, execute mount(8) with no
arguments.

1.2.3 Filesystem permissions

Filesystem permissions of Unix-like system are defined for three categories of affected users.

• The user who owns the file (u)

• Other users in the group which the file belongs to (g)
• All other users (o) also referred to as ”world” and ”everyone”

For the file, each corresponding permission allows following actions.

• The read (r) permission allows owner to examine contents of the file.
• The write (w) permission allows owner to modify the file.
• The execute (x) permission allows owner to run the file as a command.

For the directory, each corresponding permission allows following actions.

• The read (r) permission allows owner to list contents of the directory.
• The write (w) permission allows owner to add or remove files in the directory.
• The execute (x) permission allows owner to access files in the directory.

Here, the execute permission on a directory means not only to allow reading of files in that directory but also to allow viewing
their attributes, such as the size and the modification time.
ls(1) is used to display permission information (and more) for files and directories. When it is invoked with the ”-l” option, it
displays the following information in the order given.

• Type of file (first character)

• Access permission of the file (nine characters, consisting of three characters each for user, group, and other in this order)
• Number of hard links to the file
• Name of the user who owns the file
• Name of the group which the file belongs to
• Size of the file in characters (bytes)
• Date and time of the file (mtime)
Debian Reference 9 / 231

character meaning
- normal file
d directory
l symlink
c character device node
b block device node
p named pipe
s socket

Table 1.4: List of the first character of ”ls -l” output

• Name of the file

chown(1) is used from the root account to change the owner of the file. chgrp(1) is used from the file’s owner or root account
to change the group of the file. chmod(1) is used from the file’s owner or root account to change file and directory access
permissions. Basic syntax to manipulate a foo file is the following.
# chown newowner foo
# chgrp newgroup foo
# chmod [ugoa][+-=][rwxXst][,...] foo

For example, you can make a directory tree to be owned by a user foo and shared by a group bar by the following.
# cd /some/location/
# chown -R foo:bar .
# chmod -R ug+rwX,o=rX .

There are three more special permission bits.

• The set user ID bit (s or S instead of user’s x)

• The set group ID bit (s or S instead of group’s x)
• The sticky bit (t or T instead of other’s x)

Here the output of ”ls -l” for these bits is capitalized if execution bits hidden by these outputs are unset.
Setting set user ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the owner ID of the file (for example
root). Similarly, setting set group ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the group ID of the
file (for example root). Because these settings can cause security risks, enabling them requires extra caution.
Setting set group ID on a directory enables the BSD-like file creation scheme where all files created in the directory belong to
the group of the directory.
Setting the sticky bit on a directory prevents a file in the directory from being removed by a user who is not the owner of the file.
In order to secure contents of a file in world-writable directories such as ”/tmp” or in group-writable directories, one must not
only reset the write permission for the file but also set the sticky bit on the directory. Otherwise, the file can be removed and a
new file can be created with the same name by any user who has write access to the directory.
Here are a few interesting examples of file permissions.
$ ls -l /etc/passwd /etc/shadow /dev/ppp /usr/sbin/exim4
crw------T 1 root root 108, 0 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/ppp
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2761 Aug 30 10:38 /etc/passwd
-rw-r----- 1 root shadow 1695 Aug 30 10:38 /etc/shadow
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 973824 Sep 23 20:04 /usr/sbin/exim4
$ ls -ld /tmp /var/tmp /usr/local /var/mail /usr/src
drwxrwxrwt 14 root root 20480 Oct 16 21:25 /tmp
drwxrwsr-x 10 root staff 4096 Sep 29 22:50 /usr/local
drwxr-xr-x 10 root root 4096 Oct 11 00:28 /usr/src
drwxrwsr-x 2 root mail 4096 Oct 15 21:40 /var/mail
drwxrwxrwt 3 root root 4096 Oct 16 21:20 /var/tmp
Debian Reference 10 / 231

There is an alternative numeric mode to describe file permissions with chmod(1). This numeric mode uses 3 to 4 digit wide octal
(radix=8) numbers.

digit meaning
1st optional digit sum of set user ID (=4), set group ID (=2), and sticky bit (=1)
2nd digit sum of read (=4), write (=2), and execute (=1) permissions for user
3rd digit ditto for group
4th digit ditto for other

Table 1.5: The numeric mode for file permissions in chmod(1) commands

This sounds complicated but it is actually quite simple. If you look at the first few (2-10) columns from ”ls -l” command
output and read it as a binary (radix=2) representation of file permissions (”-” being ”0” and ”rwx” being ”1”), the last 3 digit of
the numeric mode value should make sense as an octal (radix=8) representation of file permissions to you.
For example, try the following
$ touch foo bar
$ chmod u=rw,go=r foo
$ chmod 644 bar
$ ls -l foo bar
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:39 bar
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:35 foo

Tip
If you need to access information displayed by ”ls -l” in shell script, you should use pertinent commands such
as test(1), stat(1) and readlink(1). The shell builtin such as ”[” or ”test” may be used too.

1.2.4 Control of permissions for newly created files: umask

What permissions are applied to a newly created file or directory is restricted by the umask shell builtin command. See dash(1),
bash(1), and builtins(7).
(file permissions) = (requested file permissions) & ~(umask value)

directory permissions
umask file permissions created usage
created
0022 -rw-r--r-- -rwxr-xr-x writable only by the user
0002 -rw-rw-r-- -rwxrwxr-x writable by the group

Table 1.6: The umask value examples

The Debian system uses a user private group (UPG) scheme as its default. A UPG is created whenever a new user is added to the
system. A UPG has the same name as the user for which it was created and that user is the only member of the UPG. UPG scheme
makes it safe to set umask to 0002 since every user has their own private group. (In some Unix variants, it is quite common to
setup all normal users belonging to a single users group and is a good idea to set umask to 0022 for security in such cases.)

Tip
Enable UPG by putting ”umask 002” in the ~/.bashrc file.
Debian Reference 11 / 231

1.2.5 Permissions for groups of users (group)

In order to make group permissions to be applied to a particular user, that user needs to be made a member of the group using
”sudo vigr” for /etc/group and ”sudo vigr -s” for /etc/gshadow. You need to login after logout (or run ”exec
newgrp”) to enable the new group configuration.

Note
Alternatively, you may dynamically add users to groups during the authentication process by
adding ”auth optional pam_group.so” line to ”/etc/pam.d/common-auth” and setting
”/etc/security/group.conf”. (See Chapter 4.)

The hardware devices are just another kind of file on the Debian system. If you have problems accessing devices such as CD-ROM
and USB memory stick from a user account, you should make that user a member of the relevant group.
Some notable system-provided groups allow their members to access particular files and devices without root privilege.

group description for accessible files and devices

dialout full and direct access to serial ports (”/dev/ttyS[0-3]”)
dip limited access to serial ports for Dialup IP connection to trusted peers
cdrom CD-ROM, DVD+/-RW drives
audio audio device
video video device
scanner scanner(s)
adm system monitoring logs
staff some directories for junior administrative work: ”/usr/local”, ”/home”

Table 1.7: List of notable system-provided groups for file access

Tip
You need to belong to the dialout group to reconfigure modem, dial anywhere, etc. But if root creates pre-
defined configuration files for trusted peers in ”/etc/ppp/peers/”, you only need to belong to the dip group to
create Dialup IP connection to those trusted peers using pppd(8), pon(1), and poff(1) commands.

Some notable system-provided groups allow their members to execute particular commands without root privilege.

group accessible commands

sudo execute sudo without their password
lpadmin execute commands to add, modify, and remove printers from printer databases

Table 1.8: List of notable system provided groups for particular command executions

For the full listing of the system provided users and groups, see the recent version of the ”Users and Groups” document in
”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html” provided by the base-passwd package.
See passwd(5), group(5), shadow(5), newgrp(1), vipw(8), vigr(8), and pam_group(8) for management commands of
the user and group system.

1.2.6 Timestamps

There are three types of timestamps for a GNU/Linux file.

Debian Reference 12 / 231

type meaning (historic Unix definition)

mtime the file modification time (ls -l)
ctime the file status change time (ls -lc)
atime the last file access time (ls -lu)

Table 1.9: List of types of timestamps

Note
ctime is not file creation time.

Note
The actual value of atime on GNU/Linux system may be different from that of the historic Unix definition.

• Overwriting a file changes all of the mtime, ctime, and atime attributes of the file.

• Changing ownership or permission of a file changes the ctime and atime attributes of the file.
• Reading a file changes the atime attribute of the file on the historic Unix system.
• Reading a file changes the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem is mounted with ”strictatime”.

• Reading a file for the first time or after one day changes the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem
is mounted with ”relatime”. (default behavior since Linux 2.6.30)
• Reading a file doesn’t change the atime attribute of the file on the GNU/Linux system if its filesystem is mounted with
”noatime”.

Note
The ”noatime” and ”relatime” mount options are introduced to improve the filesystem read performance un-
der the normal use cases. Simple file read operation under the ”strictatime” option accompanies the time-
consuming write operation to update the atime attribute. But the atime attribute is rarely used except for the
mbox(5) file. See mount(8).

Use touch(1) command to change timestamps of existing files.

For timestamps, the ls command outputs localized strings under non-English locale (”fr_FR.UTF-8”).
$ LANG=C ls -l foo
-rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:35 foo
$ LANG=en_US.UTF-8 ls -l foo
-rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:35 foo
$ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8 ls -l foo
-rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 oct. 16 21:35 foo

Tip
See Section 9.3.4 to customize ”ls -l” output.
Debian Reference 13 / 231

1.2.7 Links

There are two methods of associating a file ”foo” with a different filename ”bar”.

• Hard link
– Duplicate name for an existing file
– ”ln foo bar”
• Symbolic link or symlink
– Special file that points to another file by name
– ”ln -s foo bar”

See the following example for changes in link counts and the subtle differences in the result of the rm command.
$ umask 002
$ echo ”Original Content” > foo
$ ls -li foo
1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 foo
$ ln foo bar # hard link
$ ln -s foo baz # symlink
$ ls -li foo bar baz
1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 bar
1450180 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin 3 Oct 16 21:47 baz -> foo
1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 foo
$ rm foo
$ echo ”New Content” > foo
$ ls -li foo bar baz
1449840 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 Oct 16 21:42 bar
1450180 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin 3 Oct 16 21:47 baz -> foo
1450183 -rw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 12 Oct 16 21:48 foo
$ cat bar
Original Content
$ cat baz
New Content

The hardlink can be made within the same filesystem and shares the same inode number which the ”-i” option with ls(1)
reveals.
The symlink always has nominal file access permissions of ”rwxrwxrwx”, as shown in the above example, with the effective
access permissions dictated by permissions of the file that it points to.

Caution
It is generally a good idea not to create complicated symbolic links or hardlinks at all unless you have a very
good reason. It may cause nightmares where the logical combination of the symbolic links results in loops
in the filesystem.

Note
It is generally preferable to use symbolic links rather than hardlinks unless you have a good reason for using a
hardlink.

The ”.” directory links to the directory that it appears in, thus the link count of any new directory starts at 2. The ”..” directory
links to the parent directory, thus the link count of the directory increases with the addition of new subdirectories.
If you are just moving to Linux from Windows, it soon becomes clear how well-designed the filename linking of Unix is, compared
with the nearest Windows equivalent of ”shortcuts”. Because it is implemented in the filesystem, applications can’t see any
difference between a linked file and the original. In the case of hardlinks, there really is no difference.
Debian Reference 14 / 231

1.2.8 Named pipes (FIFOs)

A named pipe is a file that acts like a pipe. You put something into the file, and it comes out the other end. Thus it’s called a
FIFO, or First-In-First-Out: the first thing you put in the pipe is the first thing to come out the other end.
If you write to a named pipe, the process which is writing to the pipe doesn’t terminate until the information being written is read
from the pipe. If you read from a named pipe, the reading process waits until there is nothing to read before terminating. The
size of the pipe is always zero --- it does not store data, it just links two processes like the functionality offered by the shell ”|”
syntax. However, since this pipe has a name, the two processes don’t have to be on the same command line or even be run by the
same user. Pipes were a very influential innovation of Unix.
For example, try the following
$ cd; mkfifo mypipe
$ echo ”hello” >mypipe & # put into background
[1] 8022
$ ls -l mypipe
prw-rw-r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 Oct 16 21:49 mypipe
$ cat mypipe
hello
[1]+ Done echo ”hello” >mypipe
$ ls mypipe
mypipe
$ rm mypipe

1.2.9 Sockets

Sockets are used extensively by all the Internet communication, databases, and the operating system itself. It is similar to the
named pipe (FIFO) and allows processes to exchange information even between different computers. For the socket, those
processes do not need to be running at the same time nor to be running as the children of the same ancestor process. This is the
endpoint for the inter process communication (IPC). The exchange of information may occur over the network between different
hosts. The two most common ones are the Internet socket and the Unix domain socket.

Tip
”netstat -an” provides a very useful overview of sockets that are open on a given system.

1.2.10 Device files

Device files refer to physical or virtual devices on your system, such as your hard disk, video card, screen, or keyboard. An
example of a virtual device is the console, represented by ”/dev/console”.
There are 2 types of device files.

• Character device
– Accessed one character at a time
– 1 character = 1 byte
– E.g. keyboard device, serial port, …
• Block device
– accessed in larger units called blocks
– 1 block > 1 byte
– E.g. hard disk, …
Debian Reference 15 / 231

You can read and write device files, though the file may well contain binary data which may be an incomprehensible-to-humans
gibberish. Writing data directly to these files is sometimes useful for the troubleshooting of hardware connections. For ex-
ample, you can dump a text file to the printer device ”/dev/lp0” or send modem commands to the appropriate serial port
”/dev/ttyS0”. But, unless this is done carefully, it may cause a major disaster. So be cautious.

Note
For the normal access to a printer, use lp(1).

The device node number are displayed by executing ls(1) as the following.
$ ls -l /dev/sda /dev/sr0 /dev/ttyS0 /dev/zero
brw-rw---T 1 root disk 8, 0 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/sda
brw-rw---T+ 1 root cdrom 11, 0 Oct 16 21:53 /dev/sr0
crw-rw---T 1 root dialout 4, 64 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/ttyS0
crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 5 Oct 16 20:57 /dev/zero

• ”/dev/sda” has the major device number 8 and the minor device number 0. This is read/write accessible by users belonging
to the disk group.
• ”/dev/sr0” has the major device number 11 and the minor device number 0. This is read/write accessible by users belonging
to the cdrom group.
• ”/dev/ttyS0” has the major device number 4 and the minor device number 64. This is read/write accessible by users
belonging to the dialout group.
• ”/dev/zero” has the major device number 1 and the minor device number 5. This is read/write accessible by anyone.

On the modern Linux system, the filesystem under ”/dev/” is automatically populated by the udev(7) mechanism.

1.2.11 Special device files

There are some special device files.

device file action description of response

/dev/null read return ”end-of-file (EOF) character”
/dev/null write return nothing (a bottomless data dump pit)
return ”the \0 (NUL) character” (not the same as the
/dev/zero read
number zero ASCII)
return random characters from a true random number
/dev/random read
generator, delivering real entropy (slow)
return random characters from a cryptographically secure
/dev/urandom read
pseudorandom number generator
/dev/full write return the disk-full (ENOSPC) error

Table 1.10: List of special device files

These are frequently used in conjunction with the shell redirection (see Section 1.5.8).

1.2.12 procfs and sysfs

The procfs and sysfs mounted on ”/proc” and ”/sys” are the pseudo-filesystem and expose internal data structures of the
kernel to the userspace. In other word, these entries are virtual, meaning that they act as a convenient window into the operation
of the operating system.
Debian Reference 16 / 231

The directory ”/proc” contains (among other things) one subdirectory for each process running on the system, which is named
after the process ID (PID). System utilities that access process information, such as ps(1), get their information from this directory
structure.
The directories under ”/proc/sys/” contain interfaces to change certain kernel parameters at run time. (You may do the same
through the specialized sysctl(8) command or its preload/configuration file ”/etc/sysctl.conf”.)
People frequently panic when they notice one file in particular - ”/proc/kcore” - which is generally huge. This is (more or
less) a copy of the content of your computer’s memory. It’s used to debug the kernel. It is a virtual file that points to computer
memory, so don’t worry about its size.
The directory under ”/sys” contains exported kernel data structures, their attributes, and their linkages between them. It also
contains interfaces to change certain kernel parameters at run time.
See ”proc.txt(.gz)”, ”sysfs.txt(.gz)” and other related documents in the Linux kernel documentation (”/usr/share/doc
provided by the linux-doc-* package.

1.2.13 tmpfs

The tmpfs is a temporary filesystem which keeps all files in the virtual memory. The data of the tmpfs in the page cache on
memory may be swapped out to the swap space on disk as needed.
The directory ”/run” is mounted as the tmpfs in the early boot process. This enables writing to it even when the directory ”/”
is mounted as read-only. This is the new location for the storage of transient state files and replaces several locations described
in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard version 2.3:

• ”/var/run” → ”/run”
• ”/var/lock” → ”/run/lock”

• ”/dev/shm” → ”/run/shm”

See ”tmpfs.txt(.gz)” in the Linux kernel documentation (”/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-*/Documentation/filesys

provided by the linux-doc-* package.

1.3 Midnight Commander (MC)

Midnight Commander (MC) is a GNU ”Swiss army knife” for the Linux console and other terminal environments. This gives
newbie a menu driven console experience which is much easier to learn than standard Unix commands.
You may need to install the Midnight Commander package which is titled ”mc” by the following.
$ sudo apt-get install mc

Use the mc(1) command to explore the Debian system. This is the best way to learn. Please explore few interesting locations just
using the cursor keys and Enter key.

• ”/etc” and its subdirectories

• ”/var/log” and its subdirectories

• ”/usr/share/doc” and its subdirectories

• ”/sbin” and ”/bin”
Debian Reference 17 / 231

1.3.1 Customization of MC

In order to make MC to change working directory upon exit and cd to the directory, I suggest to modify ”~/.bashrc” to include
a script provided by the mc package.
. /usr/lib/mc/mc.sh

See mc(1) (under the ”-P” option) for the reason. (If you do not understand what exactly I am talking here, you can do this later.)

1.3.2 Starting MC

MC can be started by the following.

$ mc

MC takes care of all file operations through its menu, requiring minimal user effort. Just press F1 to get the help screen. You can
play with MC just by pressing cursor-keys and function-keys.

Note
In some consoles such as gnome-terminal(1), key strokes of function-keys may be stolen by the console pro-
gram. You can disable these features in ”Preferences” → ”General” and ”Shortcuts” menu for gnome-terminal.

If you encounter character encoding problem which displays garbage characters, adding ”-a” to MC’s command line may help
prevent problems.
If this doesn’t clear up your display problems with MC, see Section 9.5.6.

1.3.3 File manager in MC

The default is two directory panels containing file lists. Another useful mode is to set the right window to ”information” to see
file access privilege information, etc. Following are some essential keystrokes. With the gpm(8) daemon running, one can use a
mouse on Linux character consoles, too. (Make sure to press the shift-key to obtain the normal behavior of cut and paste in MC.)

key key binding

F1 help menu
F3 internal file viewer
F4 internal editor
F9 activate pull down menu
F10 exit Midnight Commander
Tab move between two windows
Insert or Ctrl-T mark file for a multiple-file operation such as copy
Del delete file (be careful---set MC to safe delete mode)
Cursor keys self-explanatory

Table 1.11: The key bindings of MC

1.3.4 Command-line tricks in MC

• cd command changes the directory shown on the selected screen.

Debian Reference 18 / 231

• Ctrl-Enter or Alt-Enter copies a filename to the command line. Use this with cp(1) and mv(1) commands together
with command-line editing.
• Alt-Tab shows shell filename expansion choices.
• One can specify the starting directory for both windows as arguments to MC; for example, ”mc /etc /root”.
• Esc + n-key → Fn (i.e., Esc + 1 → F1, etc.; Esc + 0 → F10)
• Pressing Esc before the key has the same effect as pressing the Alt and the key together.; i.e., type Esc + c for Alt-C. Esc
is called meta-key and sometimes noted as ”M-”.

1.3.5 The internal editor in MC

The internal editor has an interesting cut-and-paste scheme. Pressing F3 marks the start of a selection, a second F3 marks the
end of selection and highlights the selection. Then you can move your cursor. If you press F6, the selected area is moved to the
cursor location. If you press F5, the selected area is copied and inserted at the cursor location. F2 saves the file. F10 gets you
out. Most cursor keys work intuitively.
This editor can be directly started on a file using one of the following commands.
$ mc -e filename_to_edit

$ mcedit filename_to_edit

This is not a multi-window editor, but one can use multiple Linux consoles to achieve the same effect. To copy between windows,
use Alt-Fn keys to switch virtual consoles and use ”File→Insert file” or ”File→Copy to file” to move a portion of a file to another
file.
This internal editor can be replaced with any external editor of choice.
Also, many programs use the environment variables ”$EDITOR” or ”$VISUAL” to decide which editor to use. If you are
uncomfortable with vim(1) or nano(1) initially, you may set these to ”mcedit” by adding the following lines to ”~/.bashrc”.
export EDITOR=mcedit
export VISUAL=mcedit

I do recommend setting these to ”vim” if possible.

If you are uncomfortable with vim(1), you can keep using mcedit(1) for most system maintenance tasks.

1.3.6 The internal viewer in MC

MC is a very smart viewer. This is a great tool for searching words in documents. I always use this for files in the ”/usr/share/doc”
directory. This is the fastest way to browse through masses of Linux information. This viewer can be directly started using one
of the following commands.
$ mc -v path/to/filename_to_view

$ mcview path/to/filename_to_view

1.3.7 Auto-start features of MC

Press Enter on a file, and the appropriate program handles the content of the file (see Section 9.4.11). This is a very convenient
MC feature.
In order to allow these viewer and virtual file features to function, viewable files should not be set as executable. Change their
status using chmod(1) or via the MC file menu.
Debian Reference 19 / 231

file type reaction to enter key

executable file execute command
man file pipe content to viewer software
html file pipe content to web browser
”*.tar.gz” and ”*.deb” file browse its contents as if subdirectory

Table 1.12: The reaction to the enter key in MC

1.3.8 FTP virtual filesystem of MC

MC can be used to access files over the Internet using FTP. Go to the menu by pressing F9, then type ”p” to activate the FTP
virtual filesystem. Enter a URL in the form ”username:passwd@hostname.domainname”, which retrieves a remote
directory that appears like a local one.
Try ”[deb.debian.org/debian]” as the URL and browse the Debian archive.

1.4 The basic Unix-like work environment

Although MC enables you to do almost everything, it is very important for you to learn how to use the command line tools invoked
from the shell prompt and become familiar with the Unix-like work environment.

1.4.1 The login shell

You can select your login shell with chsh(1).

package popcon size POSIX shell description

Bash: the GNU Bourne Again SHell (de facto
bash V:789, I:999 6465 Yes
standard)
bash-completion
V:31, I:925 1463 N/A programmable completion for the bash shell
dash V:894, I:994 222 Yes Debian Almquist Shell, good for shell script
zsh V:37, I:72 2463 Yes Z shell: the standard shell with many enhancements
tcsh V:9, I:27 1316 No TENEX C Shell: an enhanced version of Berkeley csh
mksh V:3, I:12 1469 Yes A version of the Korn shell
csh V:1, I:8 343 No OpenBSD C Shell, a version of Berkeley csh
Stand-alone shell with builtin commands (Not meant
sash V:0, I:5 1094 Yes
for standard ”/bin/sh”)
ksh V:2, I:14 3280 Yes the real, AT&T version of the Korn shell
rc V:0, I:1 169 No implementation of the AT&T Plan 9 rc shell
posh V:0, I:0 190 Yes Policy-compliant Ordinary SHell (pdksh derivative)

Table 1.13: List of shell programs

Tip
Although POSIX-like shells share the basic syntax, they can differ in behavior for things as basic as shell variables
and glob expansions. Please check their documentation for details.

In this tutorial chapter, the interactive shell always means bash.

Debian Reference 20 / 231

1.4.2 Customizing bash

You can customize bash(1) behavior by ”~/.bashrc”.

For example, try the following.
# enable bash-completion
if ! shopt -oq posix; then
if [ -f /usr/share/bash-completion/bash_completion ]; then
. /usr/share/bash-completion/bash_completion
elif [ -f /etc/bash_completion ]; then
. /etc/bash_completion
fi
fi

# CD upon exiting MC
. /usr/lib/mc/mc.sh

# set CDPATH to a good one

CDPATH=.:/usr/share/doc:~:~/Desktop:~
export CDPATH

PATH=”${PATH+$PATH:}/usr/sbin:/sbin”
# set PATH so it includes user’s private bin if it exists
if [ -d ~/bin ] ; then
PATH=”~/bin${PATH+:$PATH}”
fi
export PATH

EDITOR=vim
export EDITOR

Tip
You can find more bash customization tips, such as Section 9.3.6, in Chapter 9.

Tip
The bash-completion package enables programmable completion for bash.

1.4.3 Special key strokes

In the Unix-like environment, there are few key strokes which have special meanings. Please note that on a normal Linux character
console, only the left-hand Ctrl and Alt keys work as expected. Here are few notable key strokes to remember.

Tip
The terminal feature of Ctrl-S can be disabled using stty(1).

1.4.4 Mouse operations

Mouse operations for text on Debian system mix 2 styles with some twists:

• Traditional Unix style mouse operations:

– use 3 buttons (click)
Debian Reference 21 / 231

key description of key binding

Ctrl-U erase line before cursor
Ctrl-H erase a character before cursor
Ctrl-D terminate input (exit shell if you are using shell)
Ctrl-C terminate a running program
Ctrl-Z temporarily stop program by moving it to the background job
Ctrl-S halt output to screen
Ctrl-Q reactivate output to screen
Ctrl-Alt-Del reboot/halt the system, see inittab(5)
Left-Alt-key (optionally,
meta-key for Emacs and the similar UI
Windows-key)
Up-arrow start command history search under bash
Ctrl-R start incremental command history search under bash
Tab complete input of the filename to the command line under bash
Ctrl-V Tab input Tab without expansion to the command line under bash

Table 1.14: List of key bindings for bash

– use PRIMARY
– used by X applications such as xterm and text applications in Linux console
• Modern GUI style mouse operations:

– use 2 buttons (drag + click)

– use PRIMARY and CLIPBOARD
– used in Modern GUI applications such as gnome-terminal

action response
Left-click-and-drag mouse select range as PRIMARY selection
Left-click select the start of range for PRIMARY selection
Right-click (traditional) select the end of range for PRIMARY selection
Right-click (modern) context dependent menu (cut/copy/paste)
Middle-click or Shift-Ins insert PRIMARY selection at the cursor
Ctrl-X cut PRIMARY selection to CLIPBOARD
Ctrl-C (Shift-Ctrl-C in terminal) copy PRIMARY selection to CLIPBOARD
Ctrl-V paste CLIPBOARD at the cursor

Table 1.15: List of mouse operations and related key actions on Debian

Here, the PRIMARY selection is the highlighted text range. Within the terminal program, Shift-Ctrl-C is used instead to
avoid terminating a running program.
The center wheel on the modern wheel mouse is considered middle mouse button and can be used for middle-click. Clicking left
and right mouse buttons together serves as the middle-click under the 2 button mouse system situation.
In order to use a mouse in Linux character consoles, you need to have gpm(8) running as daemon.

1.4.5 The pager

The less(1) command is the enhanced pager (file content browser). It reads the file specified by its command argument or
its standard input. Hit ”h” if you need help while browsing with the less command. It can do much more than more(1) and
can be supercharged by executing ”eval $(lesspipe)” or ”eval $(lessfile)” in the shell startup script. See more
in ”/usr/share/doc/less/LESSOPEN”. The ”-R” option allows raw character output and enables ANSI color escape
sequences. See less(1).
Debian Reference 22 / 231

1.4.6 The text editor

You should become proficient in one of variants of Vim or Emacs programs which are popular in the Unix-like system.
I think getting used to Vim commands is the right thing to do, since Vi-editor is always there in the Linux/Unix world. (Actually,
original vi or new nvi are programs you find everywhere. I chose Vim instead for newbie since it offers you help through F1
key while it is similar enough and more powerful.)
If you chose either Emacs or XEmacs instead as your choice of the editor, that is another good choice indeed, particularly for
programming. Emacs has a plethora of other features as well, including functioning as a newsreader, directory editor, mail
program, etc. When used for programming or editing shell scripts, it intelligently recognizes the format of what you are working
on, and tries to provide assistance. Some people maintain that the only program they need on Linux is Emacs. Ten minutes learning
Emacs now can save hours later. Having the GNU Emacs manual for reference when learning Emacs is highly recommended.
All these programs usually come with tutoring program for you to learn them by practice. Start Vim by typing ”vim” and press
F1-key. You should at least read the first 35 lines. Then do the online training course by moving cursor to ”|tutor|” and
pressing Ctrl-].

Note
Good editors, such as Vim and Emacs, can handle UTF-8 and other exotic encoding texts correctly. It is a good idea
to use the GUI environment in the UTF-8 locale and to install required programs and fonts to it. Editors have options
to set the file encoding independent of the GUI environment. Please refer to their documentation on multibyte text.

1.4.7 Setting a default text editor

Debian comes with a number of different editors. We recommend to install the vim package, as mentioned above.
Debian provides unified access to the system default editor via command ”/usr/bin/editor” so other programs (e.g.,
reportbug(1)) can invoke it. You can change it by the following.
$ sudo update-alternatives --config editor

The choice ”/usr/bin/vim.basic” over ”/usr/bin/vim.tiny” is my recommendation for newbies since it supports
syntax highlighting.

Tip
Many programs use the environment variables ”$EDITOR” or ”$VISUAL” to decide which editor to use (see Sec-
tion 1.3.5 and Section 9.4.11). For the consistency on the Debian system, set these to ”/usr/bin/editor”.
(Historically, ”$EDITOR” was ”ed” and ”$VISUAL” was ”vi”.)

1.4.8 Using vim

The recent vim(1) starts itself in the sane ”nocompatible” option and enters into the NORMAL mode.1
Please use the ”vimtutor” program to learn vim through an interactive tutorial course.
The vim program changes its behavior to typed key strokes based on mode. Typing in key strokes to the buffer is mostly
done in INSERT-mode and REPLACE-mode. Moving cursor is mostly done in NORMAL-mode. Interactive selection is done in
VISUAL-mode. Typing ”:” in NORMAL-mode changes its mode to Ex-mode. Ex-mode accepts commands.

Tip
The Vim comes with the Netrw package. Netrw supports reading files, writing files, browsing directories over a
network, and local browsing! Try Netrw with ”vim .” (a period as the argument) and read its manual at ”:help
netrw”.

1Even the older vim can starts in the sane ”nocompatible” mode by starting it with the ”-N” option.
Debian Reference 23 / 231

mode key strokes action

NORMAL :help|only display the help file
NORMAL :e filename.ext open new buffer to edit filename.ext
NORMAL :w overwrite current buffer to the original file
NORMAL :w filename.ext write current buffer to filename.ext
NORMAL :q quit vim
NORMAL :q! force to quit vim
NORMAL :only close all other split open windows
check if vim is in the sane nocompatible
NORMAL :set nocompatible?
mode
NORMAL :set nocompatible set vim to the sane nocompatible mode
NORMAL i enter the INSERT mode
NORMAL R enter the REPLACE mode
NORMAL v enter the VISUAL mode
NORMAL V enter the linewise VISUAL mode
NORMAL Ctrl-V enter the blockwise VISUAL mode
except TERMINAL-JOB ESC-key enter the NORMAL mode
NORMAL :term enter the TERMINAL-JOB mode
TERMINAL-NORMAL i enter the TERMINAL-JOB mode
TERMINAL-JOB Ctrl-W N (or Ctrl-\ Ctrl-N) enter the TERMINAL-NORMAL mode
enter the Ex-mode in TERMINAL-NORMAL
TERMINAL-JOB Ctrl-W :
mode

Table 1.16: List of basic Vim key strokes

For the advanced configuration of vim, see Section 9.2.

1.4.9 Recording the shell activities

The output of the shell command may roll off your screen and may be lost forever. It is a good practice to log shell activities into
the file for you to review them later. This kind of record is essential when you perform any system administration tasks.

Tip
The new Vim (version>=8.2) can be used to record the shell activities cleanly using TERMINAL-JOB-mode. See
Section 1.4.8.

The basic method of recording the shell activity is to run it under script(1).
For example, try the following
$ script
Script started, file is typescript

Do whatever shell commands under script.

Press Ctrl-D to exit script.
$ vim typescript

See Section 9.1.1 .

1.4.10 Basic Unix commands

Let’s learn basic Unix commands. Here I use ”Unix” in its generic sense. Any Unix clone OSs usually offer equivalent commands.
The Debian system is no exception. Do not worry if some commands do not work as you wish now. If alias is used in the
shell, its corresponding command outputs are different. These examples are not meant to be executed in this order.
Debian Reference 24 / 231

Try all following commands from the non-privileged user account.

Note
Unix has a tradition to hide filenames which start with ”.”. They are traditionally files that contain configuration
information and user preferences.
For cd command, see builtins(7).
The default pager of the bare bone Debian system is more(1) which cannot scroll back. By installing the less
package using command line ”apt-get install less”, less(1) becomes default pager and you can scroll
back with cursor keys.
The ”[” and ”]” in the regular expression of the ”ps aux | grep -e ”[e]xim4*”” command above enable
grep to avoid matching itself. The ”4*” in the regular expression means 0 or more repeats of character ”4” thus
enables grep to match both ”exim” and ”exim4”. Although ”*” is used in the shell filename glob and the regular
expression, their meanings are different. Learn the regular expression from grep(1).

Please traverse directories and peek into the system using the above commands as training. If you have questions on any of
console commands, please make sure to read the manual page.
For example, try the following
$ man man
$ man bash
$ man builtins
$ man grep
$ man ls

The style of man pages may be a little hard to get used to, because they are rather terse, particularly the older, very traditional
ones. But once you get used to it, you come to appreciate their succinctness.
Please note that many Unix-like commands including ones from GNU and BSD display brief help information if you invoke them
in one of the following ways (or without any arguments in some cases).
$ commandname --help
$ commandname -h

1.5 The simple shell command

Now you have some feel on how to use the Debian system. Let’s look deep into the mechanism of the command execution in the
Debian system. Here, I have simplified reality for the newbie. See bash(1) for the exact explanation.
A simple command is a sequence of components.

1. Variable assignments (optional)

2. Command name
3. Arguments (optional)
4. Redirections (optional: > , >> , < , << , etc.)
5. Control operator (optional: && , || , newline , ; , & , ( , ) )

1.5.1 Command execution and environment variable

The values of some environment variables change the behavior of some Unix commands.
Default values of environment variables are initially set by the PAM system and then some of them may be reset by some
application programs.
Debian Reference 25 / 231

command description
pwd display name of current/working directory
whoami display current user name
id display current user identity (name, uid, gid, and associated groups)
file foo display a type of file for the file ”foo”
type -p commandname display a file location of command ”commandname”
which commandname ,,
type commandname display information on command ”commandname”
apropos key-word find commands related to ”key-word”
man -k key-word ,,
whatis commandname display one line explanation on command ”commandname”
man -a commandname display explanation on command ”commandname” (Unix style)
display rather long explanation on command ”commandname” (GNU
info commandname
style)
ls list contents of directory (non-dot files and directories)
ls -a list contents of directory (all files and directories)
list contents of directory (almost all files and directories, i.e., skip ”..”
ls -A
and ”.”)
ls -la list all contents of directory with detail information
ls -lai list all contents of directory with inode number and detail information
ls -d list all directories under the current directory
tree display file tree contents
lsof foo list open status of file ”foo”
lsof -p pid list files opened by the process ID: ”pid”
mkdir foo make a new directory ”foo” in the current directory
rmdir foo remove a directory ”foo” in the current directory
change directory to the directory ”foo” in the current directory or in
cd foo
the directory listed in the variable ”$CDPATH”
cd / change directory to the root directory
cd change directory to the current user’s home directory
cd /foo change directory to the absolute path directory ”/foo”
cd .. change directory to the parent directory
cd ~foo change directory to the home directory of the user ”foo”
cd - change directory to the previous directory
</etc/motd pager display contents of ”/etc/motd” using the default pager
touch junkfile create a empty file ”junkfile”
cp foo bar copy a existing file ”foo” to a new file ”bar”
rm junkfile remove a file ”junkfile”
rename an existing file ”foo” to a new name ”bar” (”bar” must not
mv foo bar
exist)
move an existing file ”foo” to a new location ”bar/foo” (the
mv foo bar
directory ”bar” must exist)
move an existing file ”foo” to a new location with a new name
mv foo bar/baz ”bar/baz” (the directory ”bar” must exist but the directory
”bar/baz” must not exist)
make an existing file ”foo” to be non-readable and non-writable by
chmod 600 foo
the other people (non-executable for all)
make an existing file ”foo” to be readable but non-writable by the
chmod 644 foo
other people (non-executable for all)
make an existing file ”foo” to be readable but non-writable by the
chmod 755 foo
other people (executable for all)
find . -name pattern find matching filenames using shell ”pattern” (slower)
find matching filenames using shell ”pattern” (quicker using
locate -d . pattern
regularly generated database)
find a ”pattern” in all files ending with ”.html” in current
grep -e ”pattern” *.html
directory and display them all
top display process information using full screen, type ”q” to quit
ps aux | pager display information on all the running processes using BSD style output
display information on all the running processes using Unix system-V
ps -ef | pager
style output
ps aux | grep -e ”[e]xim4*” display all processes running ”exim” and ”exim4”
ps axf | pager display information on all the running processes with ASCII art output
kill 1234 kill a process identified by the process ID: ”1234”
Debian Reference 26 / 231

• The PAM system such as pam_env may set environment variables by /etc/pam.conf”, ”/etc/environment” and
”/etc/default/locale”.
• The display manager such as gdm3 may reset environment variables for GUI session.
• The user specific program initialization may reset environment variables by ”~/.profile”, ”~/.bash_profile” and
”~/.bashrc”.

1.5.2 The ”$LANG” variable

The default locale is defined in the ”$LANG” environment variable and is configured as ”LANG=xx_YY.UTF-8” by the installer
or by the subsequent GUI configuration, e.g., ”Settings” → ”Region & Language” → ”Language” / ”Formats” for GNOME.

Note
I recommend you to configure the system environment just by the ”$LANG” variable for now and to stay away from
”$LC_*” variables unless it is absolutely needed.

The full locale value given to ”$LANG” variable consists of 3 parts: ”xx_YY.ZZZZ”.

locale value meaning

xx ISO 639 language codes (lower case) such as ”en”
YY ISO 3166 country codes (upper case) such as ”US”
ZZZZ codeset, always set to ”UTF-8”

Table 1.18: The 3 parts of locale value

locale recommendation Language (area)

en_US.UTF-8 English (USA)
en_GB.UTF-8 English (Great Britain)
fr_FR.UTF-8 French (France)
de_DE.UTF-8 German (Germany)
it_IT.UTF-8 Italian (Italy)
es_ES.UTF-8 Spanish (Spain)
ca_ES.UTF-8 Catalan (Spain)
sv_SE.UTF-8 Swedish (Sweden)
pt_BR.UTF-8 Portuguese (Brazil)
ru_RU.UTF-8 Russian (Russia)
zh_CN.UTF-8 Chinese (P.R. of China)
zh_TW.UTF-8 Chinese (Taiwan R.O.C.)
ja_JP.UTF-8 Japanese (Japan)
ko_KR.UTF-8 Korean (Republic of Korea)
vi_VN.UTF-8 Vietnamese (Vietnam)

Table 1.19: List of locale recommendations

Typical command execution uses a shell line sequence as the following.

$ echo $LANG
en_US.UTF-8
$ date -u
Wed 19 May 2021 03:18:43 PM UTC
$ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8 date -u
mer. 19 mai 2021 15:19:02 UTC
Debian Reference 27 / 231

Here, the program date(1) is executed with different locale values.

• For the first command, ”$LANG” is set to the system default locale value ”en_US.UTF-8”.

• For the second command, ”$LANG” is set to the French UTF-8 locale value ”fr_FR.UTF-8”.

Most command executions usually do not have preceding environment variable definition. For the above example, you can
alternatively execute as the following.
$ LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8
$ date -u
mer. 19 mai 2021 15:19:24 UTC

Tip
When filing a bug report, running and checking the command under ”en_US.UTF-8” locale is a good idea if you
use non-English environment.

For fine details of the locale configuration, see Section 8.1.

1.5.3 The ”$PATH” variable

When you type a command into the shell, the shell searches the command in the list of directories contained in the ”$PATH”
environment variable. The value of the ”$PATH” environment variable is also called the shell’s search path.
In the default Debian installation, the ”$PATH” environment variable of user accounts may not include ”/sbin” and ”/usr/sbin”.
For example, the ifconfig command needs to be issued with full path as ”/sbin/ifconfig”. (Similar ip command is
located in ”/bin”.)
You can change the ”$PATH” environment variable of Bash shell by ”~/.bash_profile” or ”~/.bashrc” files.

1.5.4 The ”$HOME” variable

Many commands stores user specific configuration in the home directory and changes their behavior by their contents. The home
directory is identified by the environment variable ”$HOME”.

value of ”$HOME” program execution situation

/ program run by the init process (daemon)
/root program run from the normal root shell
/home/normal_user program run from the normal user shell
/home/normal_user program run from the normal user GUI desktop menu
/home/normal_user program run as root with ”sudo program”
/root program run as root with ”sudo -H program”

Table 1.20: List of ”$HOME” values

Tip
Shell expands ”~/” to current user’s home directory, i.e., ”$HOME/”. Shell expands ”~foo/” to foo’s home directory,
i.e., ”/home/foo/”.

See Section 12.1.5 if $HOME isn’t available for your program.

Debian Reference 28 / 231

1.5.5 Command line options

Some commands take arguments. Arguments starting with ”-” or ”--” are called options and control the behavior of the com-
mand.
$ date
Thu 20 May 2021 01:08:08 AM JST
$ date -R
Thu, 20 May 2021 01:08:12 +0900

Here the command-line argument ”-R” changes date(1) behavior to output RFC2822 compliant date string.

1.5.6 Shell glob

Often you want a command to work with a group of files without typing all of them. The filename expansion pattern using the
shell glob, (sometimes referred as wildcards), facilitate this need.

shell glob pattern description of match rule

* filename (segment) not started with ”.”
.* filename (segment) started with ”.”
? exactly one character
[…] exactly one character with any character enclosed in brackets
[a-z] exactly one character with any character between ”a” and ”z”
exactly one character other than any character enclosed in brackets
[^…]
(excluding ”^”)

Table 1.21: Shell glob patterns

For example, try the following

$ mkdir junk; cd junk; touch 1.txt 2.txt 3.c 4.h .5.txt ..6.txt
$ echo *.txt
1.txt 2.txt
$ echo *
1.txt 2.txt 3.c 4.h
$ echo *.[hc]
3.c 4.h
$ echo .*
. .. .5.txt ..6.txt
$ echo .*[^.]*
.5.txt ..6.txt
$ echo [^1-3]*
4.h
$ cd ..; rm -rf junk

See glob(7).

Note
Unlike normal filename expansion by the shell, the shell pattern ”*” tested in find(1) with ”-name” test etc., matches
the initial ”.” of the filename. (New POSIX feature)

Note
BASH can be tweaked to change its glob behavior with its shopt builtin options such as ”dotglob”, ”noglob”,
”nocaseglob”, ”nullglob”, ”extglob”, etc. See bash(1).
Debian Reference 29 / 231

1.5.7 Return value of the command

Each command returns its exit status (variable: ”$?”) as the return value.

command exit status numeric return value logical return value

success zero, 0 TRUE
error non-zero, -1 FALSE

Table 1.22: Command exit codes

For example, try the following.

$ [ 1 = 1 ] ; echo $?
0
$ [ 1 = 2 ] ; echo $?
1

Note
Please note that, in the logical context for the shell, success is treated as the logical TRUE which has 0 (zero) as
its value. This is somewhat non-intuitive and needs to be reminded here.

1.5.8 Typical command sequences and shell redirection

Let’s try to remember following shell command idioms typed in one line as a part of shell command.

command idiom description

command & background execution of command in the subshell
pipe the standard output of command1 to the standard input of
command1 | command2
command2 (concurrent execution)
pipe both standard output and standard error of command1 to the
command1 2>&1 | command2
standard input of command2 (concurrent execution)
command1 ; command2 execute command1 and command2 sequentially
execute command1; if successful, execute command2 sequentially
command1 && command2
(return success if both command1 and command2 are successful)
execute command1; if not successful, execute command2
command1 || command2 sequentially (return success if command1 or command2 are
successful)
command > foo redirect standard output of command to a file foo (overwrite)
command 2> foo redirect standard error of command to a file foo (overwrite)
command >> foo redirect standard output of command to a file foo (append)
command 2>> foo redirect standard error of command to a file foo (append)
redirect both standard output and standard error of command to a file
command > foo 2>&1
foo
command < foo redirect standard input of command to a file foo
redirect standard input of command to the following lines until
command << delimiter
”delimiter” is met (here document)
redirect standard input of command to the following lines until
command <<- delimiter ”delimiter” is met (here document, the leading tab characters are
stripped from input lines)

Table 1.23: Shell command idioms

Debian Reference 30 / 231

The Debian system is a multi-tasking system. Background jobs allow users to run multiple programs in a single shell. The
management of the background process involves the shell builtins: jobs, fg, bg, and kill. Please read sections of bash(1)
under ”SIGNALS”, and ”JOB CONTROL”, and builtins(1).
For example, try the following
$ </etc/motd pager

$ pager </etc/motd

$ pager /etc/motd

$ cat /etc/motd | pager

Although all 4 examples of shell redirections display the same thing, the last example runs an extra cat command and wastes
resources with no reason.
The shell allows you to open files using the exec builtin with an arbitrary file descriptor.
$ echo Hello >foo
$ exec 3foo 4bar # open files
$ cat <&3 >&4 # redirect stdin to 3, stdout to 4
$ exec 3<&- 4>&- # close files
$ cat bar
Hello

The file descriptor 0-2 are predefined.

device description file descriptor

stdin standard input 0
stdout standard output 1
stderr standard error 2

Table 1.24: Predefined file descriptors

1.5.9 Command alias

You can set an alias for the frequently used command.

For example, try the following
$ alias la=’ls -la’

Now, ”la” works as a short hand for ”ls -la” which lists all files in the long listing format.
You can list any existing aliases by alias (see bash(1) under ”SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS”).
$ alias
...
alias la=’ls -la’

You can identity exact path or identity of the command by type (see bash(1) under ”SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS”).
For example, try the following
Debian Reference 31 / 231

$ type ls
ls is hashed (/bin/ls)
$ type la
la is aliased to ls -la
$ type echo
echo is a shell builtin
$ type file
file is /usr/bin/file

Here ls was recently searched while ”file” was not, thus ”ls” is ”hashed”, i.e., the shell has an internal record for the quick
access to the location of the ”ls” command.

Tip
See Section 9.3.6.

1.6 Unix-like text processing

In Unix-like work environment, text processing is done by piping text through chains of standard text processing tools. This was
another crucial Unix innovation.

1.6.1 Unix text tools

There are few standard text processing tools which are used very often on the Unix-like system.

• No regular expression is used:

– cat(1) concatenates files and outputs the whole content.
– tac(1) concatenates files and outputs in reverse.
– cut(1) selects parts of lines and outputs.
– head(1) outputs the first part of files.
– tail(1) outputs the last part of files.
– sort(1) sorts lines of text files.
– uniq(1) removes duplicate lines from a sorted file.
– tr(1) translates or deletes characters.
– diff(1) compares files line by line.
• Basic regular expression (BRE) is used as default:
– ed(1) is a primitive line editor.
– sed(1) is a stream editor.
– grep(1) matches text with patterns.
– vim(1) is a screen editor.
– emacs(1) is a screen editor. (somewhat extended BRE)
• Extended regular expression (ERE) is used:
– awk(1) does simple text processing.
– egrep(1) matches text with patterns.
– tcl(3tcl) can do every conceivable text processing: See re_syntax(3). Often used with tk(3tk).
– perl(1) can do every conceivable text processing. See perlre(1).
Debian Reference 32 / 231

– pcregrep(1) from the pcregrep package matches text with Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE) pattern.
– python(1) with the re module can do every conceivable text processing. See ”/usr/share/doc/python/html/index.ht

If you are not sure what exactly these commands do, please use ”man command” to figure it out by yourself.

Note
Sort order and range expression are locale dependent. If you wish to obtain traditional behavior for a command,
use C locale or C.UTF-8 locale instead of normal UTF-8 ones (see Section 8.1).

Note
Perl regular expressions (perlre(1)), Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE), and Python regular expres-
sions offered by the re module have many common extensions to the normal ERE.

1.6.2 Regular expressions

Regular expressions are used in many text processing tools. They are analogous to the shell globs, but they are more complicated
and powerful.
The regular expression describes the matching pattern and is made up of text characters and metacharacters.
A metacharacter is just a character with a special meaning. There are 2 major styles, BRE and ERE, depending on the text tools
as described above.

BRE ERE description of the regular expression

\ . [ ] ^ $ * \ . [ ] ^ $ * common metacharacters
\+ \? \( \) \{ \} \| BRE only ”\” escaped metacharacters
+ ? ( ) { } | ERE only non-”\” escaped metacharacters
c c match non-metacharacter ”c”
match a literal character ”c” even if ”c” is
\c \c
metacharacter by itself
. . match any character including newline
^ ^ position at the beginning of a string
$ $ position at the end of a string
\< \< position at the beginning of a word
\> \> position at the end of a word
[abc…] [abc…] match any characters in ”abc…”
[^abc…] [^abc…] match any characters except in ”abc…”
match zero or more regular expressions
r* r*
identified by ”r”
match one or more regular expressions
r\+ r+
identified by ”r”
match zero or one regular expressions
r\? r?
identified by ”r”
match one of the regular expressions
r1\|r2 r1|r2
identified by ”r1” or ”r2”
match one of the regular expressions
\(r1\|r2\) (r1|r2) identified by ”r1” or ”r2” and treat it as a
bracketed regular expression

Table 1.25: Metacharacters for BRE and ERE

The regular expression of emacs is basically BRE but has been extended to treat ”+”and ”?” as the metacharacters as in ERE.
Thus, there are no needs to escape them with ”\” in the regular expression of emacs.
Debian Reference 33 / 231

grep(1) can be used to perform the text search using the regular expression.
For example, try the following
$ egrep ’GNU.*LICENSE|Yoyodyne’ /usr/share/common-licenses/GPL
GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program

Tip
See Section 9.3.6.

1.6.3 Replacement expressions

For the replacement expression, some characters have special meanings.

replacement expression description of the text to replace the replacement expression

& what the regular expression matched (use \& in emacs)
\n what the n-th bracketed regular expression matched (”n” being number)

Table 1.26: The replacement expression

For Perl replacement string, ”$&” is used instead of ”&” and ”$n” is used instead of ”\n”.
For example, try the following
$ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \
sed -e ’s/\(1[a-z]*\)[0-9]*\(.*\)$/=&=/’
zzz=1abc2efg3hij4=
$ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \
sed -e ’s/\(1[a-z]*\)[0-9]*\(.*\)$/\2===\1/’
zzzefg3hij4===1abc
$ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \
perl -pe ’s/(1[a-z]*)[0-9]*(.*)$/$2===$1/’
zzzefg3hij4===1abc
$ echo zzz1abc2efg3hij4 | \
perl -pe ’s/(1[a-z]*)[0-9]*(.*)$/=$&=/’
zzz=1abc2efg3hij4=

Here please pay extra attention to the style of the bracketed regular expression and how the matched strings are used in the text
replacement process on different tools.
These regular expressions can be used for cursor movements and text replacement actions in some editors too.
The back slash ”\” at the end of line in the shell commandline escapes newline as a white space character and continues shell
command line input to the next line.
Please read all the related manual pages to learn these commands.

1.6.4 Global substitution with regular expressions

The ed(1) command can replace all instances of ”FROM_REGEX” with ”TO_TEXT” in ”file”.
$ ed file <<EOF
,s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g
w
q
EOF
Debian Reference 34 / 231

The sed(1) command can replace all instances of ”FROM_REGEX” with ”TO_TEXT” in ”file”.
$ sed -i -e ’s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g’ file

The vim(1) command can replace all instances of ”FROM_REGEX” with ”TO_TEXT” in ”file” by using ex(1) commands.
$ vim ’+%s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/gc’ ’+w’ ’+q’ file

Tip
The ”c” flag in the above ensures interactive confirmation for each substitution.

Multiple files (”file1”, ”file2”, and ”file3”) can be processed with regular expressions similarly with vim(1) or perl(1).
$ vim ’+argdo %s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/ge|update’ ’+q’ file1 file2 file3

Tip
The ”e” flag in the above prevents the ”No match” error from breaking a mapping.

$ perl -i -p -e ’s/FROM_REGEX/TO_TEXT/g;’ file1 file2 file3

In the perl(1) example, ”-i” is for the in-place editing of each target file, and ”-p” is for the implicit loop over all given files.

Tip
Use of argument ”-i.bak” instead of ”-i” keeps each original file by adding ”.bak” to its filename. This makes
recovery from errors easier for complex substitutions.

Note
ed(1) and vim(1) are BRE; perl(1) is ERE.

1.6.5 Extracting data from text file table

Let’s consider a text file called ”DPL” in which some pre-2004 Debian project leader’s names and their initiation date are listed
in a space-separated format.
Ian Murdock August 1993
Bruce Perens April 1996
Ian Jackson January 1998
Wichert Akkerman January 1999
Ben Collins April 2001
Bdale Garbee April 2002
Martin Michlmayr March 2003

Tip
See ”A Brief History of Debian” for the latest Debian leadership history.

Awk is frequently used to extract data from these types of files.

For example, try the following
Debian Reference 35 / 231

$ awk ’{ print $3 }’ <DPL # month started

August
April
January
January
April
April
March
$ awk ’($1==”Ian”) { print }’ <DPL # DPL called Ian
Ian Murdock August 1993
Ian Jackson January 1998
$ awk ’($2==”Perens”) { print $3,$4 }’ <DPL # When Perens started
April 1996

Shells such as Bash can be also used to parse this kind of file.
For example, try the following
$ while read first last month year; do
echo $month
done <DPL
... same output as the first Awk example

Here, the read builtin command uses characters in ”$IFS” (internal field separators) to split lines into words.
If you change ”$IFS” to ”:”, you can parse ”/etc/passwd” with shell nicely.
$ oldIFS=”$IFS” # save old value
$ IFS=’:’
$ while read user password uid gid rest_of_line; do
if [ ”$user” = ”bozo” ]; then
echo ”$user’s ID is $uid”
fi
done < /etc/passwd
bozo’s ID is 1000
$ IFS=”$oldIFS” # restore old value

(If Awk is used to do the equivalent, use ”FS=’:’” to set the field separator.)
IFS is also used by the shell to split results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. These do
not occur within double or single quoted words. The default value of IFS is space, tab, and newline combined.
Be careful about using this shell IFS tricks. Strange things may happen, when shell interprets some parts of the script as its input.
$ IFS=”:,” # use ”:” and ”,” as IFS
$ echo IFS=$IFS, IFS=”$IFS” # echo is a Bash builtin
IFS= , IFS=:,
$ date -R # just a command output
Sat, 23 Aug 2003 08:30:15 +0200
$ echo $(date -R) # sub shell --> input to main shell
Sat 23 Aug 2003 08 30 36 +0200
$ unset IFS # reset IFS to the default
$ echo $(date -R)
Sat, 23 Aug 2003 08:30:50 +0200

1.6.6 Script snippets for piping commands

The following scripts do nice things as a part of a pipe.
A one-line shell script can loop over many files using find(1) and xargs(1) to perform quite complicated tasks. See Sec-
tion 10.1.5 and Section 9.4.9.
When using the shell interactive mode becomes too complicated, please consider to write a shell script (see Section 12.1).
Debian Reference 36 / 231

script snippet (type in one line) effect of command

find /usr -print find all files under ”/usr”
seq 1 100 print 1 to 100
| xargs -n 1 command run command repeatedly with each item from pipe as its argument
| xargs -n 1 echo split white-space-separated items from pipe into lines
| xargs echo merge all lines from pipe into a line
| grep -e regex_pattern extract lines from pipe containing regex_pattern
| grep -v -e regex_pattern extract lines from pipe not containing regex_pattern
| cut -d: -f3 - extract third field from pipe separated by ”:” (passwd file etc.)
| awk ’{ print $3 }’ extract third field from pipe separated by whitespaces
| awk -F’\t’ ’{ print $3 }’ extract third field from pipe separated by tab
| col -bx remove backspace and expand tabs to spaces
| expand - expand tabs
| sort| uniq sort and remove duplicates
| tr ’A-Z’ ’a-z’ convert uppercase to lowercase
| tr -d ’\n’ concatenate lines into one line
| tr -d ’\r’ remove CR
| sed ’s/^/# /’ add ”#” to the start of each line
| sed ’s/\.ext//g’ remove ”.ext”
| sed -n -e 2p print the second line
| head -n 2 - print the first 2 lines
| tail -n 2 - print the last 2 lines

Table 1.27: List of script snippets for piping commands

Debian Reference 37 / 231

Chapter 2

Debian package management

Note
This chapter is written assuming the latest stable release is codename: bullseye.

Debian is a volunteer organization which builds consistent distributions of pre-compiled binary packages of free software and
distributes them from its archive.
The Debian archive is offered by many remote mirror sites for access through HTTP and FTP methods. It is also available as
CD-ROM/DVD.
The current Debian package management system which can utilize all these resources is Advanced Packaging Tool (APT).
The Debian package management system, when used properly, offers the user to install consistent sets of binary packages to
the system from the archive. Currently, there are 64950 packages available for the amd64 architecture.
The Debian package management system has a rich history and many choices for the front end user program and back end archive
access method to be used. Currently, we recommend the following.

• apt(8) for all interactive command line operations, including package installation, removal and dist-upgrades.
• apt-get(8) for calling Debian package management system from scripts. It is also a fallback option when apt is not available
(often with older Debian systems).
• aptitude(8) for an interactive text interface to manage the installed packages and to search the available packages.

2.1 Debian package management prerequisites

2.1.1 Package configuration

Here are some key points for package configuration on the Debian system.

• The manual configuration by the system administrator is respected. In other words, the package configuration system makes
no intrusive configuration for the sake of convenience.
• Each package comes with its own configuration script with standardized user interface called debconf(7) to help initial
installation process of the package.
• Debian Developers try their best to make your upgrade experience flawless with package configuration scripts.
• Full functionalities of packaged software are available to the system administrator. But ones with security risks are disabled in
the default installation.
Debian Reference 38 / 231

package popcon size description

dpkg V:921, I:999 6874 low level package management system for Debian (file based)
APT front-end to manage packages with CLI:
apt V:872, I:999 4367
apt/apt-get/apt-cache
APT front-end to interactively manage packages with full screen
aptitude V:68, I:374 4256
console: aptitude(8)
tasksel V:35, I:978 395 APT front-end to install selected tasks: tasksel(8)
unattended-upgrades enhancement package for APT to enable automatic installation of
V:315, I:464 326
security upgrades
gnome-software V:129, I:229 2851 Software Center for GNOME (GUI APT front-end)
synaptic V:45, I:352 7874 graphical package manager (GTK APT front-end)
APT utility programs: apt-extracttemplates(1),
apt-utils V:381, I:997 1166
apt-ftparchive(1), and apt-sortpkgs(1)
apt-listchanges
V:356, I:855 423 package change history notification tool
apt-listbugs V:7, I:11 465 lists critical bugs before each APT installation
apt-file V:18, I:76 90 APT package searching utility —command-line interface
apt-rdepends V:0, I:6 41 recursively lists package dependencies

Table 2.1: List of Debian package management tools

• If you manually activate a service with some security risks, you are responsible for the risk containment.

• Esoteric configuration may be manually enabled by the system administrator. This may create interference with popular generic
helper programs for the system configuration.

2.1.2 Basic precautions

Warning
Do not install packages from random mixture of suites. It probably breaks the package consistency which
requires deep system management knowledge, such as compiler ABI, library version, interpreter features,
etc.

The newbie Debian system administrator should stay with the stable release of Debian while applying only security updates.
I mean that some of the following valid actions are better avoided, as a precaution, until you understand the Debian system very
well. Here are some reminders.

• Do not include testing or unstable in ”/etc/apt/sources.list”.

• Do not mix standard Debian with other non-Debian archives such as Ubuntu in ”/etc/apt/sources.list”.
• Do not create ”/etc/apt/preferences”.
• Do not change default behavior of package management tools through configuration files without knowing their full impacts.
• Do not install random packages by ”dpkg -i random_package”.

• Do not ever install random packages by ”dpkg --force-all -i random_package”.

• Do not erase or alter files in ”/var/lib/dpkg/”.
• Do not overwrite system files by installing software programs directly compiled from source.
– Install them into ”/usr/local” or ”/opt”, if needed.
Debian Reference 39 / 231

The non-compatible effects caused by above actions to the Debian package management system may leave your system unusable.
The serious Debian system administrator who runs mission critical servers, should use extra precautions.

• Do not install any packages including security updates from Debian without thoroughly testing them with your particular
configuration under safe conditions.

– You as the system administrator are responsible for your system in the end.
– The long stability history of the Debian system is no guarantee by itself.

2.1.3 Life with eternal upgrades

Caution
For your production server, the stable suite with the security updates is recommended. The same can
be said for desktop PCs on which you can spend limited administration efforts.

Despite my warnings above, I know many readers of this document may wish to run the newer testing or unstable suites.
Enlightenment with the following saves a person from the eternal karmic struggle of upgrade hell and let him reach Debian
nirvana.
This list is targeted for the self-administered Desktop environment.

• Use the testing suite since it is practically the rolling release automatically managed by the Debian archive QA infrastructure
such as the Debian continuous integration, the source only upload practices, and the library transition tracking. The packages
in the testing suite are updated frequently enough to offer all the latest features.
• Set the codename corresponding to the testing suite (currently ”bookworm”) in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list”.
• Manually update this codename in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” to the new one only after assessing situation by yourself
for about a month after the major suite release. The Debian user and developer mailing list are good sources of information for
this, too.

The use of the unstable suite isn’t recommended. The unstable suite is good for debugging packages as a developer but
tends to expose you to unnecessary risks for the normal Desktop usage. Even though the unstable suite of the Debian system
looks very stable for most of the times, there have been some package problems and a few of them were not so trivial to resolve.
Here are some basic precautionary measure ideas to ensure quick and easy recovery from bugs in Debian packages.

• Make the system dual bootable by installing the stable suite of the Debian system to another partition

• Make the installation CD handy for the rescue boot

• Consider installing apt-listbugs to check the Debian Bug Tracking System (BTS) information before the upgrade
• Learn the package system infrastructure enough to work around the problem
• Install a corresponding sandboxed upstream binary package in case of trouble (see Section 7.6)

• Create a chroot or similar environment and run the latest system in it in advance (see Section 9.11)

Caution
If you can not do any one of these precautionary actions, you are probably not ready for the testing and
unstable suites.
Debian Reference 40 / 231

2.1.4 Debian archive basics

Let’s look into the Debian archive from a system user’s perspective.

Tip
Official policy of the Debian archive is defined at Debian Policy Manual, Chapter 2 - The Debian Archive.

For the typical HTTP access, the archive is specified in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file as the following, e.g. for the
current stable = bullseye system.
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye main contrib non-free
deb-src http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye main contrib non-free

deb http://security.debian.org/debian-security bullseye-security main contrib

deb-src http://security.debian.org/debian-security bullseye-security main contrib

Here, I tend to use codename ”bullseye” instead of suite name ”stable” to avoid surprises when the next stable is
released.
The meaning of ”/etc/apt/sources.list” is described in sources.list(5) and key points are followings.

• The ”deb” line defines for the binary packages.

• The ”deb-src” line defines for the source packages.
• The 1st argument is the root URL of the Debian archive.
• The 2nd argument is the distribution name: either the suite name or the codename.
• The 3rd and following arguments are the list of valid archive area names of the Debian archive.

The ”deb-src” lines can safely be omitted (or commented out by placing ”#” at the start of the line) if it is just for aptitude
which does not access source related meta data. It speeds up the updates of the archive meta data. The URL can be ”http://”,
”ftp://”, ”file://”, ….

Tip
If ”sid” is used in the above example instead of ”bullseye”, the ”deb: http://security.debian.org/ …
” line for security updates in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” is not required. This is because there is no security
update archive for ”sid” (unstable).

Here is the list of URL of the Debian archive sites and suite name or codename used in the configuration file.

Caution
Only pure stable release with security updates provides the best stability. Running mostly stable release
mixed with some packages from testing or unstable release is riskier than running pure unstable re-
lease for library version mismatch etc. If you really need the latest version of some programs under stable
release, please use packages from bullseye-updates and http://backports.debian.org (see Section 2.7.4)
services. These services must be used with extra care.

Caution
You should basically list only one of stable, testing, or unstable suites in the ”deb” line. If
you list any combination of stable, testing, and unstable suites in the ”deb” line, APT programs
slow down while only the latest archive is effective. Multiple listing makes sense for these when the
”/etc/apt/preferences” file is used with clear objectives (see Section 2.7.3).
Debian Reference 41 / 231

archive URL suite name (codename) purpose

http://deb.debian.org/debian/ stable (bullseye) stable (bullseye) release
http://deb.debian.org/debian/ testing (bookworm) testing (bookworm) release
http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable (sid) unstable (sid) release
experimental pre-release (optional, only for
http://deb.debian.org/debian/ experimental
developer)
stable-proposed-updates Updates for the next stable (bullseye) point
http://deb.debian.org/debian/
(bullseye-proposed-updates)
release (optional)
compatible updates for spam filter, IM clients,
http://deb.debian.org/debian/ stable-updates(bullseye-updates)
etc. for stable (bullseye)
stable-backports newer backported packages for stable
http://deb.debian.org/debian/
(bullseye-backports) (bullseye) (optional)
http://security.debian.org/debian- stable-security security updates for stable release (bullseye)
security/ (bullseye-security) (important)
http://security.debian.org/debian- testing-security security updates for testing release (This isn’t
security/ (bookworm-security) actively supported by the security team)

Table 2.2: List of Debian archive sites

Tip
For the Debian system with the stable suite, it is a good idea to include lines with
”http://security.debian.org/” in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” to enable security updates as in
the example above.

Note
The security bugs for the stable archive are fixed by the Debian security team. This activity has been quite
rigorous and reliable. Those for the testing archive may be fixed by the Debian testing security team. For
several reasons, this activity is not as rigorous as that for stable and you may need to wait for the migration
of fixed unstable packages. Those for the unstable archive are fixed by the individual maintainer. Actively
maintained unstable packages are usually in a fairly good shape by leveraging latest upstream security fixes.
See Debian security FAQ for how Debian handles security bugs.

area number of packages criteria of package component

main 63828 DFSG compliant and no dependency to non-free
contrib 352 DFSG compliant but having dependency to non-free
non-free 770 not DFSG compliant

Table 2.3: List of Debian archive area

Here the number of packages in the above is for the amd64 architecture. The main area provides the Debian system (see
Section 2.1.5).
The Debian archive organization can be studied best by pointing your browser to the each archive URL appended with dists
or pool.
The distribution is referred by two ways, the suite or codename. The word distribution is alternatively used as the synonym to
the suite in many documentations. The relationship between the suite and the codename can be summarized as the following.
The history of codenames are described in Debian FAQ: 6.2.1 Which other codenames have been used in the past?
In the stricter Debian archive terminology, the word ”section” is specifically used for the categorization of packages by the
application area. (Although, the word ”main section” may sometimes be used to describe the Debian archive area named as
”main”.)
Debian Reference 42 / 231

Timing suite = stable suite = testing suite = unstable

after the bullseye release codename = bullseye codename = bookworm codename = sid
after the bookworm release codename = bookworm codename = trixie codename = sid

Table 2.4: The relationship between suite and codename

Every time a new upload is done by a Debian developer (DD) to the unstable archive (via incoming processing), the DD is
required to ensure uploaded packages to be compatible with the latest set of packages in the latest unstable archive.
If DD breaks this compatibility intentionally for important library upgrade etc, there is usually announcement to the debian-devel
mailing list etc.
Before a set of packages are moved by the Debian archive maintenance script from the unstable archive to the testing
archive, the archive maintenance script not only checks the maturity (about 10 days old) and the status of the RC bug reports for
the packages but also tries to ensure them to be compatible with the latest set of packages in the testing archive. This process
makes the testing archive very current and usable.
Through the gradual archive freeze process led by the release team, the testing archive is matured to make it completely
consistent and bug free with some manual interventions. Then the new stable release is created by assigning the codename
for the old testing archive to the new stable archive and creating the new codename for the new testing archive. The
initial contents of the new testing archive is exactly the same as that of the newly released stable archive.
Both the unstable and the testing archives may suffer temporary glitches due to several factors.

• Broken package upload to the archive (mostly for unstable)

• Delay of accepting the new packages to the archive (mostly for unstable)
• Archive synchronization timing issue (both for testing and unstable)
• Manual intervention to the archive such as package removal (more for testing) etc.

So if you ever decide to use these archives, you should be able to fix or work around these kinds of glitches.

Caution
For about few months after a new stable release, most desktop users should use the stable archive with
its security updates even if they usually use unstable or testing archives. For this transition period, both
unstable and testing archives are not good for most people. Your system is difficult to keep in good
working condition with the unstable archive since it suffers surges of major upgrades for core packages.
The testing archive is not useful either since it contains mostly the same content as the stable archive
without its security support (Debian testing-security-announce 2008-12). After a month or so, the unstable
archive may be usable if you are careful.

Tip
When tracking the testing archive, a problem caused by a removed package is usually worked around by in-
stalling corresponding package from the unstable archive which is uploaded for bug fix.

See Debian Policy Manual for archive definitions.

• ”Sections”
• ”Priorities”
• ”Base system”
• ”Essential packages”
Debian Reference 43 / 231

2.1.5 Debian is 100% free software

Debian is 100% free software because of the followings:

• Debian installs only free software by default to respect user’s freedoms.

• Debian provides only free software in main.

• Debian recommends running only free software from main.
• No packages in main depend nor recommend packages in non-free nor contrib.

Some people wonder if the following 2 facts contradict or not.

• ”Debian will remain 100% free”. (First term of Debian Social Contract)
• Debian servers host some non-free and contrib packages.

These do not contradict, because of the followings.

• The Debian system is 100% free and its packages are hosted by Debian servers in the main area.
• Packages outside of the Debian system are hosted by Debian servers in the non-free and contrib areas.

These are precisely explained in the 4th and 5th terms of Debian Social Contract:

• Our priorities are our users and free software

– We will be guided by the needs of our users and the free software community. We will place their interests first in our
priorities. We will support the needs of our users for operation in many different kinds of computing environments. We will
not object to non-free works that are intended to be used on Debian systems, or attempt to charge a fee to people who create
or use such works. We will allow others to create distributions containing both the Debian system and other works, without
any fee from us. In furtherance of these goals, we will provide an integrated system of high-quality materials with no legal
restrictions that would prevent such uses of the system.
• Works that do not meet our free software standards
– We acknowledge that some of our users require the use of works that do not conform to the Debian Free Software Guidelines.
We have created ”contrib” and ”non-free” areas in our archive for these works. The packages in these areas are not
part of the Debian system, although they have been configured for use with Debian. We encourage CD manufacturers to read
the licenses of the packages in these areas and determine if they can distribute the packages on their CDs. Thus, although
non-free works are not a part of Debian, we support their use and provide infrastructure for non-free packages (such as our
bug tracking system and mailing lists).

Users should be aware of the risks of using packages in the non-free and contrib areas:

• lack of freedom for such software packages

• lack of support from Debian on such software packages (Debian can’t support software properly without having access to its
source code.)
• contamination of your 100% free Debian system

The Debian Free Software Guidelines are the free software standards for Debian. Debian interprets ”software” in the widest scope
including document, firmware, logo, and artwork data in the package. This makes Debian’s free software standards very strict
ones.
Typical non-free and contrib packages include freely distributable packages of following types:
Debian Reference 44 / 231

• Document packages under GNU Free Documentation License with invariant sections such as ones for GCC and Make. (mostly
found in the non-free/doc section.)
• Firmware packages containing sourceless binary data such as ones listed in Section 9.10.5 as non-free. (mostly found in the
non-free/kernel section.)
• Game and font packages with restriction on commercial use and/or content modification.

Please note that the number of non-free and contrib packages is less than 2% of that of main packages. Enabling access
to the non-free and contrib areas does not obscure the source of packages. Interactive full screen use of aptitude(8)
provides you with full visibility and control over what packages are installed from which area to keep your system as free as you
wish.

2.1.6 Package dependencies

The Debian system offers a consistent set of binary packages through its versioned binary dependency declaration mechanism in
the control file fields. Here is a bit over simplified definition for them.

• ”Depends”
– This declares an absolute dependency and all of the packages listed in this field must be installed at the same time or in
advance.
• ”Pre-Depends”
– This is like Depends, except that it requires completed installation of the listed packages in advance.
• ”Recommends”
– This declares a strong, but not absolute, dependency. Most users would not want the package unless all of the packages listed
in this field are installed.
• ”Suggests”
– This declares a weak dependency. Many users of this package may benefit from installing packages listed in this field but
can have reasonable functions without them.
• ”Enhances”
– This declares a week dependency like Suggests but works in the opposite direction.
• ”Breaks”
– This declares a package incompatibility usually with some version specification. Generally the resolution is to upgrade all
of the packages listed in this field.
• ”Conflicts”
– This declares an absolute incompatibility. All of the packages listed in this field must be removed to install this package.
• ”Replaces”
– This is declared when files installed by this package replace files in the listed packages.
• ”Provides”
– This is declared when this package provide all of the files and functionality in the listed packages.

Note
Please note that defining ”Provides”, ”Conflicts” and ”Replaces” simultaneously to an virtual package is the sane
configuration. This ensures that only one real package providing this virtual package can be installed at any one
time.

The official definition including source dependency can be found in the Policy Manual: Chapter 7 - Declaring relationships
between packages.
Debian Reference 45 / 231

2.1.7 The event flow of the package management

Here is a summary of the simplified event flow of the package management by APT.

• Update (”apt update”, ”aptitude update” or ”apt-get update”):

1. Fetch archive metadata from remote archive

2. Reconstruct and update local metadata for use by APT
• Upgrade (”apt upgrade” and ”apt full-upgrade”, or ”aptitude safe-upgrade” and ”aptitude full-upgrade
or ”apt-get upgrade” and ”apt-get dist-upgrade”):
1. Chose candidate version which is usually the latest available version for all installed packages (see Section 2.7.3 for
exception)
2. Make package dependency resolution
3. Fetch selected binary packages from remote archive if candidate version is different from installed version
4. Unpack fetched binary packages
5. Run preinst script
6. Install binary files
7. Run postinst script
• Install (”apt install …”, aptitude install …” or ”apt-get install …”):

1. Chose packages listed on the command line

2. Make package dependency resolution
3. Fetch selected binary packages from remote archive
4. Unpack fetched binary packages
5. Run preinst script
6. Install binary files
7. Run postinst script
• Remove (”apt remove …”, ”aptitude remove …” or ”apt-get remove …”):
1. Chose packages listed on the command line
2. Make package dependency resolution
3. Run prerm script
4. Remove installed files except configuration files
5. Run postrm script

• Purge (”apt purge”, ”aptitude purge …” or ”apt-get purge …”):

1. Chose packages listed on the command line
2. Make package dependency resolution
3. Run prerm script
4. Remove installed files including configuration files
5. Run postrm script

Here, I intentionally skipped technical details for the sake of big picture.
Debian Reference 46 / 231

2.1.8 First response to package management troubles

You should read the fine official documentation. The first document to read is the Debian specific ”/usr/share/doc/package_nam
Other documentation in ”/usr/share/doc/package_name/” should be consulted too. If you set shell as Section 1.4.2,
type the following.
$ cd package_name
$ pager README.Debian
$ mc

You may need to install the corresponding documentation package named with ”-doc” suffix for detailed information.
If you are experiencing problems with a specific package, make sure to check out the Debian bug tracking system (BTS) sites,
first.

web site command

Home page of the Debian bug
sensible-browser ”http://bugs.debian.org/”
tracking system (BTS)
The bug report of a known package
sensible-browser ”http://bugs.debian.org/package_name”
name
The bug report of known bug
sensible-browser ”http://bugs.debian.org/bug_number”
number

Table 2.5: List of key web site to resolving problems with a specific package

Search Google with search words including ”site:debian.org”, ”site:wiki.debian.org”, ”site:lists.debian.org”

etc.
When you file a bug report, please use reportbug(1) command.

2.2 Basic package management operations

Repository based package management operations on the Debian system can be performed by many APT-based package manage-
ment tools available on the Debian system. Here, we explain 3 basic package management tools: apt, apt-get / apt-cache
and aptitude.
For the package management operation which involves package installation or updates package metadata, you need to have root
privilege.

2.2.1 apt vs. apt-get / apt-cache vs. aptitude

Although aptitude is a very nice interactive tool which the author mainly uses, you should know some cautionary facts:

• The aptitude command is not recommended for the release-to-release system upgrade on the stable Debian system after
the new release.
– The use of ”apt full-upgrade” or ”apt-get dist-upgrade” is recommended for it. See Bug #411280.
• The aptitude command sometimes suggests mass package removals for the system upgrade on the testing or unstable
Debian system.
– This situation has frightened many system administrators. Don’t panic.
– This seems to be caused mostly by the version skew among packages depended or recommended by a meta-package such as
gnome-core.
– This can be resolved by selecting ”Cancel pending actions” in the aptitude command menu, exiting aptitude, and
using ”apt full-upgrade”.
Debian Reference 47 / 231

The apt-get and apt-cache commands are the most basic APT-based package management tools.

• apt-get and apt-cache offer only the commandline user interface.

• apt-get is most suitable for the major system upgrade between releases, etc.
• apt-get offers a robust package dependency resolver.
• apt-get is less demanding on hardware resources. It consumes less memory and runs faster.
• apt-cache offers a standard regex based search on the package name and description.
• apt-get and apt-cache can manage multiple versions of packages using /etc/apt/preferences but it is quite
cumbersome.

The apt command is a high-level commandline interface for package management. It is basically a wrapper of apt-get,
apt-cache and similar commands, originally intended as an end-user interface and enables some options better suited for
interactive usage by default.

• apt provides a friendly progress bar when installing packages using apt install.
• apt will remove cached .deb packages by default after sucessful installation of downloaded packages.

Tip
Users are recommended to use the new apt(8) command for interactive usage and use the apt-get(8) and
apt-cache(8) commands in the shell script.

The aptitude command is the most versatile APT-based package management tool.

• aptitude offers the fullscreen interactive text user interface.

• aptitude offers the commandline user interface, too.
• aptitude is most suitable for the daily interactive package management such as inspecting installed packages and searching
available packages.
• aptitude is more demanding on hardware resources. It consumes more memory and runs slower.
• aptitude offers an enhanced regex based search on all of the package metadata.
• aptitude can manage multiple versions of packages without using /etc/apt/preferences and it is quite intuitive.

2.2.2 Basic package management operations with the commandline

Here are basic package management operations with the commandline using apt(8), aptitude(8) and apt-get(8) /apt-cache(8).

apt / apt-get and aptitude can be mixed without major troubles.

The ”aptitude why regex” can list more information by ”aptitude -v why regex”. Similar information can be
obtained by ”apt rdepends package” or ”apt-cache rdepends package”.
When aptitude command is started in the commandline mode and faces some issues such as package conflicts, you can switch
to the full screen interactive mode by pressing ”e”-key later at the prompt.

Note
Although the aptitude command comes with rich features such as its enhanced package resolver, this complexity
has caused (or may still causes) some regressions such as Bug #411123, Bug #514930, and Bug #570377. In case
of doubt, please use the apt, apt-get and apt-cache commands over the aptitude command.

You may provide command options right after ”aptitude”.

See aptitude(8) and ”aptitude user’s manual” at ”/usr/share/doc/aptitude/README” for more.
Debian Reference 48 / 231

apt-get/apt-cache
aptitude
apt syntax syn- description
syntax
tax
aptitude apt-get
apt update update package archive metadata
update update
aptitude apt-get
apt install foo install installinstall candidate version of ”foo” package with its dependencies
foo foo
aptitude apt-getinstall candidate version of installed packages without removing any
apt upgrade
upgradeother packages
safe-upgrade
apt aptitude apt-getinstall candidate version of installed packages while removing other
full-upgrade full-upgrade packages if needed
dist-upgrade
aptitude apt-get
apt remove foo remove remove remove ”foo” package while leaving its configuration files
foo foo
apt-get
apt autoremove N/A remove auto-installed packages which are no longer required
autoremove
apt-get
aptitude
apt purge foo purge purge ”foo” package with its configuration files
purge foo
foo
aptitude apt-get
apt clean clear out the local repository of retrieved package files completely
clean clean
aptitude apt-getclear out the local repository of retrieved package files for outdated
apt autoclean
packages
autoclean autoclean
apt-cache
aptitude
apt show foo show display detailed information about ”foo” package
show foo
foo
aptitude apt-cache
apt search
search search search packages which match regex
regex
regex regex
aptitude
N/A N/A explain the reason why regex matching packages should be installed
why regex
aptitude
N/A why-not N/A explain the reason why regex matching packages can not be installed
regex
aptitude
apt-mark
N/A search list manually installed packages
showmanual
’~i!~M’

Table 2.6: Basic package management operations with the commandline using apt(8), aptitude(8) and apt-get(8)
/apt-cache(8)

command option description

-s simulate the result of the command
-d download only but no install/upgrade
-D show brief explanations before the automatic installations and removals

Table 2.7: Notable command options for aptitude(8)

Debian Reference 49 / 231

2.2.3 Interactive use of aptitude

For the interactive package management, you start aptitude in interactive mode from the console shell prompt as follows.
$ sudo aptitude -u
Password:

This updates the local copy of the archive information and display the package list in the full screen with menu. Aptitude places
its configuration at ”~/.aptitude/config”.

Tip
If you want to use root’s configuration instead of user’s one, use ”sudo -H aptitude …” instead of ”sudo
aptitude …” in the above expression.

Tip
Aptitude automatically sets pending actions as it is started interactively. If you do not like it, you can reset it
from menu: ”Action” → ”Cancel pending actions”.

2.2.4 Key bindings of aptitude

Notable key strokes to browse status of packages and to set ”planned action” on them in this full screen mode are the following.

key key binding

F10 or Ctrl-t menu
? display help for keystroke (more complete listing)
F10 → Help → User’s Manual display User’s Manual
u update package archive information
+ mark the package for the upgrade or the install
- mark the package for the remove (keep configuration files)
_ mark the package for the purge (remove configuration files)
= place the package on hold
U mark all upgradable packages (function as full-upgrade)
g start downloading and installing selected packages
q quit current screen and save changes
x quit current screen and discard changes
Enter view information about a package
C view a package’s changelog
l change the limit for the displayed packages
/ search for the first match
\ repeat the last search

Table 2.8: List of key bindings for aptitude

The file name specification of the command line and the menu prompt after pressing ”l” and ”//” take the aptitude regex as
described below. Aptitude regex can explicitly match a package name using a string started by ”~n and followed by the package
name.

Tip
You need to press ”U” to get all the installed packages upgraded to the candidate version in the visual interface.
Otherwise only the selected packages and certain packages with versioned dependency to them are upgraded to
the candidate version.
Debian Reference 50 / 231

2.2.5 Package views under aptitude

In the interactive full screen mode of aptitude(8), packages in the package list are displayed as the next example.
idA libsmbclient -2220kB 3.0.25a-1 3.0.25a-2

Here, this line means from the left as the following.

• The ”current state” flag (the first letter)

• The ”planned action” flag (the second letter)

• The ”automatic” flag (the third letter)

• The Package name
• The change in disk space usage attributed to ”planned action”

• The current version of the package

• The candidate version of the package

Tip
The full list of flags are given at the bottom of Help screen shown by pressing ”?”.

The candidate version is chosen according to the current local preferences (see apt_preferences(5) and Section 2.7.3).
Several types of package views are available under the menu ”Views”.

view description of view

Package View see Table 2.10 (default)
list packages which are recommended by some installed
Audit Recommendations
packages but not yet installed
Flat Package List list packages without categorization (for use with regex)
Debtags Browser list packages categorized according to their debtags entries
Source Package View list packages grouped by source packages

Table 2.9: List of views for aptitude

Note
Please help us improving tagging packages with debtags!

The standard ”Package View” categorizes packages somewhat like dselect with few extra features.

Tip
Tasks view can be used to cherry pick packages for your task.
Debian Reference 51 / 231

category description of view

Upgradable Packages list packages organized as section → area → package
New Packages ,,
Installed Packages ,,
Not Installed Packages ,,
Obsolete and Locally Created
,,
Packages
Virtual Packages list packages with the same function
Tasks list packages with different functions generally needed for a task

Table 2.10: The categorization of standard package views

2.2.6 Search method options with aptitude

Aptitude offers several options for you to search packages using its regex formula.

• Shell commandline:
– ”aptitude search ’aptitude_regex’” to list installation status, package name and short description of matching
packages
– ”aptitude show ’package_name’” to list detailed description of the package
• Interactive full screen mode:
– ”l” to limit package view to matching packages
– ”/” for search to a matching package
– ”\” for backward search to a matching package
– ”n” for find-next
– ”N” for find-next (backward)

Tip
The string for package_name is treated as the exact string match to the package name unless it is started explicitly
with ”~” to be the regex formula.

2.2.7 The aptitude regex formula

The aptitude regex formula is mutt-like extended ERE (see Section 1.6.2) and the meanings of the aptitude specific special
match rule extensions are as follows.

• The regex part is the same ERE as the one used in typical Unix-like text tools using ”^”, ”.*”, ”$” etc. as in egrep(1),
awk(1) and perl(1).
• The dependency type is one of (depends, predepends, recommends, suggests, conflicts, replaces, provides) specifying the
package interrelationship.
• The default dependency type is ”depends”.

Tip
When regex_pattern is a null string, place ”~T” immediately after the command.

Here are some short cuts.

Debian Reference 52 / 231

description of the extended match rule regex formula

match on package name ~nregex_name
match on description ~dregex_description
match on task name ~tregex_task
match on debtag ~Gregex_debtag
match on maintainer ~mregex_maintainer
match on package section ~sregex_section
match on package version ~Vregex_version
match archive ~A{bullseye,bookworm,sid}
match origin ~O{debian,…}
match priority ~p{extra,important,optional,required,standard}
match essential packages ~E
match virtual packages ~v
match new packages ~N
match with pending action ~a{install,upgrade,downgrade,remove,purge,hold,keep}
match installed packages ~i
match installed packages with A-mark (auto
~M
installed packages)
match installed packages without A-mark
~i!~M
(administrator selected packages)
match installed and upgradable packages ~U
match removed but not purged packages ~c
match removed, purged or can-be-removed
~g
packages
match packages declaring a broken dependency ~b
match packages declaring broken dependency
~Btype
of type
match pattern packages declaring dependency
~D[type:]pattern
of type
match pattern packages declaring broken
~DB[type:]pattern
dependency of type
match packages to which the pattern matching
~R[type:]pattern
package declares dependency type
match packages to which the pattern matching
~RB[type:]pattern
package declares broken dependency type
match packages to which some other installed
~R~i
packages depend on
match packages to which no other installed
!~R~i
packages depend on
match packages to which some other installed
~R~i|~Rrecommends:~i
packages depend or recommend on
match pattern package with filtered version ~S filter pattern
match all packages (true) ~T
match no packages (false) ~F

Table 2.11: List of the aptitude regex formula

Debian Reference 53 / 231

• ”~Pterm” == ”~Dprovides:term”
• ”~Cterm” == ”~Dconflicts:term”
• ”…~W term” == ”(…|term)”

Users familiar with mutt pick up quickly, as mutt was the inspiration for the expression syntax. See ”SEARCHING, LIMITING,
AND EXPRESSIONS” in the ”User’s Manual” ”/usr/share/doc/aptitude/README”.

Note
With the lenny version of aptitude(8), the new long form syntax such as ”?broken” may be used for regex
matching in place for its old short form equivalent ”~b”. Now space character ” ” is considered as one of the regex
terminating character in addition to tilde character ”~”. See ”User’s Manual” for the new long form syntax.

2.2.8 Dependency resolution of aptitude

The selection of a package in aptitude not only pulls in packages which are defined in its ”Depends:” list but also defined
in the ”Recommends:” list if the menu ”F10 → Options → Preferences → Dependency handling” is set accordingly. These
auto installed packages are removed automatically if they are no longer needed under aptitude.
The flag controlling the ”auto install” behavior of the aptitude command can also be manipulated using the apt-mark(8)
command from the apt package.

2.2.9 Package activity logs

You can check package activity history in the log files.

file content
/var/log/dpkg.log Log of dpkg level activity for all package activities
/var/log/apt/term.log Log of generic APT activity
/var/log/aptitude Log of aptitude command activity

Table 2.12: The log files for package activities

In reality, it is not so easy to get meaningful understanding quickly out from these logs. See Section 9.3.9 for easier way.

2.3 Examples of aptitude operations

Here are few examples of aptitude(8) operations.

2.3.1 Listing packages with regex matching on package names

The following command lists packages with regex matching on package names.
$ aptitude search ’~n(pam|nss).*ldap’
p libnss-ldap - NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service
p libpam-ldap - Pluggable Authentication Module allowing LDAP interfaces

This is quite handy for you to find the exact name of a package.
Debian Reference 54 / 231

2.3.2 Browsing with the regex matching

The regex ”~dipv6” in the ”New Flat Package List” view with ”l” prompt, limits view to packages with the matching description
and let you browse their information interactively.

2.3.3 Purging removed packages for good

You can purge all remaining configuration files of removed packages.

Check results of the following command.
# aptitude search ’~c’

If you think listed packages are OK to be purged, execute the following command.
# aptitude purge ’~c’

You may want to do the similar in the interactive mode for fine grained control.
You provide the regex ”~c” in the ”New Package View” view with ”l” prompt. This limits the package view only to regex
matched packages, i.e., ”removed but not purged”. All these regex matched packages can be shown by pressing ”[” at top level
headings.
Then you press ”_” at top level headings such as ”Not Installed Packages”. Only regex matched packages under the heading are
marked to be purged by this. You can exclude some packages to be purged by pressing ”=” interactively for each of them.
This technique is quite handy and works for many other command keys.

2.3.4 Tidying auto/manual install status

Here is how I tidy auto/manual install status for packages (after using non-aptitude package installer etc.).

1. Start aptitude in interactive mode as root.

2. Type ”u”, ”U”, ”f” and ”g” to update and upgrade package list and packages.
3. Type ”l” to enter the package display limit as ”~i(~R~i|~Rrecommends:~i)” and type ”M” over ”Installed
Packages” as auto installed.
4. Type ”l” to enter the package display limit as ”~prequired|~pimportant|~pstandard|~E” and type ”m” over
”Installed Packages” as manual installed.
5. Type ”l” to enter the package display limit as ”~i!~M” and remove unused package by typing ”-” over each of them after
exposing them by typing ”[” over ”Installed Packages”.
6. Type ”l”, to enter the package display limit as ”~i”; then type ”m” over ”Tasks”, to mark that packages as manual
installed.

7. Exit aptitude.
8. Start ”apt-get -s autoremove|less” as root to check what are not used.
9. Restart aptitude in interactive mode and mark needed packages as ”m”.

10. Restart ”apt-get -s autoremove|less” as root to recheck REMOVED contain only expected packages.
11. Start ”apt-get autoremove|less” as root to autoremove unused packages.

The ”m” action over ”Tasks” is an optional one to prevent mass package removal situation in future.
Debian Reference 55 / 231

2.3.5 System wide upgrade

Note
When moving to a new release etc, you should consider to perform a clean installation of new system even though
Debian is upgradable as described below. This provides you a chance to remove garbages collected and exposes
you to the best combination of latest packages. Of course, you should make a full backup of system to a safe place
(see Section 10.2) before doing this. I recommend to make a dual boot configuration using different partition to
have the smoothest transition.

You can perform system wide upgrade to a newer release by changing contents of the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file
pointing to a new release and running the ”apt update; apt dist-upgrade” command.
To upgrade from stable to testing or unstable, you replace ”bullseye” in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” ex-
ample of Section 2.1.4 with ”bookworm” or ”sid”.
In reality, you may face some complications due to some package transition issues, mostly due to package dependencies. The
larger the difference of the upgrade, the more likely you face larger troubles. For the transition from the old stable to the new
stable after its release, you can read its new Release Notes and follow the exact procedure described in it to minimize troubles.
When you decide to move from stable to testing before its formal release, there are no Release Notes to help you. The
difference between stable and testing could have grown quite large after the previous stable release and makes upgrade
situation complicated.
You should make precautionary moves for the full upgrade while gathering latest information from mailing list and using common
senses.

1. Read previous ”Release Notes”.

2. Backup entire system (especially data and configuration information).
3. Have bootable media handy for broken bootloader.
4. Inform users on the system well in advance.
5. Record upgrade activity with script(1).
6. Apply ”unmarkauto” to required packages, e.g., ”aptitude unmarkauto vim”, to prevent removal.
7. Minimize installed packages to reduce chance of package conflicts, e.g., remove desktop task packages.
8. Remove the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file (disable apt-pinning).
9. Try to upgrade step wise: oldstable → stable → testing → unstable.
10. Update the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file to point to new archive only and run ”aptitude update”.
11. Install, optionally, new core packages first, e.g., ”aptitude install perl”.
12. Run the ”apt-get -s dist-upgrade” command to assess impact.
13. Run the ”apt-get dist-upgrade” command at last.

Caution
It is not wise to skip major Debian release when upgrading between stable releases.

Caution
In previous ”Release Notes”, GCC, Linux Kernel, initrd-tools, Glibc, Perl, APT tool chain, etc. have required
some special attention for system wide upgrade.

For daily upgrade in unstable, see Section 2.4.3.

Debian Reference 56 / 231

2.4 Advanced package management operations

2.4.1 Advanced package management operations with commandline

Here are list of other package management operations for which aptitude is too high-level or lacks required functionalities.

Note
For a package with the multi-arch feature, you may need to specify the architecture name for some commands. For
example, use ”dpkg -L libglib2.0-0:amd64” to list contents of the libglib2.0-0 package for the amd64
architecture.

Caution
Lower level package tools such as ”dpkg -i …” and ”debi …” should be carefully used by the system
administrator. It does not automatically take care required package dependencies. Dpkg’s commandline
options ”--force-all” and similar (see dpkg(1)) are intended to be used by experts only. Using them
without fully understanding their effects may break your whole system.

Please note the following.

• All system configuration and installation commands require to be run from root.
• Unlike aptitude which uses regex (see Section 1.6.2), other package management commands use pattern like shell glob (see
Section 1.5.6).

• apt-file(1) provided by the apt-file package must run ”apt-file update” in advance.
• configure-debian(8) provided by the configure-debian package runs dpkg-reconfigure(8) as its backend.
• dpkg-reconfigure(8) runs package scripts using debconf(1) as its backend.

• ”apt-get build-dep”, ”apt-get source” and ”apt-cache showsrc” commands require ”deb-src” entry in
”/etc/apt/sources.list”.
• dget(1), debuild(1), and debi(1) require devscripts package.
• See (re)packaging procedure using ”apt-get source” in Section 2.7.13.

• make-kpkg command requires the kernel-package package (see Section 9.10).

• See Section 12.9 for general packaging.

2.4.2 Verification of installed package files

The installation of debsums enables verification of installed package files against MD5sum values in the ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/*.
file with debsums(1). See Section 10.3.5 for how MD5sum works.

Note
Because MD5sum database may be tampered by the intruder, debsums(1) is of limited use as a security tool. It is
only good for checking local modifications by the administrator or damage due to media errors.
Debian Reference 57 / 231

command action
COLUMNS=120 dpkg -l
list status of an installed package for the bug report
package_name_pattern
dpkg -L package_name list contents of an installed package
dpkg -L package_name | egrep
list manpages for an installed package
’/usr/share/man/man.*/.+’
dpkg -S file_name_pattern list installed packages which have matching file name
apt-file search
list packages in archive which have matching file name
file_name_pattern
apt-file list
list contents of matching packages in archive
package_name_pattern
dpkg-reconfigure package_name reconfigure the exact package
dpkg-reconfigure -plow
reconfigure the exact package with the most detailed question
package_name
configure-debian reconfigure packages from the full screen menu
dpkg --audit audit system for partially installed packages
dpkg --configure -a configure all partially installed packages
apt-cache policy show available version, priority, and archive information of a binary
binary_package_name package
apt-cache madison package_name show available version, archive information of a package
apt-cache showsrc
show source package information of a binary package
binary_package_name
apt-get build-dep package_name install required packages to build package
aptitude build-dep package_name install required packages to build package
apt-get source package_name download a source (from standard archive)
dget URL for dsc file download a source packages (from other archive)
dpkg-source -x build a source tree from a set of source packages (”*.orig.tar.gz”
and ”*.debian.tar.gz”/”*.diff.gz”)
package_name_version-debian.revision.dsc
debuild binary build package(s) from a local source tree
make-kpkg kernel_image build a kernel package from a kernel source tree
make-kpkg --initrd kernel_image build a kernel package from a kernel source tree with initramfs enabled
dpkg -i
install a local package to the system
package_name_version-debian.revision_arch.deb
apt install install a local package to the system, meanwhile try to resolve
/path/to/package_filename.deb dependency automatically
debi
install local package(s) to the system
package_name_version-debian.revision_arch.dsc
dpkg --get-selections ’*’
save dpkg level package selection state information
>selection.txt
dpkg --set-selections
set dpkg level package selection state information
<selection.txt
echo package_name hold | dpkg set dpkg level package selection state for a package to hold
--set-selections (equivalent to ”aptitude hold package_name”)

Table 2.13: List of advanced package management operations

Debian Reference 58 / 231

2.4.3 Safeguarding for package problems

Many users prefer to follow the unstable release of the Debian system for its new features and packages. This makes the system
more prone to be hit by the critical package bugs.
The installation of the apt-listbugs package safeguards your system against critical bugs by checking Debian BTS automat-
ically for critical bugs when upgrading with APT system.
The installation of the apt-listchanges package provides important news in ”NEWS.Debian” when upgrading with APT
system.

2.4.4 Searching on the package meta data

Although visiting Debian site https://packages.debian.org/ facilitates easy ways to search on the package meta data these days,
let’s look into more traditional ways.
The grep-dctrl(1), grep-status(1), and grep-available(1) commands can be used to search any file which has the
general format of a Debian package control file.
The ”dpkg -S file_name_pattern” can be used search package names which contain files with the matching name
installed by dpkg. But this overlooks files created by the maintainer scripts.
If you need to make more elaborate search on the dpkg meta data, you need to run ”grep -e regex_pattern *” command
in the ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/” directory. This makes you search words mentioned in package scripts and installation query
texts.
If you wish to look up package dependency recursively, you should use apt-rdepends(8).

2.5 Debian package management internals

Let’s learn how the Debian package management system works internally. This should help you to create your own solution to
some package problems.

2.5.1 Archive meta data

Meta data files for each distribution are stored under ”dist/codename” on each Debian mirror sites, e.g., ”http://deb.debian.o
Its archive structure can be browsed by the web browser. There are 6 types of key meta data.

file location content

Release top of distribution archive description and integrity information
signature file for the ”Release” file signed
Release.gpg top of distribution
with the archive key
list of all files for all the packages in the
Contents-architecture top of distribution
pertinent archive
top of each
archive description used for the rule of
Release distribution/area/architecture
apt_preferences(5)
combination
top of each
concatenated debian/control for binary
Packages distribution/area/binary-
packages
architecture combination
top of each
concatenated debian/control for source
Sources distribution/area/source
packages
combination

Table 2.14: The content of the Debian archive meta data

In the recent archive, these meta data are stored as the compressed and differential files to reduce network traffic.
Debian Reference 59 / 231

2.5.2 Top level ”Release” file and authenticity

Tip
The top level ”Release” file is used for signing the archive under the secure APT system.

Each suite of the Debian archive has a top level ”Release” file, e.g., ”http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/unstable/
as follows.
Origin: Debian
Label: Debian
Suite: unstable
Codename: sid
Date: Sat, 14 May 2011 08:20:50 UTC
Valid-Until: Sat, 21 May 2011 08:20:50 UTC
Architectures: alpha amd64 armel hppa hurd-i386 i386 ia64 kfreebsd-amd64 kfreebsd-i386 mips ←-
mipsel powerpc s390 sparc
Components: main contrib non-free
Description: Debian x.y Unstable - Not Released
MD5Sum:
bdc8fa4b3f5e4a715dd0d56d176fc789 18876880 Contents-alpha.gz
9469a03c94b85e010d116aeeab9614c0 19441880 Contents-amd64.gz
3d68e206d7faa3aded660dc0996054fe 19203165 Contents-armel.gz
...

Note
Here, you can find my rationale to use the ”suite”, and ”codename” in Section 2.1.4. The ”distribution” is used
when referring to both ”suite” and ”codename”. All archive ”area” names offered by the archive are listed under
”Components”.

The integrity of the top level ”Release” file is verified by cryptographic infrastructure called the secure apt.

• The cryptographic signature file ”Release.gpg” is created from the authentic top level ”Release” file and the secret
Debian archive key.
• The public Debian archive key can be seeded into ”/etc/apt/trusted.gpg”;
– automatically by installing the keyring with the latest base-files package, or
– manually by gpg or apt-key tool with the latest public archive key posted on the ftp-master.debian.org .
• The secure APT system verifies the integrity of the downloaded top level ”Release” file cryptographically by this ”Release.gpg”
file and the public Debian archive key in ”/etc/apt/trusted.gpg”.

The integrity of all the ”Packages” and ”Sources” files are verified by using MD5sum values in its top level ”Release”
file. The integrity of all package files are verified by using MD5sum values in the ”Packages” and ”Sources” files. See
debsums(1) and Section 2.4.2.
Since the cryptographic signature verification is a much more CPU intensive process than the MD5sum value calculation, use
of MD5sum value for each package while using cryptographic signature for the top level ”Release” file provides the good
security with the performance (see Section 10.3).

2.5.3 Archive level ”Release” files

Tip
The archive level ”Release” files are used for the rule of apt_preferences(5).
Debian Reference 60 / 231

There are archive level ”Release” files for all archive locations specified by ”deb” line in ”/etc/apt/sources.list”,
such as ”http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/unstable/main/binary-amd64/Release” or ”http://deb.d
as follows.
Archive: unstable
Origin: Debian
Label: Debian
Component: main
Architecture: amd64

Caution
For ”Archive:” stanza, suite names (”stable”, ”testing”, ”unstable”, …) are used in the Debian
archive while codenames (”trusty”, ”xenial”, ”artful”, …) are used in the Ubuntu archive.

For some archives, such as experimental, and bullseye-backports, which contain packages which should not be in-
stalled automatically, there is an extra line, e.g., ”http://deb.debian.org/debian/dists/experimental/main/binary
as follows.
Archive: experimental
Origin: Debian
Label: Debian
NotAutomatic: yes
Component: main
Architecture: amd64

Please note that for normal archives without ”NotAutomatic: yes”, the default Pin-Priority value is 500, while for special
archives with ”NotAutomatic: yes”, the default Pin-Priority value is 1 (see apt_preferences(5) and Section 2.7.3).

2.5.4 Fetching of the meta data for the package

When APT tools, such as aptitude, apt-get, synaptic, apt-file, auto-apt, …are used, we need to update the local
copies of the meta data containing the Debian archive information. These local copies have following file names corresponding to
the specified distribution, area, and architecture names in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” (see Section 2.1.4).

• ”/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_distribution_Release”
• ”/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_distribution_Release.gpg”
• ”/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_distribution_area_binary-architecture_Pac
• ”/var/lib/apt/lists/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_distribution_area_source_Sources”
• ”/var/cache/apt/apt-file/deb.debian.org_debian_dists_distribution_Contents-architecture.g
(for apt-file)

First 4 types of files are shared by all the pertinent APT commands and updated from command line by ”apt-get update” or
”aptitude update”. The ”Packages” meta data are updated if there is the ”deb” line in ”/etc/apt/sources.list”.
The ”Sources” meta data are updated if there is the ”deb-src” line in ”/etc/apt/sources.list”.
The ”Packages” and ”Sources” meta data contain ”Filename:” stanza pointing to the file location of the binary and source
packages. Currently, these packages are located under the ”pool/” directory tree for the improved transition over the releases.
Local copies of ”Packages” meta data can be interactively searched with the help of aptitude. The specialized search
command grep-dctrl(1) can search local copies of ”Packages” and ”Sources” meta data.
Local copy of ”Contents-architecture” meta data can be updated by ”apt-file update” and its location is different
from other 4 ones. See apt-file(1). (The auto-apt uses different location for local copy of ”Contents-architecture.gz”
as default.)
Debian Reference 61 / 231

2.5.5 The package state for APT

In addition to the remotely fetched meta data, the APT tool after lenny stores its locally generated installation state information
in the ”/var/lib/apt/extended_states” which is used by all APT tools to track all auto installed packages.

2.5.6 The package state for aptitude

In addition to the remotely fetched meta data, the aptitude command stores its locally generated installation state information
in the ”/var/lib/aptitude/pkgstates” which is used only by it.

2.5.7 Local copies of the fetched packages

All the remotely fetched packages via APT mechanism are stored in the ”/var/cache/apt/archives” until they are
cleaned.
This cache file cleaning policy for aptitude can be set under ”Options” → ”Preferences” and it may be forced by its
menu ”Clean package cache” or ”Clean obsolete files” under ”Actions”.

2.5.8 Debian package file names

Debian package files have particular name structures.

package type name structure

The binary package (a.k.a deb) package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision_architect
The binary package for debian-installer (a.k.a
package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision_architect
udeb)
The source package (upstream source) package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision.orig.tar.
The 1.0 source package (Debian changes) package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision.diff.gz
The 3.0 (quilt) source package (Debian
package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision.debian.ta
changes)
The source package (description) package-name_upstream-version-debian.revision.dsc

Table 2.15: The name structure of Debian packages

Tip
Here only the basic source package formats are described. See more on dpkg-source(1).

name component usable characters (ERE regex) existence

package-name [a-z0-9][-a-z0-9.+]+ required
epoch: [0-9]+: optional
upstream-version [-a-zA-Z0-9.+:]+ required
debian.revision [a-zA-Z0-9.+~]+ optional

Table 2.16: The usable characters for each component in the Debian package names

Note
You can check package version order by dpkg(1), e.g., ”dpkg --compare-versions 7.0 gt 7.~pre1 ;
echo $?” .
Debian Reference 62 / 231

Note
The debian-installer (d-i) uses udeb as the file extension for its binary package instead of normal deb. An udeb
package is a stripped down deb package which removes few non-essential contents such as documentation to
save space while relaxing the package policy requirements. Both deb and udeb packages share the same package
structure. The ”u” stands for micro.

2.5.9 The dpkg command

dpkg(1) is the lowest level tool for the Debian package management. This is very powerful and needs to be used with care.
While installing package called ”package_name”, dpkg process it in the following order.

1. Unpack the deb file (”ar -x” equivalent)

2. Execute ”package_name.preinst” using debconf(1)

3. Install the package content to the system (”tar -x” equivalent)
4. Execute ”package_name.postinst” using debconf(1)

The debconf system provides standardized user interaction with I18N and L10N (Chapter 8) supports.

file description of contents

list of configuration files. (user modifiable)
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.conffiles
list of files and directories installed by the package
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.list
list of MD5 hash values for files installed by the package
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.md5sums
package script to be run before the package installation
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.preinst
package script to be run after the package installation
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.postinst
package script to be run before the package removal
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.prerm
package script to be run after the package removal
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.postrm
package script for debconf system
/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.config
the alternative information used by the update-alternatives
/var/lib/dpkg/alternatives/package_name
command
/var/lib/dpkg/available the availability information for all the package
the diversions information used by dpkg(1) and set by
/var/lib/dpkg/diversions
dpkg-divert(8)
the stat override information used by dpkg(1) and set by
/var/lib/dpkg/statoverride
dpkg-statoverride(8)
/var/lib/dpkg/status the status information for all the packages
/var/lib/dpkg/status-old the first-generation backup of the ”var/lib/dpkg/status” file
the second-generation backup and older ones of the
/var/backups/dpkg.status*
”var/lib/dpkg/status” file

Table 2.17: The notable files created by dpkg

The ”status” file is also used by the tools such as dpkg(1), ”dselect update” and ”apt-get -u dselect-upgrade”.
The specialized search command grep-dctrl(1) can search the local copies of ”status” and ”available” meta data.

Tip
In the debian-installer environment, the udpkg command is used to open udeb packages. The udpkg command
is a stripped down version of the dpkg command.
Debian Reference 63 / 231

2.5.10 The update-alternatives command

The Debian system has mechanism to install somewhat overlapping programs peacefully using update-alternatives(1).
For example, you can make the vi command select to run vim while installing both vim and nvi packages.
$ ls -l $(type -p vi)
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 20 2007-03-24 19:05 /usr/bin/vi -> /etc/alternatives/vi
$ sudo update-alternatives --display vi
...
$ sudo update-alternatives --config vi
Selection Command
----------------------------------------------
1 /usr/bin/vim
*+ 2 /usr/bin/nvi

Enter to keep the default[*], or type selection number: 1

The Debian alternatives system keeps its selection as symlinks in ”/etc/alternatives/”. The selection process uses cor-
responding file in ”/var/lib/dpkg/alternatives/”.

2.5.11 The dpkg-statoverride command

Stat overrides provided by the dpkg-statoverride(8) command are a way to tell dpkg(1) to use a different owner or mode
for a file when a package is installed. If ”--update” is specified and file exists, it is immediately set to the new owner and
mode.

Caution
The direct alteration of owner or mode for a file owned by the package using chmod or chown commands
by the system administrator is reset by the next upgrade of the package.

Note
I use the word file here, but in reality this can be any filesystem object that dpkg handles, including directories,
devices, etc.

2.5.12 The dpkg-divert command

File diversions provided by the dpkg-divert(8) command are a way of forcing dpkg(1) not to install a file into its default
location, but to a diverted location. The use of dpkg-divert is meant for the package maintenance scripts. Its casual use by
the system administrator is deprecated.

2.6 Recovery from a broken system

When running unstable system, the administrator is expected to recover from broken package management situation.

Caution
Some methods described here are high risk actions. You have been warned!
Debian Reference 64 / 231

2.6.1 Incompatibility with old user configuration

If a desktop GUI program experienced instability after significant upstream version upgrade, you should suspect interferences
with old local configuration files created by it. If it is stable under a newly created user account, this hypothesis is confirmed.
(This is a bug of packaging and usually avoided by the packager.)
To recover stability, you should move corresponding local configuration files and restart the GUI program. You may need to read
old configuration file contents to recover configuration information later. (Do not erase them too quickly.)

2.6.2 Different packages with overlapped files

Archive level package management systems, such as aptitude(8) or apt-get(1), do not even try to install packages with
overlapped files using package dependencies (see Section 2.1.6).
Errors by the package maintainer or deployment of inconsistently mixed source of archives (see Section 2.7.2) by the system
administrator may create a situation with incorrectly defined package dependencies. When you install a package with overlapped
files using aptitude(8) or apt-get(1) under such a situation, dpkg(1) which unpacks package ensures to return error to the
calling program without overwriting existing files.

Caution
The use of third party packages introduces significant system risks via maintainer scripts which are run with
root privilege and can do anything to your system. The dpkg(1) command only protects against overwriting
by the unpacking.

You can work around such broken installation by removing the old offending package, old-package, first.
$ sudo dpkg -P old-package

2.6.3 Fixing broken package script

When a command in the package script returns error for some reason and the script exits with error, the package management
system aborts their action and ends up with partially installed packages. When a package contains bugs in its removal scripts, the
package may become impossible to remove and quite nasty.
For the package script problem of ”package_name”, you should look into following package scripts.

• ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.preinst”
• ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.postinst”

• ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.prerm”
• ”/var/lib/dpkg/info/package_name.postrm”

Edit the offending package script from the root using following techniques.

• disable the offending line by preceding ”#”

• force to return success by appending the offending line with ”|| true”

Configure all partially installed packages with the following command.

# dpkg --configure -a
Debian Reference 65 / 231

2.6.4 Rescue with the dpkg command

Since dpkg is very low level package tool, it can function under the very bad situation such as unbootable system without network
connection. Let’s assume foo package was broken and needs to be replaced.
You may still find cached copies of older bug free version of foo package in the package cache directory: ”/var/cache/apt/archiv
(If not, you can download it from archive of https://snapshot.debian.org/ or copy it from package cache of a functioning machine.)
If you can boot the system, you may install it by the following command.
# dpkg -i /path/to/foo_old_version_arch.deb

Tip
If system breakage is minor, you may alternatively downgrade the whole system as in Section 2.7.10 using the
higher level APT system.

If your system is unbootable from hard disk, you should seek other ways to boot it.

1. Boot the system using the debian-installer CD in rescue mode.

2. Mount the unbootable system on the hard disk to ”/target”.
3. Install older version of foo package by the following.

# dpkg --root /target -i /path/to/foo_old_version_arch.deb

This example works even if the dpkg command on the hard disk is broken.

Tip
Any GNU/Linux system started by another system on hard disk, live GNU/Linux CD, bootable USB-key drive, or
netboot can be used similarly to rescue broken system.

If attempting to install a package this way fails due to some dependency violations and you really need to do this as the last resort,
you can override dependency using dpkg’s ”--ignore-depends”, ”--force-depends” and other options. If you do
this, you need to make serious effort to restore proper dependency later. See dpkg(8) for details.

Note
If your system is seriously broken, you should make a full backup of system to a safe place (see Section 10.2) and
should perform a clean installation. This is less time consuming and produces better results in the end.

2.6.5 Recovering package selection data

If ”/var/lib/dpkg/status” becomes corrupt for any reason, the Debian system loses package selection data and suffers
severely. Look for the old ”/var/lib/dpkg/status” file at ”/var/lib/dpkg/status-old” or ”/var/backups/dpkg.st
Keeping ”/var/backups/” in a separate partition may be a good idea since this directory contains lots of important system
data.
For serious breakage, I recommend to make fresh re-install after making backup of the system. Even if everything in ”/var/”
is gone, you can still recover some information from directories in ”/usr/share/doc/” to guide your new installation.
Reinstall minimal (desktop) system.
# mkdir -p /path/to/old/system
Debian Reference 66 / 231

Mount old system at ”/path/to/old/system/”.

# cd /path/to/old/system/usr/share/doc
# ls -1 >~/ls1.txt
# cd /usr/share/doc
# ls -1 >>~/ls1.txt
# cd
# sort ls1.txt | uniq | less

Then you are presented with package names to install. (There may be some non-package names such as ”texmf”.)

2.7 Tips for the package management

2.7.1 How to pick Debian packages

You can seek packages which satisfy your needs with aptitude from the package description or from the list under ”Tasks”.
When you encounter more than 2 similar packages and wonder which one to install without ”trial and error” efforts, you should
use some common sense. I consider following points are good indications of preferred packages.

• Essential: yes > no

• Area: main > contrib > non-free
• Priority: required > important > standard > optional > extra
• Tasks: packages listed in tasks such as ”Desktop environment”
• Packages selected by the dependency package (e.g., gcc-10 by gcc)
• Popcon: higher in the vote and install number
• Changelog: regular updates by the maintainer
• BTS: No RC bugs (no critical, no grave, and no serious bugs)
• BTS: responsive maintainer to bug reports
• BTS: higher number of the recently fixed bugs
• BTS: lower number of remaining non-wishlist bugs

Debian being a volunteer project with distributed development model, its archive contains many packages with different focus
and quality. You must make your own decision what to do with them.

2.7.2 Packages from mixed source of archives

Caution
Installing packages from mixed source of archives is not supported by the official Debian distribution ex-
cept for officially supported particular combinations of archives such as stable with security updates and
bullseye-updates.

Here is an example of operations to include specific newer upstream version packages found in unstable while tracking
testing for single occasion.

1. Change the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file temporarily to single ”unstable” entry.

Debian Reference 67 / 231

2. Run ”aptitude update”.

3. Run ”aptitude install package-name”.
4. Recover the original ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file for testing.
5. Run ”aptitude update”.

You do not create the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file nor need to worry about apt-pinning with this manual approach. But
this is very cumbersome.

Caution
When using mixed source of archives, you must ensure compatibility of packages by yourself since the
Debian does not guarantee it. If package incompatibility exists, you may break system. You must be able
to judge these technical requirements. The use of mixed source of random archives is completely optional
operation and its use is not something I encourage you to use.

General rules for installing packages from different archives are the following.

• Non-binary packages (”Architecture: all”) are safer to install.

– documentation packages: no special requirements
– interpreter program packages: compatible interpreter must be available
• Binary packages (non ”Architecture: all”) usually face many road blocks and are unsafe to install.
– library version compatibility (including ”libc”)
– related utility program version compatibility
– Kernel ABI compatibility
– C++ ABI compatibility
– …

Note
In order to make a package to be safer to install, some commercial non-free binary program packages may be
provided with completely statically linked libraries. You should still check ABI compatibility issues etc. for them.

Note
Except to avoid broken package for a short term, installing binary packages from officially unsupported archives
is generally bad idea. This is true even if you use apt-pinning (see Section 2.7.3). You should consider chroot or
similar techniques (see Section 9.11) to run programs from different archives.

2.7.3 Tweaking candidate version

Warning
Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except
when you absolutely need it.

Without the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file, APT system choses the latest available version as the candidate version using
the version string. This is the normal state and most recommended usage of APT system. All officially supported combinations
of archives do not require the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file since some archives which should not be used as the automatic
source of upgrades are marked as NotAutomatic and dealt properly.
Debian Reference 68 / 231

Tip
The version string comparison rule can be verified with, e.g., ”dpkg --compare-versions ver1.1 gt
ver1.1~1; echo $?” (see dpkg(1)).

When you install packages from mixed source of archives (see Section 2.7.2) regularly, you can automate these complicated
operations by creating the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file with proper entries and tweaking the package selection rule for
candidate version as described in apt_preferences(5). This is called apt-pinning.

Caution
When using apt-pinning, you must ensure compatibility of packages by yourself since the Debian does not
guarantee it. The apt-pinning is completely optional operation and its use is not something I encourage you
to use.

Caution
Archive level Release files (see Section 2.5.3) are used for the rule of apt_preferences(5). Thus apt-
pinning works only with ”suite” name for normal Debian archives and security Debian archives. (This is
different from Ubuntu archives.) For example, you can do ”Pin: release a=unstable” but can not do
”Pin: release a=sid” in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file.

Caution
When you use non-Debian archive as a part of apt-pinning, you should check what they are intended for
and also check their credibility. For example, Ubuntu and Debian are not meant to be mixed.

Note
Even if you do not create the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file, you can do fairly complex system operations (see
Section 2.6.4 and Section 2.7.2) without apt-pinning.

Here is a simplified explanation of apt-pinning technique.

The APT system choses the highest Pin-Priority upgrading package from available package sources defined in the ”/etc/apt/source
file as the candidate version package. If the Pin-Priority of the package is larger than 1000, this version restriction for upgrading
is dropped to enable downgrading (see Section 2.7.10).
Pin-Priority value of each package is defined by ”Pin-Priority” entries in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file or uses its
default value.

Pin-Priority apt-pinning effects to the package

1001 install the package even if this constitutes a downgrade of the package
990 used as the default for the target release archive
500 used as the default for the normal archive
100 used as the default for the NotAutomatic and ButAutomaticUpgrades archive
100 used for the installed package
1 used as the default for the NotAutomatic archive
-1 never install the package even if recommended

Table 2.18: List of notable Pin-Priority values for apt-pinning technique.

The target release archive can be set by several methods.

Debian Reference 69 / 231

• ”/etc/apt/apt.conf” configuration file with ”APT::Default-Release ”stable”;” line

• command line option, e.g., ”apt-get install -t testing some-package”

The NotAutomatic and ButAutomaticUpgrades archive is set by archive server having its archive level Release file (see Sec-
tion 2.5.3) containing both ”NotAutomatic: yes” and ”ButAutomaticUpgrades: yes”. The NotAutomatic archive
is set by archive server having its archive level Release file containing only ”NotAutomatic: yes”.
The apt-pinning situation of package from multiple archive sources is displayed by ”apt-cache policy package”.

• A line started with ”Package pin:” lists the package version of pin if association just with package is defined, e.g.,
”Package pin: 0.190”.
• No line with ”Package pin:” exists if no association just with package is defined.
• The Pin-Priority value associated just with package is listed right side of all version strings, e.g., ”0.181 700”.

• ”0” is listed right side of all version strings if no association just with package is defined, e.g., ”0.181 0”.
• The Pin-Priority values of archives (defined as ”Package: *” in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file) are listed left side
of all archive paths, e.g., ”100 http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye-backports/main Packages”.

2.7.4 Updates and Backports

There are bullseye-updates and backports.debian.org archives which provide updgrade packages for stable (bullseye).
In order to use these archives, you list all required archives in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file as the following.
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye main contrib non-free
deb http://security.debian.org/ bullseye-security main contrib
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye-updates main contrib non-free
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bullseye-backports main contrib non-free

There is no need to set Pin-Priority value explicitly in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file. When newer packages become
available, the default configuration provides most reasonable upgrades (see Section 2.5.3).

• All installed older packages are upgraded to newer ones from bullseye-updates.
• Only manually installed older packages from bullseye-backports are upgraded to newer ones from bullseye-backports.

Whenever you wish to install a package named ”package-name” with its dependency from bullseye-backports archive
manually, you use following command while switching target release with ”-t” option.
$ sudo apt-get install -t bullseye-backports package-name

2.7.5 Blocking packages installed by ”Recommends”

Warning
Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except
when you absolutely need it.

If you wish not to pull in particular packages automatically by ”Recommends”, you must create the ”/etc/apt/preferences”
file and explicitly list all those packages at the top of it as the following.
Debian Reference 70 / 231

Package: package-1
Pin: version *
Pin-Priority: -1

Package: package-2
Pin: version *
Pin-Priority: -1

2.7.6 Tracking testing with some packages from unstable

Warning
Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except
when you absolutely need it.

Here is an example of apt-pinning technique to include specific newer upstream version packages found in unstable regularly
upgraded while tracking testing. You list all required archives in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file as the following.
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ testing main contrib non-free
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable main contrib non-free
deb http://security.debian.org/ testing-security main contrib

Set the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file as the following.

Package: *
Pin: release a=unstable
Pin-Priority: 100

When you wish to install a package named ”package-name” with its dependencies from unstable archive under this config-
uration, you issue the following command which switches target release with ”-t” option (Pin-Priority of unstable becomes
990).
$ sudo apt-get install -t unstable package-name

With this configuration, usual execution of ”apt-get upgrade” and ”apt-get dist-upgrade” (or ”aptitude safe-upgr
and ”aptitude full-upgrade”) upgrades packages which were installed from testing archive using current testing
archive and packages which were installed from unstable archive using current unstable archive.

Caution
Be careful not to remove ”testing” entry from the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file. Without ”testing”
entry in it, APT system upgrades packages using newer unstable archive.

Tip
I usually edit the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file to comment out ”unstable” archive entry right after above
operation. This avoids slow update process of having too many entries in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file
although this prevents upgrading packages which were installed from unstable archive using current unstable
archive.

Tip
If ”Pin-Priority: 1” is used instead of ”Pin-Priority: 100” in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file, already
installed packages having Pin-Priority value of 100 are not upgraded by unstable archive even if ”testing” entry
in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file is removed.
Debian Reference 71 / 231

If you wish to track particular packages in unstable automatically without initial ”-t unstable” installation, you must
create the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file and explicitly list all those packages at the top of it as the following.
Package: package-1
Pin: release a=unstable
Pin-Priority: 700

Package: package-2
Pin: release a=unstable
Pin-Priority: 700

These set Pin-Priority value for each specific package. For example, in order to track the latest unstable version of this ”Debian
Reference” in English, you should have following entries in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file.
Package: debian-reference-en
Pin: release a=unstable
Pin-Priority: 700

Package: debian-reference-common
Pin: release a=unstable
Pin-Priority: 700

Tip
This apt-pinning technique is valid even when you are tracking stable archive. Documentation packages have
been always safe to install from unstable archive in my experience, so far.

2.7.7 Tracking unstable with some packages from experimental

Here is another example of apt-pinning technique to include specific newer upstream version packages found in experimental
while tracking unstable. You list all required archives in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file as the following.
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ unstable main contrib non-free
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ experimental main contrib non-free
deb http://security.debian.org/ testing-security main contrib

The default Pin-Priority value for experimental archive is always 1 (<<100) since it is NotAutomatic archive (see Sec-
tion 2.5.3). There is no need to set Pin-Priority value explicitly in the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file just to use experimental
archive unless you wish to track particular packages in it automatically for next upgrading.

2.7.8 Automatic download and upgrade of packages

Warning
Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except
when you absolutely need it.

The apt package comes with its own cron script ”/etc/cron.daily/apt” to support the automatic download of packages.
This script can be enhanced to perform the automatic upgrade of packages by installing the unattended-upgrades package.
These can be customized by parameters in ”/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/02backup” and ”/etc/apt/apt.conf.d/50unattend
as described in ”/usr/share/doc/unattended-upgrades/README”.
The unattended-upgrades package is mainly intended for the security upgrade for the stable system. If the risk of
breaking an existing stable system by the automatic upgrade is smaller than that of the system broken by the intruder using its
security hole which has been closed by the security update, you should consider using this automatic upgrade with configuration
parameters as the following.
Debian Reference 72 / 231

APT::Periodic::Update-Package-Lists ”1”;
APT::Periodic::Download-Upgradeable-Packages ”1”;
APT::Periodic::Unattended-Upgrade ”1”;

If you are running an unstable system, you do not want to use the automatic upgrade since it certainly breaks system some
day. Even for such unstable case, you may still want to download packages in advance to save time for the interactive upgrade
with configuration parameters as the following.
APT::Periodic::Update-Package-Lists ”1”;
APT::Periodic::Download-Upgradeable-Packages ”1”;
APT::Periodic::Unattended-Upgrade ”0”;

2.7.9 Limiting download bandwidth for APT

If you want to limit the download bandwidth for APT to e.g. 800Kib/sec (=100kiB/sec), you should configure APT with its
configuration parameter as the following.
APT::Acquire::http::Dl-Limit ”800”;

2.7.10 Emergency downgrading

Warning
Use of apt-pinning by a novice user is sure call for major troubles. You must avoid using apt-pinning except
when you absolutely need it.

Caution
Downgrading is not officially supported by the Debian by design. It should be done only as a part of emer-
gency recovery process. Despite of this situation, it is known to work well in many incidents. For critical
systems, you should backup all important data on the system after the recovery operation and re-install the
new system from the scratch.

You may be lucky to downgrade from newer archive to older archive to recover from broken system upgrade by manipulating can-
didate version (see Section 2.7.3). This is lazy alternative to tedious actions of many ”dpkg -i broken-package_old-version
commands (see Section 2.6.4).
Search lines in the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” file tracking unstable as the following.
deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ sid main contrib non-free

Replace it with the following to track testing.

deb http://deb.debian.org/debian/ bookworm main contrib non-free

Set the ”/etc/apt/preferences” file as the following.

Package: *
Pin: release a=testing
Pin-Priority: 1010

Run ”apt-get update; apt-get dist-upgrade” to force downgrading of packages across the system.
Remove this special ”/etc/apt/preferences” file after this emergency downgrading.
Debian Reference 73 / 231

Tip
It is a good idea to remove (not purge!) as much packages to minimize dependency problems. You may need
to manually remove and install some packages to get system downgraded. Linux kernel, bootloader, udev, PAM,
APT, and networking related packages and their configuration files require special attention.

2.7.11 Who uploaded the package?

Although the maintainer name listed in ”/var/lib/dpkg/available” and ”/usr/share/doc/package_name/changelog
provide some information on ”who is behind the packaging activity”, the actual uploader of the package is somewhat obscure.
who-uploads(1) in the devscripts package identifies the actual uploader of Debian source packages.

2.7.12 The equivs package

If you are to compile a program from source to replace the Debian package, it is best to make it into a real local debianized
package (*.deb) and use private archive.
If you chose to compile a program from source and to install them under ”/usr/local” instead, you may need to use equivs
as a last resort to satisfy the missing package dependency.
Package: equivs
Priority: optional
Section: admin
Description: Circumventing Debian package dependencies
This package provides a tool to create trivial Debian packages.
Typically these packages contain only dependency information, but they
can also include normal installed files like other packages do.
.
One use for this is to create a metapackage: a package whose sole
purpose is to declare dependencies and conflicts on other packages so
that these will be automatically installed, upgraded, or removed.
.
Another use is to circumvent dependency checking: by letting dpkg
think a particular package name and version is installed when it
isn’t, you can work around bugs in other packages’ dependencies.
(Please do still file such bugs, though.)

2.7.13 Porting a package to the stable system

For partial upgrades of the stable system, rebuilding a package within its environment using the source package is desirable.
This avoids massive package upgrades due to their dependencies.
Add the following entries to the ”/etc/apt/sources.list” of a stable system.
deb-src http://deb.debian.org/debian unstable main contrib non-free

Install required packages for the compilation and download the source package as the following.
# apt-get update
# apt-get dist-upgrade
# apt-get install fakeroot devscripts build-essential
# apt-get build-dep foo
$ apt-get source foo
$ cd foo*

Update some tool chain packages such as dpkg, and debhelper from the backport packages if they are required for the
backporting.
Execute the following.
Debian Reference 74 / 231

$ dch -i

Bump package version, e.g. one appended with ”+bp1” in ”debian/changelog”

Build packages and install them to the system as the following.
$ debuild
$ cd ..
# debi foo*.changes

2.7.14 Proxy server for APT

Since mirroring whole subsection of Debian archive wastes disk space and network bandwidth, deployment of a local proxy server
for APT is desirable consideration when you administer many systems on LAN. APT can be configure to use generic web (http)
proxy servers such as squid (see Section 6.5) as described in apt.conf(5) and in ”/usr/share/doc/apt/examples/configu
The ”$http_proxy” environment variable can be used to override proxy server setting in the ”/etc/apt/apt.conf” file.
There are proxy tools specially for Debian archive. You should check BTS before using them.

package popcon size description

caching proxy server for Debian archive files (compiled OCaml
approx V:0, I:0 6317
program)
apt-cacher V:0, I:0 289 Caching proxy for Debian package and source files (Perl program)
Caching proxy for distribution of software packages (compiled C++
apt-cacher-ng V:5, I:5 1790
program)

Table 2.19: List of the proxy tools specially for Debian archive

Caution
When Debian reorganizes its archive structure, these specialized proxy tools tend to require code rewrites
by the package maintainer and may not be functional for a while. On the other hand, generic web (http)
proxy servers are more robust and easier to cope with such changes.

2.7.15 More readings for the package management

You can learn more on the package management from following documentations.

• Primary documentations on the package management:

– aptitude(8), dpkg(1), tasksel(8), apt(8), apt-get(8), apt-config(8), apt-key(8), sources.list(5), apt.conf
and apt_preferences(5);
– ”/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/guide.html/index.html” and ”/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/offline.html/in
from the apt-doc package; and
– ”/usr/share/doc/aptitude/html/en/index.html” from the aptitude-doc-en package.
• Official and detailed documentations on the Debian archive:
– ”Debian Policy Manual Chapter 2 - The Debian Archive”,
– ”Debian Developer’s Reference, Chapter 4 - Resources for Debian Developers 4.6 The Debian archive”, and
– ”The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ, Chapter 6 - The Debian FTP archives”.
• Tutorial for building of a Debian package for Debian users:
– ”Guide for Debian Maintainers”.
Debian Reference 75 / 231

Chapter 3

The system initialization

It is wise for you as the system administrator to know roughly how the Debian system is started and configured. Although the
exact details are in the source files of the packages installed and their documentations, it is a bit overwhelming for most of us.
Here is a rough overview of the key points of the Debian system initialization. Since the Debian system is a moving target, you
should refer to the latest documentation.

• Debian Linux Kernel Handbook is the primary source of information on the Debian kernel.
• bootup(7) describes the system bootup process based on systemd . (Recent Debian)
• boot(7) describes the system bootup process based on UNIX System V Release 4. (Older Debian)

3.1 An overview of the boot strap process

The computer system undergoes several phases of boot strap processes from the power-on event until it offers the fully functional
operating system (OS) to the user.
For simplicity, I limit discussion to the typical PC platform with the default installation.
The typical boot strap process is like a four-stage rocket. Each stage rocket hands over the system control to the next stage one.

• Section 3.1.1
• Section 3.1.2
• Section 3.1.3
• Section 3.1.4

Of course, these can be configured differently. For example, if you compiled your own kernel, you may be skipping the step with
the mini-Debian system. So please do not assume this is the case for your system until you check it yourself.

3.1.1 Stage 1: the UEFI

The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) defines a boot manager as part of the UEFI specification. When a computer is
powered on, the boot manager is the 1st stage of the boot process which checks the boot configuration and based on its settings,
then executes the specified OS boot loader or operating system kernel (usually boot loader). The boot configuration is defined by
variables stored in NVRAM, including variables that indicate the file system paths to OS loaders or OS kernels. An EFI system
partition (ESP) is a data storage device partition that is used in computers adhering to the UEFI specification. Accessed by the
UEFI firmware when a computer is powered up, it stores UEFI applications and the files these applications need to run, including
operating system boot loaders. (On the legacy PC system, BIOS stored in the MBR may be used instead.)
Debian Reference 76 / 231

3.1.2 Stage 2: the boot loader

The boot loader is the 2nd stage of the boot process which is started by the UEFI. It loads the system kernel image and the initrd
image to the memory and hands control over to them. This initrd image is the root filesystem image and its support depends on
the bootloader used.
The Debian system normally uses the Linux kernel as the default system kernel. The initrd image for the current 5.x Linux kernel
is technically the initramfs (initial RAM filesystem) image.
There are many boot loaders and configuration options available.

package popcon size initrd bootloader description

This is smart enough to understand disk
GRUB
grub-efi-amd64 I:227 158 Supported partitions and filesystems such as vfat,
UEFI
ext4, …. (UEFI)
This is smart enough to understand disk
grub-pc V:25, I:746 533 Supported GRUB 2 partitions and filesystems such as vfat,
ext4, …. (BIOS)
This is GRUB 2 bootable rescue images
grub-rescue-pc V:0, I:1 6380 Supported GRUB 2
(CD and floppy) (PC/BIOS version)
This relies on the sector locations of
lilo V:0, I:1 697 Supported Lilo
data on the hard disk. (Old)
This understands the ISO9660
syslinux V:3, I:44 344 Supported Isolinux
filesystem. This is used by the boot CD.
This understands the MSDOS filesystem
syslinux V:3, I:44 344 Supported Syslinux
(FAT). This is used by the boot floppy.
New system is started from the
loadlin V:0, I:0 90 Supported Loadlin
FreeDOS/MSDOS system.
This is free software which substitutes
Not MBR by
mbr V:0, I:6 50 MSDOS MBR. This only understands
supported Neil Turton
disk partitions.

Table 3.1: List of boot loaders

Warning
Do not play with boot loaders without having bootable rescue media (USB memory stick, CD or floppy)
created from images in the grub-rescue-pc package. It makes you boot your system even without func-
tioning bootloader on the hard disk.

For GRUB 2, the menu configuration file is located at ”/boot/grub/grub.cfg” and its key part of menu entry looks like:
menuentry ’Debian GNU/Linux’ ... {
load_video
insmod gzio
insmod part_gpt
insmod ext2
search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root fe3e1db5-6454-46d6-a14c-071208ebe4b1
echo ’Loading Linux 5.10.0-6-amd64 ...’
linux /boot/vmlinuz-5.10.0-6-amd64 root=UUID=fe3e1db5-6454-46d6-a14c-071208ebe4b1 ←-
ro quiet
echo ’Loading initial ramdisk ...’
initrd /boot/initrd.img-5.10.0-6-amd64
}

For this part of /boot/grub/grub.cfg, this menu entry means the following.
Debian Reference 77 / 231

setting value
GRUB2 modules loaded gzio, part_gpt, ext2
partition identified by
root file system partition used
UUID=fe3e1db5-6454-46d6-a14c-071208ebe4b1
kernel image path in the root file system /boot/vmlinuz-5.10.0-6-amd64
”root=UUID=fe3e1db5-6454-46d6-a14c-071208ebe4b1
kernel boot parameter used
ro quiet”
initrd image path in the root file system /boot/initrd.img-5.10.0-6-amd64

Table 3.2: The meaning of the menu entry of the above part of /boot/grub/grub.cfg

Tip
You can customize GRUB splash image by setting GRUB_BACKGROUND variable in /etc/default/grub pointing
to the image file or placing the image file itself in /boot/grub/.

See ”info grub” and grub-install(8).

3.1.3 Stage 3: the mini-Debian system

The mini-Debian system is the 3rd stage of the boot process which is started by the boot loader. It runs the system kernel with its
root filesystem on the memory. This is an optional preparatory stage of the boot process.

Note
The term ”the mini-Debian system” is coined by the author to describe this 3rd stage boot process for this document.
This system is commonly referred as the initrd or initramfs system. Similar system on the memory is used by the
Debian Installer.

The ”/init” program is executed as the first program in this root filesystem on the memory. It is a program which initializes
the kernel in user space and hands control over to the next stage. This mini-Debian system offers flexibility to the boot process
such as adding kernel modules before the main boot process or mounting the root filesystem as an encrypted one.

• The ”/init” program is a shell script program if initramfs was created by initramfs-tools.

– You can interrupt this part of the boot process to gain root shell by providing ”break=init” etc. to the kernel boot
parameter. See the ”/init” script for more break conditions. This shell environment is sophisticated enough to make a
good inspection of your machine’s hardware.
– Commands available in this mini-Debian system are stripped down ones and mainly provided by a GNU tool called busybox(1).

• The ”/init” program is a binary systemd program if initramfs was created by dracut.
– Commands available in this mini-Debian system are stripped down systemd(1) environment.

Caution
You need to use ”-n” option for mount command when you are on the readonly root filesystem.
Debian Reference 78 / 231

3.1.4 Stage 4: the normal Debian system

The normal Debian system is the 4th stage of the boot process which is started by the mini-Debian system. The system kernel
for the mini-Debian system continues to run in this environment. The root filesystem is switched from the one on the memory to
the one on the real hard disk filesystem.
The init program is executed as the first program with PID=1 to perform the main boot process of starting many programs. The de-
fault file path for the init program is ”/sbin/init” but it can be changed by the kernel boot parameter as ”init=/path/to/init_p
”/sbin/init” is symlinked to ”/lib/systemd/systemd” after Debian 8 Jessie (released in 2015).

Tip
The actual init command on your system can be verified by the ”ps --pid 1 -f” command.

package popcon size description

event-based init(8) daemon for concurrency (alternative to
systemd V:837, I:935 15615
sysvinit)
the manual pages and links needed for systemd to replace
systemd-sysv V:811, I:934 143
sysvinit
init-system-helpers
V:684, I:947 131 helper tools for switching between sysvinit and systemd
initscripts V:70, I:256 171 scripts for initializing and shutting down the system
sysvinit-core V:7, I:8 279 System-V-like init(8) utilities
sysv-rc V:139, I:269 82 System-V-like runlevel change mechanism
sysvinit-utils V:419, I:999 81 System-V-like utilities (startpar(8), bootlogd(8), …)
lsb-base V:888, I:999 49 Linux Standard Base 3.2 init script functionality
insserv V:165, I:265 154 tool to organize boot sequence using LSB init.d script dependencies
uswsusp V:1, I:6 714 tools to use userspace software suspend provided by Linux
kexec-tools V:1, I:8 289 kexec tool for kexec(8) reboots (warm reboot)
systemd-bootchart
V:0, I:1 128 boot process performance analyser
bootchart2 V:0, I:0 NOT_FOUND
boot process performance analyser
pybootchartgui V:0, I:0 NOT_FOUND
boot process performance analyser (visualisation)
mingetty V:0, I:3 38 console-only getty(8)
mgetty V:0, I:0 315 smart modem getty(8) replacement

Table 3.3: List of boot utilities for the Debian system

Tip
See Debian wiki: BootProcessSpeedup for the latest tips to speed up the boot process.

3.2 Systemd init

This section describes how system is started by the systemd(1) program with PID=1 (i.e., init process).
The systemd init process spawns processes in parallel based on the unit configuration files (see systemd.unit(5)) which
are written in declarative style instead of SysV-like procedural style.
The spawned processes are placed in individual Linux control groups named after the unit which they belong to in the private
systemd hierarchy (see cgroups and Section 4.7.4).
The unit configuration files are loaded from a set of paths (see systemd-system.conf(5)) as follows:
Debian Reference 79 / 231

• ”/lib/systemd/system”: OS default configuration files

• ”/etc/systemd/system”: system administrator configuration files which override the OS default configuration files
• ”/run/systemd/system”: run-time generated configuration files which override the installed configuration files

Their inter-dependencies are specified by the directives ”Wants=”, ”Requires=”, ”Before=”, ”After=”, …(see ”MAP-
PING OF UNIT PROPERTIES TO THEIR INVERSES” in systemd.unit(5)). The resource controls are also defined (see
systemd.resource-control(5)).
The suffix of the unit configuration file encodes their types as:

• *.service describes the process controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.service(5).
• *.device describes the device exposed in the sysfs(5) as udev(7) device tree. See systemd.device(5).

• *.mount describes the file system mount point controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.mount(5).
• *.automount describes the file system auto mount point controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.automount(5).
• *.swap describes the swap device or file controlled and supervised by systemd. See systemd.swap(5).
• *.path describes the path monitored by systemd for path-based activation. See systemd.path(5).

• *.socket describes the socket controlled and supervised by systemd for socket-based activation. See systemd.socket(5).
• *.timer describes the timer controlled and supervised by systemd for timer-based activation. See systemd.timer(5).
• *.slice manages resources with the cgroups(7). See systemd.slice(5).
• *.scope is created programmatically using the bus interfaces of systemd to manages a set of system processes. See systemd.scope

• *.target groups other unit configuration files to create the synchronization point during start-up. See systemd.target(5).

Upon system start up (i.e., init), the systemd process tries to start the ”/lib/systemd/system/default.target
(normally symlinked to ”graphical.target”). First, some special target units (see systemd.special(7)) such as
”local-fs.target”, ”swap.target” and ”cryptsetup.target” are pulled in to mount the filesystems. Then, other
target units are also pulled in by the target unit dependencies. For details, read bootup(7).
systemd offers backward compatibility features. SysV-style boot scripts in ”/etc/init.d/rc[0123456S].d/[KS]name”
are still parsed and telinit(8) is translated into systemd unit activation requests.

Caution
Emulated runlevel 2 to 4 are all symlinked to the same ”multi-user.target”.

3.2.1 The hostname

The kernel maintains the system hostname. The system unit started by systemd-hostnamed.service sets the system
hostname at boot time to the name stored in ”/etc/hostname”. This file should contain only the system hostname, not a fully
qualified domain name.
To print out the current hostname run hostname(1) without an argument.
Debian Reference 80 / 231

3.2.2 The filesystem

The mount options of normal disk and network filesystems are set in ”/etc/fstab”. See fstab(5) and Section 9.6.7.
The configuration of the encrypted filesystem is set in ”/etc/crypttab”. See crypttab(5)
The configuration of software RAID with mdadm(8) is set in ”/etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf”. See mdadm.conf(5).

Warning
After mounting all the filesystems, temporary files in ”/tmp”, ”/var/lock”, and ”/var/run” are cleaned
for each boot up.

3.2.3 Network interface initialization

Network interfaces are typically initialized in ”networking.service” for the lo interface and ”NetworkManager.service”
for other interfaces on modern Debian desktop system under systemd.
See Chapter 5 for how to configure them.

3.3 The kernel message

The kernel error message displayed to the console can be configured by setting its threshold level.
# dmesg -n3

error level value error level name meaning

0 KERN_EMERG system is unusable
1 KERN_ALERT action must be taken immediately
2 KERN_CRIT critical conditions
3 KERN_ERR error conditions
4 KERN_WARNING warning conditions
5 KERN_NOTICE normal but significant condition
6 KERN_INFO informational
7 KERN_DEBUG debug-level messages

Table 3.4: List of kernel error levels

3.4 The system message

Under systemd, both kernel and system messages are logged by the journal service systemd-journald.service (a.k.a
journald) either into a persistent binary data below ”/var/log/journal” or into a volatile binary data below ”/run/log/journ
These binary log data are accessed by the journalctl(1) command. For example, you can display log from the last boot as:
$ journalctl -b

Under systemd, the system logging utility rsyslogd(8) may be uninstalled. If it is installed, it changes its behavior to read the
volatile binary log data (instead of pre-systemd default ”/dev/log”) and to create traditional permanent ASCII system log data.
This can be customized by ”/etc/default/rsyslog” and ”/etc/rsyslog.conf” for both the log file and on-screen
display. See rsyslogd(8) and rsyslog.conf(5). See also Section 9.3.2.
Debian Reference 81 / 231

Operation Command snippets

View log for system services and kernel from
”journalctl -b --system”
the last boot
View log for services of the current user from
”journalctl -b --user”
the last boot
View job log of ”$unit” from the last boot ”journalctl -b -u $unit”
View job log of ”$unit” (”tail -f” style)
”journalctl -b -u $unit -f”
from the last boot

Table 3.5: List of typical journalctl command snippets

3.5 System management

The systemd offers not only init system but also generic system management operations with the systemctl(1) command.
Here, ”$unit” in the above examples may be a single unit name (suffix such as .service and .target are optional) or, in
many cases, multiple unit specifications (shell-style globs ”*”, ”?”, ”[]” using fnmatch(3) which will be matched against the
primary names of all units currently in memory).
System state changing commands in the above examples are typically preceded by the ”sudo” to attain the required administrative
privilege.
The output of the ”systemctl status $unit|$PID|$device” uses color of the dot (”●”) to summarize the unit state
at a glance.

• White ”●” indicates an ”inactive” or ”deactivating” state.

• Red ”●” indicates a ”failed” or ”error” state.
• Green ”●” indicates an ”active”, ”reloading” or ”activating” state.

3.6 Other system monitors

Here are a list of other monitoring command snippets under systemd. Please read the pertinent manpages including cgroups(7).

3.7 Customizing systemd

3.7.1 Socket activation

With default installation, many network services (see Chapter 6) are started as daemon processes after network.target at
boot time by systemd. The ”sshd” is no exception. Let’s change this to on-demand start of ”sshd” as a customization
example.
First, disable system installed service unit.
$ sudo systemctl stop sshd.service
$ sudo systemctl mask sshd.service

The on-demand socket activation system of the classic Unix services was through the inetd (or xinetd) superserver. Under
systemd, the equivalent can be enabled by adding *.socket and *.service unit configuration files.
sshd.socket for specifying a socket to listen on
Debian Reference 82 / 231

Operation Command snippets

List all target unit configuration ”systemctl list-units --type=target”
List all service unit configuration ”systemctl list-units --type=service”
List all unit configuration types ”systemctl list-units --type=help”
List all socket units in memory ”systemctl list-sockets”
List all timer units in memory ”systemctl list-timers”
Start ”$unit” ”systemctl start $unit”
Stop ”$unit” ”systemctl stop $unit”
Reload service-specific configuration ”systemctl reload $unit”
Stop and start all ”$unit” ”systemctl restart $unit”
Start ”$unit” and stop all others ”systemctl isolate $unit”
Switch to ”graphical” (GUI system) ”systemctl isolate graphical”
Switch to ”multi-user” (CLI system) ”systemctl isolate multi-user”
Switch to ”rescue” (single user CLI system) ”systemctl isolate rescue”
Send kill signal to ”$unit” ”systemctl kill $unit”
Check if ”$unit” service is active ”systemctl is-active $unit”
Check if ”$unit” service is failed ”systemctl is-failed $unit”
Check status of ”$unit|$PID|device” ”systemctl status $unit|$PID|$device”
Show properties of ”$unit|$job” ”systemctl show $unit|$job”
Reset failed ”$unit” ”systemctl reset-failed $unit”
List dependency of all unit services ”systemctl list-dependencies --all”
List unit files installed on the system ”systemctl list-unit-files”
Enable ”$unit” (add symlink) ”systemctl enable $unit”
Disable ”$unit” (remove symlink) ”systemctl disable $unit”
Unmask ”$unit” (remove symlink to
”systemctl unmask $unit”
”/dev/null”)
Mask ”$unit” (add symlink to
”systemctl mask $unit”
”/dev/null”)
Get default-target setting ”systemctl get-default”
Set default-target to ”graphical” (GUI
”systemctl set-default graphical”
system)
Set default-target to ”multi-user” (CLI
”systemctl set-default multi-user”
system)
Show job environment ”systemctl show-environment”
Set job environment ”variable” to
”systemctl set-environment variable=value”
”value”
Unset job environment ”variable” ”systemctl unset-environment variable”
Reload all unit files and daemons ”systemctl daemon-reload”
Shut down the system ”systemctl poweroff”
Shut down and reboot the system ”systemctl reboot”
Suspend the system ”systemctl suspend”
Hibernate the system ”systemctl hibernate”

Table 3.6: List of typical systemctl command snippets

Debian Reference 83 / 231

Operation Command snippets

Show time spent for each initialization steps ”systemd-analyze time”
List of all units by the time to initialize ”systemd-analyze blame”
Load and detect errors in ”$unit” file ”systemd-analyze verify $unit”
Show terse runtime status information of the
”loginctl user-status”
user of the caller’s session
Show terse runtime status information of the
”loginctl session-status”
caller’s session
Track boot process by the cgroups ”systemd-cgls”
Track boot process by the cgroups ”ps xawf -eo pid,user,cgroup,args”
Track boot process by the cgroups Read sysfs under ”/sys/fs/cgroup/systemd/”

Table 3.7: List of other monitoring command snippets under systemd

[Unit]
Description=SSH Socket for Per-Connection Servers

[Socket]
ListenStream=22
Accept=yes

[Install]
WantedBy=sockets.target

sshd@.service as the matching service file of sshd.socket

[Unit]
Description=SSH Per-Connection Server

[Service]
ExecStart=-/usr/sbin/sshd -i
StandardInput=socket

Then reload.
$ sudo systemctl daemon-reload

3.8 The udev system

The udev system provides mechanism for the automatic hardware discovery and initialization (see udev(7)) since Linux kernel
2.6. Upon discovery of each device by the kernel, the udev system starts a user process which uses information from the sysfs
filesystem (see Section 1.2.12), loads required kernel modules supporting it using the modprobe(8) program (see Section 3.8.1),
and creates corresponding device nodes.

Tip
If ”/lib/modules/kernel-version/modules.dep” was not generated properly by depmod(8) for some rea-
son, modules may not be loaded as expected by the udev system. Execute ”depmod -a” to fix it.
For mounting rules in ”/etc/fstab”, device nodes do not need to be static ones. You can use UUID to mount
devices instead of device names such as ”/dev/sda”. See Section 9.6.3.

Since the udev system is somewhat a moving target, I leave details to other documentations and describe the minimum information
here.
Debian Reference 84 / 231

3.8.1 The kernel module initialization

The modprobe(8) program enables us to configure running Linux kernel from user process by adding and removing kernel
modules. The udev system (see Section 3.8) automates its invocation to help the kernel module initialization.
There are non-hardware modules and special hardware driver modules as the following which need to be pre-loaded by listing
them in the ”/etc/modules” file (see modules(5)).

• TUN/TAP modules providing virtual Point-to-Point network device (TUN) and virtual Ethernet network device (TAP),

• netfilter modules providing netfilter firewall capabilities (iptables(8), Section 5.6), and

• watchdog timer driver modules.

The configuration files for the modprobe(8) program are located under the ”/etc/modprobes.d/” directory as explained
in modprobe.conf(5). (If you want to avoid some kernel modules to be auto-loaded, consider to blacklist them in the
”/etc/modprobes.d/blacklist” file.)
The ”/lib/modules/version/modules.dep” file generated by the depmod(8) program describes module dependencies
used by the modprobe(8) program.

Note
If you experience module loading issues with boot time module loading or with modprobe(8), ”depmod -a” may
resolve these issues by reconstructing ”modules.dep”.

The modinfo(8) program shows information about a Linux kernel module.

The lsmod(8) program nicely formats the contents of the ”/proc/modules”, showing what kernel modules are currently
loaded.

Tip
You can identify exact hardware on your system. See Section 9.5.3.
You may configure hardware at boot time to activate expected hardware features. See Section 9.5.4.
You can probably add support for your special device by recompiling the kernel. See Section 9.10.
Debian Reference 85 / 231

Chapter 4

Authentication and access controls

When a person (or a program) requests access to the system, authentication confirms the identity to be a trusted one.

Warning
Configuration errors of PAM may lock you out of your own system. You must have a rescue CD handy or
setup an alternative boot partition. To recover, boot the system with them and correct things from there.

4.1 Normal Unix authentication

Normal Unix authentication is provided by the pam_unix(8) module under the PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules). Its
3 important configuration files, with ”:” separated entries, are the following.

file permission user group description

/etc/passwd -rw-r--r-- root root (sanitized) user account information
/etc/shadow -rw-r----- root shadow secure user account information
/etc/group -rw-r--r-- root root group information

Table 4.1: 3 important configuration files for pam_unix(8)

”/etc/passwd” contains the following.

...
user1:x:1000:1000:User1 Name,,,:/home/user1:/bin/bash
user2:x:1001:1001:User2 Name,,,:/home/user2:/bin/bash
...

As explained in passwd(5), each ”:” separated entry of this file means the following.

• Login name
• Password specification entry

• Numerical user ID
• Numerical group ID
• User name or comment field
Debian Reference 86 / 231

• User home directory

• Optional user command interpreter

The second entry of ”/etc/passwd” was used for the encrypted password entry. After the introduction of ”/etc/shadow”,
this entry is used for the password specification entry.

content meaning
(empty) passwordless account
x the encrypted password is in ”/etc/shadow”
no login for this account
! no login for this account

Table 4.2: The second entry content of ”/etc/passwd”

”/etc/shadow” contains the following.

...
user1:$1$Xop0FYH9$IfxyQwBe9b8tiyIkt2P4F/:13262:0:99999:7:::
user2:$1$vXGZLVbS$ElyErNf/agUDsm1DehJMS/:13261:0:99999:7:::
...

As explained in shadow(5), each ”:” separated entry of this file means the following.

• Login name
• Encrypted password (The initial ”$1$” indicates use of the MD5 encryption. The ”*” indicates no login.)

• Date of the last password change, expressed as the number of days since Jan 1, 1970
• Number of days the user will have to wait before she will be allowed to change her password again
• Number of days after which the user will have to change her password
• Number of days before a password is going to expire during which the user should be warned

• Number of days after a password has expired during which the password should still be accepted
• Date of expiration of the account, expressed as the number of days since Jan 1, 1970
• …

”/etc/group” contains the following.

group1:x:20:user1,user2

As explained in group(5), each ”:” separated entry of this file means the following.

• Group name
• Encrypted password (not really used)
• Numerical group ID

• ”,” separated list of user names

Note
”/etc/gshadow” provides the similar function as ”/etc/shadow” for ”/etc/group” but is not really used.
Debian Reference 87 / 231

Note
The actual group membership of a user may be dynamically added if ”auth optional pam_group.so” line is
added to ”/etc/pam.d/common-auth” and set it in ”/etc/security/group.conf”. See pam_group(8).

Note
The base-passwd package contains an authoritative list of the user and the group:
”/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html”.

4.2 Managing account and password information

Here are few notable commands to manage account information.

command function
getent passwd user_name browse account information of ”user_name”
getent shadow user_name browse shadowed account information of ”user_name”
getent group group_name browse group information of ”group_name”
passwd manage password for the account
passwd -e set one-time password for the account activation
chage manage password aging information

Table 4.3: List of commands to manage account information

You may need to have the root privilege for some functions to work. See crypt(3) for the password and data encryption.

Note
On the system set up with PAM and NSS as the Debian salsa machine, the content of local ”/etc/passwd”,
”/etc/group” and ”/etc/shadow” may not be actively used by the system. Above commands are valid even
under such environment.

4.3 Good password

When creating an account during your system installation or with the passwd(1) command, you should choose a good pass-
word which consists of at least 6 to 8 characters including one or more characters from each of the following sets according to
passwd(1).

• Lower case alphabetics

• Digits 0 through 9
• Punctuation marks

Warning
Do not choose guessable words for the password. Account name, social security number, phone number,
address, birthday, name of your family members or pets, dictionary words, simple sequence of characters
such as ”12345” or ”qwerty”, …are all bad choice for the password.
Debian Reference 88 / 231

package popcon size command function

whois V:31, I:345 364 mkpasswd over-featured front end to the crypt(3) library
openssl compute password hashes (OpenSSL).
openssl V:806, I:994 1466
passwd passwd(1ssl)

Table 4.4: List of tools to generate password

4.4 Creating encrypted password

There are independent tools to generate encrypted passwords with salt.

4.5 PAM and NSS

Modern Unix-like systems such as the Debian system provide PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) and NSS (Name Ser-
vice Switch) mechanism to the local system administrator to configure his system. The role of these can be summarizes as the
following.

• PAM offers a flexible authentication mechanism used by the application software thus involves password data exchange.
• NSS offers a flexible name service mechanism which is frequently used by the C standard library to obtain the user and group
name for programs such as ls(1) and id(1).

These PAM and NSS systems need to be configured consistently.

The notable packages of PAM and NSS systems are the following.

package popcon size description

libpam-modules V:804, I:999 1048 Pluggable Authentication Modules (basic service)
libpam-ldap V:1, I:11 249 Pluggable Authentication Module allowing LDAP interfaces
libpam-cracklib
I:15 117 Pluggable Authentication Module to enable cracklib support
Pluggable Authentication Module to register user sessions for
libpam-systemd V:502, I:884 694
logind
libpam-doc I:1 1046 Pluggable Authentication Modules (documentation in html and text)
GNU C Library: Shared libraries which also provides ”Name Service
libc6 V:922, I:999 12775
Switch” service
glibc-doc I:10 3266 GNU C Library: Manpages
glibc-doc-reference GNU C Library: Reference manual in info, pdf and html format
I:4 12763
(non-free)
libnss-mdns I:521 147 NSS module for Multicast DNS name resolution
libnss-ldap I:10 265 NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service
NSS module for using LDAP as a naming service (new fork of
libnss-ldapd I:13 153
libnss-ldap)

Table 4.5: List of notable PAM and NSS systems

• ”The Linux-PAM System Administrators’ Guide” in libpam-doc is essential for learning PAM configuration.
• ”System Databases and Name Service Switch” section in glibc-doc-reference is essential for learning NSS configura-
tion.
Debian Reference 89 / 231

Note
You can see more extensive and current list by ”aptitude search ’libpam-|libnss-’” command. The
acronym NSS may also mean ”Network Security Service” which is different from ”Name Service Switch”.

Note
PAM is the most basic way to initialize environment variables for each program with the system wide default value.

Under systemd, libpam-systemd package is installed to manage user logins by registering user sessions in the systemd
control group hierarchy for logind. See systemd-logind(8), logind.conf(5), and pam_systemd(8).

4.5.1 Configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS

Here are a few notable configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS.

configuration file function

set up PAM configuration for the ”program_name” program; see
/etc/pam.d/program_name
pam(7) and pam.d(5)
set up NSS configuration with the entry for each service. See
/etc/nsswitch.conf
nsswitch.conf(5)
/etc/nologin limit the user login by the pam_nologin(8) module
/etc/securetty limit the tty for the root access by the pam_securetty(8) module
/etc/security/access.conf set access limit by the pam_access(8) module
/etc/security/group.conf set group based restraint by the pam_group(8) module
/etc/security/pam_env.conf set environment variables by the pam_env(8) module
set additional environment variables by the pam_env(8) module with
/etc/environment
the ”readenv=1” argument
set locale by pam_env(8) module with the ”readenv=1
/etc/default/locale
envfile=/etc/default/locale” argument (Debian)
/etc/security/limits.conf set resource restraint (ulimit, core, …) by the pam_linits(8) module
/etc/security/time.conf set time restraint by the pam_time(8) module
set systemd login manager configuration (see logind.conf(5)
/etc/systemd/logind.conf
and systemd-logind.service(8))

Table 4.6: List of configuration files accessed by PAM and NSS

The limitation of the password selection is implemented by the PAM modules, pam_unix(8) and pam_cracklib(8). They
can be configured by their arguments.

Tip
PAM modules use suffix ”.so” for their filenames.

4.5.2 The modern centralized system management

The modern centralized system management can be deployed using the centralized Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
(LDAP) server to administer many Unix-like and non-Unix-like systems on the network. The open source implementation of the
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol is OpenLDAP Software.
The LDAP server provides the account information through the use of PAM and NSS with libpam-ldap and libnss-ldap
packages for the Debian system. Several actions are required to enable this (I have not used this setup and the following is purely
secondary information. Please read this in this context.).
Debian Reference 90 / 231

• You set up a centralized LDAP server by running a program such as the stand-alone LDAP daemon, slapd(8).
• You change the PAM configuration files in the ”/etc/pam.d/” directory to use ”pam_ldap.so” instead of the default
”pam_unix.so”.
– Debian uses ”/etc/pam_ldap.conf” as the configuration file for libpam-ldap and ”/etc/pam_ldap.secret”
as the file to store the password of the root.
• You change the NSS configuration in the ”/etc/nsswitch.conf” file to use ”ldap” instead of the default (”compat”
or ”file”).
– Debian uses ”/etc/libnss-ldap.conf” as the configuration file for libnss-ldap.
• You must make libpam-ldap to use SSL (or TLS) connection for the security of password.
• You may make libnss-ldap to use SSL (or TLS) connection to ensure integrity of data at the cost of the LDAP network
overhead.
• You should run nscd(8) locally to cache any LDAP search results in order to reduce the LDAP network traffic.

See documentations in pam_ldap.conf(5) and ”/usr/share/doc/libpam-doc/html/” offered by the libpam-doc

package and ”info libc ’Name Service Switch’” offered by the glibc-doc package.
Similarly, you can set up alternative centralized systems with other methods.

• Integration of user and group with the Windows system.

– Access Windows domain services by the winbind and libpam_winbind packages.
– See winbindd(8) and Integrating MS Windows Networks with Samba.
• Integration of user and group with the legacy Unix-like system.
– Access NIS (originally called YP) or NIS+ by the nis package.
– See The Linux NIS(YP)/NYS/NIS+ HOWTO.

4.5.3 ”Why GNU su does not support the wheel group”

This is the famous phrase at the bottom of the old ”info su” page by Richard M. Stallman. Not to worry: the current su
command in Debian uses PAM, so that one can restrict the ability to use su to the root group by enabling the line with
”pam_wheel.so” in ”/etc/pam.d/su”.

4.5.4 Stricter password rule

Installing the libpam-cracklib package enables you to force stricter password rule.
On a typical GNOME system which automatically installs libpam-gnome-keyring, ”/etc/pam.d/common-password”
looks like:
# here are the per-package modules (the ”Primary” block)
password requisite pam_cracklib.so retry=3 minlen=8 difok=3
password [success=1 default=ignore] pam_unix.so obscure use_authtok try_first_pass ←-
yescrypt
# here’s the fallback if no module succeeds
password requisite pam_deny.so
# prime the stack with a positive return value if there isn’t one already;
# this avoids us returning an error just because nothing sets a success code
# since the modules above will each just jump around
password required pam_permit.so
# and here are more per-package modules (the ”Additional” block)
password optional pam_gnome_keyring.so
# end of pam-auth-update config
Debian Reference 91 / 231

4.6 Security of authentication

Note
The information here may not be sufficient for your security needs but it should be a good start.

4.6.1 Secure password on the Internet

Many popular transportation layer services communicate messages including password authentication in the plain text. It is very
bad idea to transmit password in the plain text over the wild Internet where it can be intercepted. You can run these services over
”Transport Layer Security” (TLS) or its predecessor, ”Secure Sockets Layer” (SSL) to secure entire communication including
password by the encryption.

insecure service name port secure service name port

www (http) 80 https 443
smtp (mail) 25 ssmtp (smtps) 465
ftp-data 20 ftps-data 989
ftp 21 ftps 990
telnet 23 telnets 992
imap2 143 imaps 993
pop3 110 pop3s 995
ldap 389 ldaps 636

Table 4.7: List of insecure and secure services and ports

The encryption costs CPU time. As a CPU friendly alternative, you can keep communication in plain text while securing just the
password with the secure authentication protocol such as ”Authenticated Post Office Protocol” (APOP) for POP and ”Challenge-
Response Authentication Mechanism MD5” (CRAM-MD5) for SMTP and IMAP. (For sending mail messages over the Internet
to your mail server from your mail client, it is recently popular to use new message submission port 587 instead of traditional
SMTP port 25 to avoid port 25 blocking by the network provider while authenticating yourself with CRAM-MD5.)

4.6.2 Secure Shell

The Secure Shell (SSH) program provides secure encrypted communications between two untrusted hosts over an insecure net-
work with the secure authentication. It consists of the OpenSSH client, ssh(1), and the OpenSSH daemon, sshd(8). This SSH
can be used to tunnel an insecure protocol communication such as POP and X securely over the Internet with the port forwarding
feature.
The client tries to authenticate itself using host-based authentication, public key authentication, challenge-response authentication,
or password authentication. The use of public key authentication enables the remote password-less login. See Section 6.3.

4.6.3 Extra security measures for the Internet

Even when you run secure services such as Secure Shell (SSH) and Point-to-point tunneling protocol (PPTP) servers, there are
still chances for the break-ins using brute force password guessing attack etc. from the Internet. Use of the firewall policy (see
Section 5.6) together with the following secure tools may improve the security situation.

4.6.4 Securing the root password

To prevent people to access your machine with root privilege, you need to make following actions.

• Prevent physical access to the hard disk

Debian Reference 92 / 231

package popcon size description

knockd V:0, I:3 110 small port-knock daemon knockd(1) and client konck(1)
fail2ban V:109, I:122 2092 ban IPs that cause multiple authentication errors
libpam-shield V:0, I:0 115 lock out remote attackers trying password guessing

Table 4.8: List of tools to provide extra security measures

• Lock UEFI/BIOS and prevent booting from the removable media

• Set password for GRUB interactive session
• Lock GRUB menu from editing

With physical access to hard disk, resetting the password is relatively easy with following steps.

1. Move the hard disk to a PC with CD bootable UEFI/BIOS.

2. Boot system with a rescue media (Debian boot disk, Knoppix CD, GRUB CD, …).

3. Mount root partition with read/write access.

4. Edit ”/etc/passwd” in the root partition and make the second entry for the root account empty.

If you have edit access to the GRUB menu entry (see Section 3.1.2) for grub-rescue-pc at boot time, it is even easier with
following steps.

1. Boot system with the kernel parameter changed to something like ”root=/dev/hda6 rw init=/bin/sh”.
2. Edit ”/etc/passwd” and make the second entry for the root account empty.
3. Reboot system.

The root shell of the system is now accessible without password.

Note
Once one has root shell access, he can access everything on the system and reset any passwords on the system.
Further more, he may compromise password for all user accounts using brute force password cracking tools such as
john and crack packages (see Section 9.5.11). This cracked password may lead to compromise other systems.

The only reasonable software solution to avoid all these concerns is to use software encrypted root partition (or ”/etc” partition)
using dm-crypt and initramfs (see Section 9.9). You always need password to boot the system, though.

4.7 Other access controls

There are access controls to the system other than the password based authentication and file permissions.

Note
See Section 9.4.15 for restricting the kernel secure attention key (SAK) feature.
Debian Reference 93 / 231

4.7.1 sudo
sudo(8) is a program designed to allow a sysadmin to give limited root privileges to users and log root activity. sudo re-
quires only an ordinary user’s password. Install sudo package and activate it by setting options in ”/etc/sudoers”. See
configuration example at ”/usr/share/doc/sudo/examples/sudoers” and Section 1.1.12.
My usage of sudo for the single user system (see Section 1.1.12) is aimed to protect myself from my own stupidity. Personally,
I consider using sudo a better alternative than using the system from the root account all the time. For example, the following
changes the owner of ”some_file” to ”my_name”.
$ sudo chown my_name some_file

Of course if you know the root password (as self-installed Debian users do), any command can be run under root from any user’s
account using ”su -c”.

4.7.2 PolicyKit
PolicyKit is an operating system component for controlling system-wide privileges in Unix-like operating systems.
Newer GUI applications are not designed to run as privileged processes. They talk to privileged processes via PolicyKit to perform
administrative operations.
PolicyKit limits such operations to user accounts belonging to the sudo group on the Debian system.
See polkit(8).

4.7.3 Restricting access to some server services

For system security, it is a good idea to disable as much server programs as possible. This becomes critical for network servers.
Having unused servers, activated either directly as daemon or via super-server program, are considered security risks.
Many programs, such as sshd(8), use PAM based access control. There are many ways to restrict access to some server services.

• configuration files: ”/etc/default/program_name”

• Systemd service unit configuration for daemon
• PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules)
• ”/etc/inetd.conf” for super-server
• ”/etc/hosts.deny” and ”/etc/hosts.allow” for TCP wrapper, tcpd(8)
• ”/etc/rpc.conf” for Sun RPC
• ”/etc/at.allow” and ”/etc/at.deny” for atd(8)
• ”/etc/cron.allow” and ”/etc/cron.deny” for crontab(1)
• Network firewall of netfilter infrastructure

See Section 3.5, Section 4.5.1, and Section 5.6.

Tip
Sun RPC services need to be active for NFS and other RPC based programs.

Tip
If you have problems with remote access in a recent Debian system, comment out offending configuration such as
”ALL: PARANOID” in ”/etc/hosts.deny” if it exists. (But you must be careful on security risks involved with this
kind of action.)
Debian Reference 94 / 231

4.7.4 Linux security features

Linux kernel has evolved and supports security features not found in traditional UNIX implementations.
Linux supports extended attributes which extend the traditional UNIX attributes (see xattr(7)).
Linux divides the privileges traditionally associated with superuser into distinct units, known as capabilities(7), which can
be independently enabled and disabled. Capabilities are a per-thread attribute since kernel version 2.2.
The Linux Security Module (LSM) framework provides a mechanism for various security checks to be hooked by new kernel
extensions. For example:

• AppArmor
• Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux)
• Smack (Simplified Mandatory Access Control Kernel)

• Tomoyo Linux

Since these extensions may tighten privilege model tighter than the ordinary Unix-like security model policies, even the root
power may be restricted. You are advised to read the Linux Security Module (LSM) framework document at kernel.org.
Linux namespaces wrap a global system resource in an abstraction that makes it appear to the processes within the namespace
that they have their own isolated instance of the global resource. Changes to the global resource are visible to other processes that
are members of the namespace, but are invisible to other processes. Since kernel version 5.6, there are 8 kinds of namespaces
(see namespaces(7), unshare(1), nsenter(1)).
As of Debian 11 Bullseye (2021), Debian uses unified cgroup hierarchy (a.k.a. cgroups-v2).
Usage examples of namespaces with cgroups to isolate their processes and to allow resource control are:

• Systemd. See Section 3.2.

• Sandbox environment. See Section 7.6.

• Linux containers such as Docker, LXC. See Section 9.11.

These functionalities can’t be realized by Section 4.1. These advanced topics are mostly out-of-scope for this introductory docu-
ment.
Debian Reference 95 / 231

Chapter 5

Network setup

Tip
For modern Debian specific guide to the networking, read The Debian Administrator’s Handbook —Configuring the
Network.

Tip
Under systemd, networkd may be used to manage networks. See systemd-networkd(8).

5.1 The basic network infrastructure

Let’s review the basic network infrastructure on the modern Debian system.

5.1.1 The hostname resolution

The hostname resolution is currently supported by the NSS (Name Service Switch) mechanism too. The flow of this resolution
is the following.

1. The ”/etc/nsswitch.conf” file with stanza like ”hosts: files dns” dictates the hostname resolution order.
(This replaces the old functionality of the ”order” stanza in ”/etc/host.conf”.)

2. The files method is invoked first. If the hostname is found in the ”/etc/hosts” file, it returns all valid addresses for
it and exits. (The ”/etc/host.conf” file contains ”multi on”.)
3. The dns method is invoked. If the hostname is found by the query to the Internet Domain Name System (DNS) identified
by the ”/etc/resolv.conf” file, it returns all valid addresses for it and exits.

For example, ”/etc/hosts” looks like the following.

127.0.0.1 localhost
127.0.1.1 host_name

# The following lines are desirable for IPv6 capable hosts

::1 localhost ip6-localhost ip6-loopback
ff02::1 ip6-allnodes
ff02::2 ip6-allrouters
Debian Reference 96 / 231

packages popcon size type description

network-manager NetworkManager (daemon): manage the network
V:372, I:444 15443 config::NM
automatically
network-manager-gnome
V:130, I:374 5345 config::NM NetworkManager (GNOME frontend)
standardized tool to bring up and down the network
ifupdown V:592, I:988 218 config::ifupdown
(Debian specific)
isc-dhcp-client config::low-
V:220, I:981 686 DHCP client
level
pppoeconf V:0, I:7 192 config::helper configuration helper for PPPoE connection
wpasupplicant V:339, I:508 3431 ,, client support for WPA and WPA2 (IEEE 802.11i)
wpagui V:0, I:2 796 ,, Qt GUI client for wpa_supplicant
wireless-tools V:178, I:244 297 ,, tools for manipulating Linux Wireless Extensions
iw V:261, I:484 293 ,, tool for configuring Linux wireless devices
iproute2, IPv6 and other advanced network
iproute2 V:694, I:944 3248 config::iproute2
configuration: ip(8), tc(8), etc
administration tools for packet filtering and NAT
iptables V:302, I:962 2521 config::Netfilter
(Netfilter)
test network reachability of a remote host by hostname
iputils-ping V:212, I:997 113 test
or IP address (iproute2)
test network reachability of a remote host specified by
iputils-arping V:6, I:88 55 test
the ARP address
iputils-tracepath
V:4, I:49 72 test trace the network path to a remote host
ethtool V:96, I:264 597 test display or change Ethernet device settings
test::low-
mtr-tiny V:6, I:53 160 trace the network path to a remote host (curses)
level
trace the network path to a remote host (curses and
mtr V:4, I:44 214 ,,
GTK)
tools for common network information operations
gnome-nettool V:1, I:35 2110 ,,
(GNOME)
nmap V:28, I:235 4509 ,, network mapper / port scanner (Nmap, console)
zenmap V:0, I:5 2939 ,, network mapper / port scanner (GTK)
tcpdump V:18, I:196 1330 ,, network traffic analyzer (Tcpdump, console)
wireshark I:51 74 ,, network traffic analyzer (Wireshark, GTK)
tshark V:2, I:31 417 ,, network traffic analyzer (console)
produce a summarization of the connections from
tcptrace V:0, I:2 401 ,,
tcpdump output
snort V:0, I:1 2206 ,, flexible network intrusion detection system (Snort)
ntopng V:1, I:1 969 ,, display network usage in web browser
network clients provided with BIND: nslookup(8),
dnsutils V:42, I:446 271 ,,
nsupdate(8), dig(8)
check DNS zone information using nameserver
dlint V:0, I:6 53 ,,
lookups
dnstracer V:0, I:1 60 ,, trace a chain of DNS servers to the source

Table 5.1: List of network configuration tools

Debian Reference 97 / 231

Each line starts with a IP address and it is followed by the associated hostname.
The IP address 127.0.1.1 in the second line of this example may not be found on some other Unix-like systems. The Debian
Installer creates this entry for a system without a permanent IP address as a workaround for some software (e.g., GNOME) as
documented in the bug #719621.
The host_name matches the hostname defined in the ”/etc/hostname”.
For a system with a permanent IP address, that permanent IP address should be used here instead of 127.0.1.1.
For a system with a permanent IP address and a fully qualified domain name (FQDN) provided by the Domain Name System
(DNS), that canonical host_name.domain_name should be used instead of just host_name.
The ”/etc/resolv.conf” is a static file if the resolvconf package is not installed. If installed, it is a symbolic link.
Either way, it contains information that initialize the resolver routines. If the DNS is found at IP=”192.168.11.1”, it contains
the following.
nameserver 192.168.11.1

The resolvconf package makes this ”/etc/resolv.conf” into a symbolic link and manages its contents by the hook
scripts automatically.
For the PC workstation on the typical adhoc LAN environment, the hostname can be resolved via Multicast DNS (mDNS, Zero-
conf) in addition to the basic files and dns methods.

• Avahi provides a framework for Multicast DNS Service Discovery on Debian.

• It is equivalent of Apple Bonjour / Apple Rendezvous.

• The libnss-mdns plugin package provides host name resolution via mDNS for the GNU Name Service Switch (NSS)
functionality of the GNU C Library (glibc).
• The ”/etc/nsswitch.conf” file should have stanza like ”hosts: files mdns4_minimal [NOTFOUND=return]
dns mdns4”.
• Host names ending with the ”.local” pseudo-top-level domain (TLD) are resolved.

• The mDNS IPv4 link-local multicast address ”224.0.0.251” or its IPv6 equivalent ”FF02::FB” are used to make DNS
query for a name ending with ”.local”.

The hostname resolution via deprecated NETBios over TCP/IP used by the older Windows system can be provided by installing
the winbind package. The ”/etc/nsswitch.conf” file should have stanza like ”hosts: files mdns4_minimal
[NOTFOUND=return] dns mdns4 wins” to enable this functionality. (Modern Windows system usually use the dns
method for the hostname resolution.)

Note
The expansion of generic Top-Level Domains (gTLD) in the Domain Name System is underway. Watch out for the
name collision when chosing a domain name used only within LAN.

5.1.2 The network interface name

The systemd uses ”Predictable Network Interface Names” such as ”enp0s25”.

5.1.3 The network address range for the LAN

Let us be reminded of the IPv4 32 bit address ranges in each class reserved for use on the local area networks (LANs) by rfc1918.
These addresses are guaranteed not to conflict with any addresses on the Internet proper.
Debian Reference 98 / 231

net mask
Class network addresses net mask of subnets
/bits
A 10.x.x.x 255.0.0.0 /8 1
B 172.16.x.x —172.31.x.x 255.255.0.0 /16 16
C 192.168.0.x —192.168.255.x 255.255.255.0 /24 256

Table 5.2: List of network address ranges

Note
IP address written with colon are IPv6 address, e.g., ”::1” for localhost.

Note
If one of these addresses is assigned to a host, then that host must not access the Internet directly but must access
it through a gateway that acts as a proxy for individual services or else does Network Address Translation (NAT).
The broadband router usually performs NAT for the consumer LAN environment.

5.1.4 The network device support

Although most hardware devices are supported by the Debian system, there are some network devices which require DFSG
non-free firmware to support them. Please see Section 9.10.5.

5.2 The modern network configuration for desktop

Network interfaces are typically initialized in ”networking.service” for the lo interface and ”NetworkManager.service”
for other interfaces on modern Debian desktop system under systemd.
Debian can manage the network connection via management daemon software such as NetworkManager (NM) (network-manager
and associated packages).

• They come with their own GUI and command-line programs as their user interfaces.
• They come with their own daemon as their backend system.

• They allow easy connection of your system to the Internet.

• They allow easy management of wired and wireless network configuration.
• They allow us to configure network independent of the legacy ifupdown package.

Note
Do not use these automatic network configuration tools for servers. These are aimed primarily for mobile desktop
users on laptops.

These modern network configuration tools need to be configured properly to avoid conflicting with the legacy ifupdown pack-
age and its configuration file ”/etc/network/interfaces”.
Debian Reference 99 / 231

5.2.1 GUI network configuration tools

Official documentations for NM on Debian are provided in ”/usr/share/doc/network-manager/README.Debian”.

Essentially, the network configuration for desktop is done as follows.

1. Make desktop user, e.g. foo, belong to group ”netdev” by the following (Alternatively, do it automatically via D-bus
under modern desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE).
$ sudo adduser foo netdev

2. Keep configuration of ”/etc/network/interfaces” as simple as in the following.

auto lo
iface lo inet loopback

3. Restart NM by the following.

$ sudo systemctl restart network-manager

4. Configure your network via GUI.

Note
Only interfaces which are not listed in ”/etc/network/interfaces” are managed by NM to avoid conflict with
ifupdown.

Tip
If you wish to extend network configuration capabilities of NM, please seek appropriate plug-in modules and
supplemental packages such as network-manager-openconnect, network-manager-openvpn-gnome,
network-manager-pptp-gnome, mobile-broadband-provider-info, gnome-bluetooth, etc.

5.3 The modern network configuration without GUI

Under systemd, the network may be configured in /etc/systemd/network/ instead. See systemd-resolved(8),
resolved.conf(5), and systemd-networkd(8).
This allows the modern network configuration without GUI.
A DHCP client configuration can be set up by creating ”/etc/systemd/network/dhcp.network”. E.g.:
[Match]
Name=en*

[Network]
DHCP=yes

A static network configuration can be set up by creating ”/etc/systemd/network/static.network”. E.g.:

[Match]
Name=en*

[Network]
Address=192.168.0.15/24
Gateway=192.168.0.1
Debian Reference 100 / 231

5.4 The low level network configuration

For the low level network configuration on Linux, use the iproute2 programs (ip(8), …) .

5.4.1 Iproute2 commands

Iproute2 commands offer complete low-level network configuration capabilities. Here is a translation table from obsolete net-
tools commands to new iproute2 etc. commands.

obsolete net-tools new iproute2 etc. manipulation

ifconfig(8) ip addr protocol (IP or IPv6) address on a device
route(8) ip route routing table entry
arp(8) ip neigh ARP or NDISC cache entry
ipmaddr ip maddr multicast address
iptunnel ip tunnel tunnel over IP
name network interfaces based on MAC
nameif(8) ifrename(8)
addresses
mii-tool(8) ethtool(8) Ethernet device settings

Table 5.3: Translation table from obsolete net-tools commands to new iproute2 commands

See ip(8) and IPROUTE2 Utility Suite Howto.

5.4.2 Safe low level network operations

You may use low level network commands as follows safely since they do not change network configuration.

command description
ip addr show display the link and address status of active interfaces
route -n display all the routing table in numerical addresses
ip route show display all the routing table in numerical addresses
arp display the current content of the ARP cache tables
ip neigh display the current content of the ARP cache tables
plog display ppp daemon log
ping yahoo.com check the Internet connection to ”yahoo.com”
whois yahoo.com check who registered ”yahoo.com” in the domains database
traceroute yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to ”yahoo.com”
tracepath yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to ”yahoo.com”
mtr yahoo.com trace the Internet connection to ”yahoo.com” (repeatedly)
dig [@dns-server.com] check DNS records of ”example.com” by ”dns-server.com”
example.com [{a|mx|any}] for a ”a”, ”mx”, or ”any” record
iptables -L -n check packet filter
netstat -a find all open ports
netstat -l --inet find listening ports
netstat -ln --tcp find listening TCP ports (numeric)
dlint example.com check DNS zone information of ”example.com”

Table 5.4: List of low level network commands

Tip
Some of these low level network configuration tools reside in ”/sbin/”. You may need to issue full command path
such as ”/sbin/ifconfig” or add ”/sbin” to the ”$PATH” list in your ”~/.bashrc”.
Debian Reference 101 / 231

5.5 Network optimization

Generic network optimization is beyond the scope of this documentation. I touch only subjects pertinent to the consumer grade
connection.

packages popcon size description

iftop V:7, I:112 97 display bandwidth usage information on an network interface
iperf V:3, I:52 305 Internet Protocol bandwidth measuring tool
ifstat V:0, I:8 60 InterFace STATistics Monitoring
bmon V:1, I:17 146 portable bandwidth monitor and rate estimator
ethstatus V:0, I:4 40 script that quickly measures network device throughput
bing V:0, I:1 80 empirical stochastic bandwidth tester
bwm-ng V:1, I:17 90 small and simple console-based bandwidth monitor
ethstats V:0, I:0 23 console-based Ethernet statistics monitor
ipfm V:0, I:0 78 bandwidth analysis tool

Table 5.5: List of network optimization tools

5.5.1 Finding optimal MTU

The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) value can be determined experimentally with ping(8) with ”-M do” option which
sends ICMP packets with data size starting from 1500 (with offset of 28 bytes for the IP+ICMP header) and finding the largest
size without IP fragmentation.
For example, try the following
$ ping -c 1 -s $((1500-28)) -M do www.debian.org
PING www.debian.org (194.109.137.218) 1472(1500) bytes of data.
From 192.168.11.2 icmp_seq=1 Frag needed and DF set (mtu = 1454)

--- www.debian.org ping statistics ---

0 packets transmitted, 0 received, +1 errors

Try MTU=1454 instead of MTU=1500

You see ping(8) succeed with MTU=1454.
If MTU is not 1500, you may want to configure MTU settings in NM.
This process is Path MTU (PMTU) discovery (RFC1191) and the tracepath(8) command can automate this.

Tip
The above example with PMTU value of 1454 is for my previous FTTP provider which used Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM) as its backbone network and served its clients with the PPPoE. The actual PMTU value depends on
your environment, e.g., 1500 for the my new FTTP provider.

In addtion to these basic guide lines, you should know the following.

• Any use of tunneling methods (VPN etc.) may reduce optimal MTU further by their overheads.
• The MTU value should not exceed the experimentally determined PMTU value.
• The bigger MTU value is generally better when other limitations are met.

The maximum segment size (MSS) is used as an alternative measure of packet size. The relationship between MSS and MTU
are the following.
Debian Reference 102 / 231

network environment MTU rationale

Dial-up link (IP: PPP) 576 standard
Ethernet link (IP: DHCP or fixed) 1500 standard and default
2 bytes for PPP header and 6 bytes for PPPoE
Ethernet link (IP: PPPoE) 1492 (=1500-8)
header
Ethernet link (ISP’s backbone: author’s speculation: 18 bytes for Ethernet
1462 (=48*31-18-8)
ATM, IP: DHCP or fixed) header, 8 bytes for SAR trailer
author’s speculation: 18 bytes for Ethernet
Ethernet link (ISP’s backbone:
1454 (=48*31-8-18-8) header, 8 bytes for SAR trailer, 2 bytes for
ATM, IP: PPPoE)
PPP header and 6 bytes for PPPoE header

Table 5.6: Basic guide lines of the optimal MTU value

• MSS = MTU - 40 for IPv4

• MSS = MTU - 60 for IPv6

Note
The iptables(8) (see Section 5.6) based optimization can clamp packet size by the MSS and is useful for the
router. See ”TCPMSS” in iptables(8).

5.5.2 WAN TCP optimization

The TCP throughput can be maximized by adjusting TCP buffer size parameters as described in ”TCP Tuning Guide” and ”TCP
tuning” for the modern high-bandwidth and high-latency WAN. So far, the current Debian default settings serve well even for my
LAN connected by the fast 1G bps FTTP service.

5.6 Netfilter infrastructure

Netfilter provides infrastructure for stateful firewall and network address translation (NAT) with Linux kernel modules (see
Section 3.8.1).

packages popcon size description

administration tools for netfilter (iptables(8) for IPv4,
iptables V:302, I:962 2521
ip6tables(8) for IPv6)
arptables V:0, I:2 96 administration tools for netfilter (arptables(8) for ARP)
administration tools for netfilter (ebtables(8) for Ethernet
ebtables V:15, I:34 265
bridging)
iptstate V:0, I:3 116 continuously monitor netfilter state (similar to top(1))
shorewall-init V:0, I:0 68 Shoreline Firewall initialization
shorewall V:4, I:11 2458 Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator
Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (light
shorewall-lite V:0, I:0 65
version)
Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (IPv6
shorewall6 V:1, I:2 779
version)
shorewall6-lite Shoreline Firewall, netfilter configuration file generator (IPv6, light
V:0, I:0 64
version)

Table 5.7: List of firewall tools

Main user space program of netfilter is iptables(8). You can manually configure netfilter interactively from shell, save its
state with iptables-save(8), and restore it via init script with iptables-restore(8) upon system reboot.
Debian Reference 103 / 231

Configuration helper scripts such as shorewall ease this process.

See documentations at http://www.netfilter.org/documentation/ (or in ”/usr/share/doc/iptables/html/”).

• Linux Networking-concepts HOWTO

• Linux 2.4 Packet Filtering HOWTO

• Linux 2.4 NAT HOWTO

Tip
Although these were written for Linux 2.4, both iptables(8) command and netfilter kernel function apply for Linux
2.6 and 3.x kernel series.
Debian Reference 104 / 231

Chapter 6

Network applications

After establishing network connectivity (see Chapter 5), you can run various network applications.

Tip
For modern Debian specific guide to the network infrastructure, read The Debian Administrator’s Handbook —
Network Infrastructure.

Tip
If you enabled ”2-Step Verification” with some ISP, you need to obtain an application password to access POP and
SMTP services from your program. You may need to approve your host IP in advance.

6.1 Web browsers

There are many web browser packages to access remote contents with Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

package popcon size type description of web browser

chromium V:56, I:131 203203 X Chromium, (open-source browser from Google)
Firefox, (open-source browser from Mozilla, only
firefox V:12, I:19 210167 , ,
available in Debian Unstable)
firefox-esr V:228, I:439 209737 , , Firefox ESR, (Firefox Extended Support Release)
epiphany-browser
V:4, I:21 5559 ,, GNOME, HIG compliant, Epiphany
konqueror V:19, I:97 21465 ,, KDE, Konqueror
dillo V:1, I:6 1536 ,, Dillo, (light weight browser, FLTK based)
w3m V:26, I:233 2367 text w3m
lynx V:13, I:92 1949 ,, Lynx
elinks V:5, I:26 1767 ,, ELinks
links V:5, I:36 2286 ,, Links (text only)
links2 V:1, I:13 5459 graphics Links (console graphics without X)

Table 6.1: List of web browsers

6.1.1 Browser configuration

You may be able to use following special URL strings for some browsers to confirm their settings.
Debian Reference 105 / 231

• ”about:”
• ”about:config”
• ”about:plugins”

Debian offers many free browser plugin packages in the main archive area which can handle not only Java (software platform)
and Flash but also MPEG, MPEG2, MPEG4, DivX, Windows Media Video (.wmv), QuickTime (.mov), MP3 (.mp3), Ogg/Vorbis
files, DVDs, VCDs, etc. Debian also offers helper programs to install non-free browser plugin packages as contrib or non-free
archive area.

package popcon size area description

pepperflashplugin-nonfree
V:0, I:13 26 contrib Pepper Flash Player - browser plugin

Table 6.2: List of browser plugin packages

Tip
Although use of above Debian packages are much easier, browser plugins can be still manually enabled by installing
”*.so” into plugin directories (e.g., ”/usr/lib/iceweasel/plugins/”) and restarting browsers.

Some web sites refuse to be connected based on the user-agent string of your browser. You can work around this situation
by spoofing the user-agent string. For example, you can do this by adding following line into user configuration files such as
”~/.gnome2/epiphany/mozilla/epiphany/user.js” or ”~/.mozilla/firefox/*.default/user.js”.
user_pref{”general.useragent.override”,”Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 7.0; Windows NT 6.0) ←-
”};

Alternatively, you can add and reset this variable by typing ”about:config” into URL and right clicking its display contents.

Caution
Spoofed user-agent string may cause bad side effects with Java.

6.2 The mail system

This section focuses on typical mobile workstations on consumer grade Internet connections.

Caution
If you are to set up the mail server to exchange mail directly with the Internet, you should be better than
reading this elementary document.

6.2.1 Email basics

An email message consists of three components, the message envelope, the message header, and the message body.

• The ”To” and ”From” information in the message envelope is used by the SMTP to deliver the email. (The ”From” information
in the message envelope is also called bounce address, From_, etc.).
Debian Reference 106 / 231

• The ”To” and ”From” information in the message header is displayed by the email client. (While it is most common for these
to be the same as ones in the message envelope, such is not always the case.)
• The email message format covering header and body data is extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) from
the plain ASCII text to other character encodings, as well as attachments of audio, video, images, and application programs.

Full featured GUI based email clients offer all the following functions using the GUI based intuitive configuration.

• It creates and interprets the message header and body data using Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) to deal the
content data type and encoding.
• It authenticates itself to the ISP’s SMTP and IMAP servers using the legacy basic access authentication or modern OAuth 2.0.
(For OAuth 2.0, set it via Desktop environment settings. E.g., ”Settings” -> ”Online Accounts”.)
• It sends the message to the ISP’s smarthost SMTP server listening to the message submission port (587).
• It receives the stored message on the ISP’s server from the TLS/IMAP4 port (993).
• It can filter mails by their attributes.
• It may offer additional functionalities: Contacts, Calendar, Tasks, Memos.

package popcon size type

evolution V:32, I:237 484 X GUI program (GNOME3, groupware suite)
thunderbird V:59, I:133 201927 X GUI program (GTK, Mozilla Thunderbird)
kmail V:33, I:88 21237 X GUI program (KDE)
mutt V:34, I:254 7071 character terminal program probably used with vim
mew V:0, I:0 2334 character terminal program under (x)emacs

Table 6.3: List of mail user agent (MUA)

6.2.2 Modern mail service limitation

Modern mail service are under some limitations in order to minimize exposure to the spam (unwanted and unsolicited email)
problems.

• It is not realistic to run SMTP server on the consumer grade network to send mail directly to the remote host reliably.
• A mail may be rejected by any host en route to the destination quietly unless it appears as authentic as possible.
• It is not realistic to expect a single smarthost to send mails of unrelated source mail addresses to the remote host reliably.

This is because:

• The SMTP port (25) connections from hosts serviced by the consumer grade network to the Internet are blocked.
• The SMTP port (25) connections to hosts serviced by the consumer grade network from the Internet are blocked.
• The outgoing messages from hosts serviced by the consumer grade network to the Internet can only be sent via the message
submission port (587).
• Anti-spam techniques such as DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM), Sender_Policy_Framework (SPF), and Domain-based
Message Authentication, Reporting and Conformance (DMARC) are widely used for the email filtering.
• The DomainKeys Identified Mail service may be provided for your mail sent through the smarthost.
• The smarthost may rewrite the source mail address in the message header to your mail account on the smarthost to prevent
email address spoofing.
Debian Reference 107 / 231

6.2.3 Historic mail service expectation

Some programs on Debian expect to access the /usr/sbin/sendmail command to send emails as their default or customized
setting since the mail service on a UNIX system functioned historically as:

• An email is created as a text file.

• The email is handed to the /usr/sbin/sendmail command.
• For the destination address on the same host, the /usr/sbin/sendmail command makes local delivery of the email by
appending it to the /var/mail/$username file.
– Commands expecting this feature: apt-listchanges, cron, at, ...
• For the destination address on the remote host, the /usr/sbin/sendmail command makes remote transfer of the email to
the destination host found by the DNS MX record using SMTP.
– Commands expecting this feature: popcon, reportbug, bts, ...

6.2.4 Mail transport agent (MTA)

In principle, mobile workstations should function without the /usr/sbin/sendmail command provided by the mail transfer
agent (MTA) program.
The Debian system usually installs MTA to cope with Section 6.2.2 and Section 6.2.3 even if mobile workstations installed full
featured GUI based email clients.
For mobile workstations, the typical choice of MTA is either exim4-daemon-light or postfix with its installation op-
tion such as ”Mail sent by smarthost; received via SMTP or fetchmail” selected. These are light weight MTAs that respect
”/etc/aliases”.

Tip
Configuring exim4 to send the Internet mail via multiple corresponding smarthosts for multiple source email ad-
dresses is non-trivial. If you need such capability for some programs, set them up to use msmtp which is easy to
set up for multiple source email addresses. Then leave main MTA only for a single email address.

6.2.4.1 The configuration of exim4

For the Internet mail via smarthost, you (re)configure exim4-* packages as the following.
$ sudo systemctl stop exim4
$ sudo dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config

Select ”mail sent by smarthost; received via SMTP or fetchmail” for ”General type of mail configuration”.
Set ”System mail name:” to its default as the FQDN (see Section 5.1.1).
Set ”IP-addresses to listen on for incoming SMTP connections:” to its default as ”127.0.0.1 ; ::1”.
Unset contents of ”Other destinations for which mail is accepted:”.
Unset contents of ”Machines to relay mail for:”.
Set ”IP address or host name of the outgoing smarthost:” to ”smtp.hostname.dom:587”.
Select ”No” for ”Hide local mail name in outgoing mail?”. (Use ”/etc/email-addresses” as in Section 6.2.4.3, instead.)
Reply to ”Keep number of DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?” as one of the following.

• ”No” if the system is connected to the Internet while booting.

Debian Reference 108 / 231

package popcon size description

exim4-daemon-light
V:303, I:324 1562 Exim4 mail transport agent (MTA: Debian default)
exim4-daemon-heavy
V:7, I:7 1716 Exim4 mail transport agent (MTA: flexible alternative)
exim4-base V:310, I:332 1734 Exim4 documentation (text) and common files
exim4-doc-html I:1 3667 Exim4 documentation (html)
exim4-doc-info I:1 625 Exim4 documentation (info)
postfix V:141, I:154 4175 Postfix mail transport agent (MTA: secure alternative)
postfix-doc I:8 4448 Postfix documentation (html+text)
Cyrus SASL API implementation (supplement postfix for SMTP
sasl2-bin V:5, I:17 430
AUTH)
cyrus-sasl2-doc
I:1 577 Cyrus SASL - documentation
msmtp V:6, I:11 586 Light weight MTA
msmtp-mta V:4, I:5 92 Light weight MTA (sendmail compatibility extension to msmtp)
esmtp V:0, I:0 128 Light weight MTA
esmtp-run V:0, I:0 32 Light weight MTA (sendmail compatibility extension to esmtp)
nullmailer V:8, I:10 479 Strip down MTA, no local mail
ssmtp V:6, I:10 2 Strip down MTA, no local mail
sendmail-bin V:14, I:15 1878 Full featured MTA (only if you are already familiar)
courier-mta V:0, I:0 2439 Full featured MTA (web interface etc.)

Table 6.4: List of basic mail transport agent related packages

• ”Yes” if the system is not connected to the Internet while booting.

Set ”Delivery method for local mail:” to ”mbox format in /var/mail/”.

Select ”Yes” for ”Split configuration into small files?:”.
Create password entries for the smarthost by editing ”/etc/exim4/passwd.client”.
$ sudo vim /etc/exim4/passwd.client
...
$ cat /etc/exim4/passwd.client
^smtp.*\.hostname\.dom:username@hostname.dom:password

Configure exim4(8) with ”QUEUERUNNER=’queueonly’”, ”QUEUERUNNER=’nodaemon’”, etc. in ”/etc/default/exim4”

to minimize system resource usages. (optional)
Start exim4 by the following.
$ sudo systemctl start exim4

The host name in ”/etc/exim4/passwd.client” should not be the alias. You check the real host name with the following.
$ host smtp.hostname.dom
smtp.hostname.dom is an alias for smtp99.hostname.dom.
smtp99.hostname.dom has address 123.234.123.89

I use regex in ”/etc/exim4/passwd.client” to work around the alias issue. SMTP AUTH probably works even if the
ISP moves host pointed by the alias.
You can manually update exim4 configuration by the following:

• Update exim4 configuration files in ”/etc/exim4/”.

– creating ”/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.localmacros” to set MACROs and editing ”/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.templa
(non-split configuration)
Debian Reference 109 / 231

– creating new files or editing existing files in the ”/etc/exim4/exim4.conf.d” subdirectories. (split configuration)
• Run ”systemctl reload exim4”.

Caution
Starting exim4 takes long time if ”No” (default value) was chosen for the debconf query of ”Keep number of
DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?” and the system is not connected to the Internet while booting.

Please read the official guide at: ”/usr/share/doc/exim4-base/README.Debian.gz” and update-exim4.conf(8).

Warning
For all practical consideration, use SMTP with STARTTLS on port 587 or SMTPS SSL (SMTPS) on port
465, instead of plain SMTP on port 25.

6.2.4.2 The configuration of postfix with SASL

For the Internet mail via smarthost, you should first read postfix documentation and key manual pages.

command function
postfix(1) Postfix control program
postconf(1) Postfix configuration utility
postconf(5) Postfix configuration parameters
postmap(1) Postfix lookup table maintenance
postalias(1) Postfix alias database maintenance

Table 6.5: List of important postfix manual pages

You (re)configure postfix and sasl2-bin packages as follows.

$ sudo systemctl stop postfix
$ sudo dpkg-reconfigure postfix

Chose ”Internet with smarthost”.

Set ”SMTP relay host (blank for none):” to ”[smtp.hostname.dom]:587” and configure it by the following.
$ sudo postconf -e ’smtp_sender_dependent_authentication = yes’
$ sudo postconf -e ’smtp_sasl_auth_enable = yes’
$ sudo postconf -e ’smtp_sasl_password_maps = hash:/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd’
$ sudo postconf -e ’smtp_sasl_type = cyrus’
$ sudo vim /etc/postfix/sasl_passwd

Create password entries for the smarthost.

$ cat /etc/postfix/sasl_passwd
[smtp.hostname.dom]:587 username:password
$ sudo postmap hush:/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd

Start the postfix by the following.

$ sudo systemctl start postfix

Here the use of ”[” and ”]” in the dpkg-reconfigure dialog and ”/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd” ensures not to
check MX record but directly use exact hostname specified. See ”Enabling SASL authentication in the Postfix SMTP client” in
”/usr/share/doc/postfix/html/SASL_README.html”.
Debian Reference 110 / 231

6.2.4.3 The mail address configuration

There are a few mail address configuration files for mail transport, delivery and user agents.

file function application

default host name for (outgoing)
/etc/mailname Debian specific, mailname(5)
mail
host name spoofing for outgoing exim(8) specific,
/etc/email-addresses
mail exim4-config_files(5)
host name spoofing for outgoing postfix(1) specific, activated after
/etc/postfix/generic
mail postmap(1) command execution.
account name alias for incoming general, activated after newaliases(1)
/etc/aliases
mail command execution.

Table 6.6: List of mail address related configuration files

The mailname in the ”/etc/mailname” file is usually a fully qualified domain name (FQDN) that resolves to one of the host’s
IP addresses. For the mobile workstation which does not have a hostname with resolvable IP address, set this mailname to the
value of ”hostname -f”. (This is safe choice and works for both exim4-* and postfix.)

Tip
The contents of ”/etc/mailname” is used by many non-MTA programs for their default behavior. For mutt,
set ”hostname” and ”from” variables in ~/muttrc file to override the mailname value. For programs in
the devscripts package, such as bts(1) and dch(1), export environment variables ”$DEBFULLNAME” and
”$DEBEMAIL” to override it.

Tip
The popularity-contest package normally send mail from root account with FQDN.
You need to set MAILFROM in /etc/popularity-contest.conf as described in the
/usr/share/popularity-contest/default.conf file. Otherwise, your mail will be rejected by the
smarthost SMTP server. Although this is tedious, this approach is safer than rewriting the source address for all
mails from root by MTA and should be used for other daemons and cron scripts.

When setting the mailname to ”hostname -f”, the spoofing of the source mail address via MTA can be realized by the
following.

• ”/etc/email-addresses” file for exim4(8) as explained in the exim4-config_files(5)

• ”/etc/postfix/generic” file for postfix(1) as explained in the generic(5)

For postfix, the following extra steps are needed.

# postmap hash:/etc/postfix/generic
# postconf -e ’smtp_generic_maps = hash:/etc/postfix/generic’
# postfix reload

You can test mail address configuration using the following.

• exim(8) with -brw, -bf, -bF, -bV, … options

• postmap(1) with -q option.

Tip
Exim comes with several utility programs such as exiqgrep(8) and exipick(8). See ”dpkg -L
exim4-base|grep man8/” for available commands.
Debian Reference 111 / 231

6.2.4.4 Basic MTA operations

There are several basic MTA operations. Some may be performed via sendmail(1) compatibility interface.

exim command postfix command description

read mails from standard input and arrange for
sendmail sendmail
delivery (-bm)
list the mail queue with status and queue ID
mailq mailq
(-bp)
newaliases newaliases initialize alias database (-I)
exim4 -q postqueue -f flush waiting mails (-q)
postsuper -r ALL
exim4 -qf flush all mails
deferred; postqueue -f
postsuper -r ALL;
exim4 -qff flush even frozen mails
postqueue -f
exim4 -Mg queue_id postsuper -h queue_id freeze one message by its queue ID
exim4 -Mrm queue_id postsuper -d queue_id remove one message by its queue ID
N/A postsuper -d ALL remove all messages

Table 6.7: List of basic MTA operation

Tip
It may be a good idea to flush all mails by a script in ”/etc/ppp/ip-up.d/*”.

6.3 The remote access server and utilities (SSH)

The Secure SHell (SSH) is the secure way to connect over the Internet. A free version of SSH called OpenSSH is available as
openssh-client and openssh-server packages in Debian.
For the user, ssh(1) functions as a smarter and more secure telnet(1). Unlike telnet command, ssh command does not
stop on the telnet escape character (initial default CTRL-]).

package popcon size tool description

openssh-client V:813, I:996 4754 ssh(1) Secure shell client
openssh-server V:694, I:827 1690 sshd(8) Secure shell server
ssh-askpass V:2, I:31 107 asks user for a pass phrase for ssh-add (plain X)
ssh-askpass(1)
ssh-askpass-gnome
V:0, I:5 315 asks user for a pass phrase for ssh-add (GNOME)
ssh-askpass-gnome(1)
ssh-askpass-fullscreen asks user for a pass phrase for ssh-add (GNOME) with
V:0, I:0 50 ssh-askpass-fullscreen(1)
extra eye candy
web server for browser accessible VT100 terminal
shellinabox V:0, I:2 507 shellinaboxd(1)
emulator

Table 6.8: List of remote access server and utilities

Although shellinabox is not a SSH program, it is listed here as an interesting alternative for the remote terminal access.
See also Section 7.8 for connecting to remote X client programs.

Caution
See Section 4.6.3 if your SSH is accessible from the Internet.
Debian Reference 112 / 231

Tip
Please use the screen(1) program to enable remote shell process to survive the interrupted connection (see
Section 9.1.2).

6.3.1 Basics of SSH

The OpenSSH SSH daemon supports SSH protocol 2 only.
Please read ”/usr/share/doc/openssh-client/README.Debian.gz”, ssh(1), sshd(8), ssh-agent(1), and ssh-keyg
ssh-add(1) and ssh-agent(1).

Warning
”/etc/ssh/sshd_not_to_be_run” must not be present if one wishes to run the OpenSSH server.
Don’t enable rhost based authentication (HostbasedAuthentication in /etc/ssh/sshd_config).

configuration file description of configuration file

/etc/ssh/ssh_config SSH client defaults, see ssh_config(5)
/etc/ssh/sshd_config SSH server defaults, see sshd_config(5)
default public SSH keys that clients use to connect to this account on
~/.ssh/authorized_keys
this SSH server
~/.ssh/id_rsa secret SSH-2 RSA key of the user
secret SSH-2 key-type-name key such as ecdsa, ed25519, ... of the
~/.ssh/id_key-type-name
user

Table 6.9: List of SSH configuration files

The following starts an ssh(1) connection from a client.

command description
ssh
connect with default mode
username@hostname.domain.ext
ssh -v
connect with default mode with debugging messages
username@hostname.domain.ext
ssh -o
PreferredAuthentications=password force to use password with SSH version 2
username@hostname.domain.ext
ssh -t
username@hostname.domain.ext run passwd program to update password on a remote host
passwd

Table 6.10: List of SSH client startup examples

6.3.2 User name on the remote host

If you use the same user name on the local and the remote host, you can eliminate typing ”username@”.
Even if you use different user name on the local and the remote host, you can eliminate it using ”~/.ssh/config”. For Debian
Salsa service with account name ”foo-guest”, you set ”~/.ssh/config” to contain the following.
Host salsa.debian.org people.debian.org
User foo-guest
Debian Reference 113 / 231

6.3.3 Connecting without remote passwords

One can avoid having to remember passwords for remote systems by using ”PubkeyAuthentication” (SSH-2 protocol).
On the remote system, set the respective entries, ”PubkeyAuthentication yes”, in ”/etc/ssh/sshd_config”.
Generate authentication keys locally and install the public key on the remote system by the following.
$ ssh-keygen -t rsa
$ cat .ssh/id_rsa.pub | ssh user1@remote ”cat - >>.ssh/authorized_keys”

You can add options to the entries in ”~/.ssh/authorized_keys” to limit hosts and to run specific commands. See sshd(8)
”AUTHORIZED_KEYS FILE FORMAT”.

6.3.4 Dealing with alien SSH clients

There are some free SSH clients available for other platforms.

environment free SSH program

Windows puTTY (http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/) (GPL)
Windows (cygwin) SSH in cygwin (http://www.cygwin.com/) (GPL)
Macintosh Classic macSSH (http://www.macssh.com/) (GPL)
Mac OS X OpenSSH; use ssh in the Terminal application (GPL)

Table 6.11: List of free SSH clients for other platforms

6.3.5 Setting up ssh-agent

It is safer to protect your SSH authentication secret keys with a pass phrase. If a pass phrase was not set, use ”ssh-keygen
-p” to set it.
Place your public SSH key (e.g. ”~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub”) into ”~/.ssh/authorized_keys” on a remote host using a
password-based connection to the remote host as described above.
$ ssh-agent bash
$ ssh-add ~/.ssh/id_rsa
Enter passphrase for /home/username/.ssh/id_rsa:
Identity added: /home/username/.ssh/id_rsa (/home/username/.ssh/id_rsa)

No remote password needed from here on for the next command.

$ scp foo username@remote.host:foo

Press ^D to terminating ssh-agent session.

For the X server, the normal Debian startup script executes ssh-agent as the parent process. So you only need to execute
ssh-add once. For more, read ssh-agent(1) and ssh-add(1).

6.3.6 Sending a mail from a remote host

If you have an SSH shell account on a server with proper DNS settings, you can send a mail generated on your workstation as an
email genuinely sent from the remote server.
$ ssh username@example.org /usr/sbin/sendmail -bm -ti -f ”username@example.org” < mail_data ←-
.txt
Debian Reference 114 / 231

6.3.7 Port forwarding for SMTP/POP3 tunneling

To establish a pipe to connect to port 25 of remote-server from port 4025 of localhost, and to port 110 of remote-server
from port 4110 of localhost through ssh, execute on the local host as the following.
# ssh -q -L 4025:remote-server:25 4110:remote-server:110 username@remote-server

This is a secure way to make connections to SMTP/POP3 servers over the Internet. Set the ”AllowTcpForwarding” entry to
”yes” in ”/etc/ssh/sshd_config” of the remote host.

6.3.8 How to shutdown the remote system on SSH

You need to protect the process doing ”shutdown -h now” (see Section 1.1.8) from the termination of SSH using the at(1)
command (see Section 9.4.13) by the following.
# echo ”shutdown -h now” | at now

Running ”shutdown -h now” in screen(1) (see Section 9.1.2) session is another way to do the same.

6.3.9 Troubleshooting SSH

If you have problems, check the permissions of configuration files and run ssh with the ”-v” option.
Use the ”-p” option if you are root and have trouble with a firewall; this avoids the use of server ports 1 —1023.
If ssh connections to a remote site suddenly stop working, it may be the result of tinkering by the sysadmin, most likely a change
in ”host_key” during system maintenance. After making sure this is the case and nobody is trying to fake the remote host by
some clever hack, one can regain a connection by removing the ”host_key” entry from ”~/.ssh/known_hosts” on the
local host.

6.4 The print server and utilities

In the old Unix-like system, the BSD Line printer daemon (lpd) was the standard and the standard print out format of the classic
free software was PostScript (PS). Some filter system was used along with Ghostscript to enable printing to the non-PostScript
printer. See Section 11.4.1.
In the modern Debian system, the Common UNIX Printing System (CUPS) is the de facto standard and the standard print out
format of the modern free software is Portable Document Format (PDF).
The CUPS uses Internet Printing Protocol (IPP). The IPP is now supported by other OSs such as Windows XP and Mac OS X
and has became new cross-platform de facto standard for remote printing with bi-directional communication capability.
Thanks to the file format dependent auto-conversion feature of the CUPS system, simply feeding any data to the lpr command
should generate the expected print output. (In CUPS, lpr can be enabled by installing the cups-bsd package.)
The Debian system has some notable packages for the print servers and utilities.

Tip
You can configure CUPS system by pointing your web browser to ”http://localhost:631/” .
Debian Reference 115 / 231

package popcon size port description

lpr V:3, I:4 362 printer (515) BSD lpr/lpd (Line printer daemon)
lprng V:0, I:1 3064 ,, , , (Enhanced)
cups V:126, I:347 1135 IPP (631) Internet Printing CUPS server
System V printer commands for CUPS: lp(1),
cups-client V:140, I:413 493 ,, lpstat(1), lpoptions(1), cancel(1),
lpmove(8), lpinfo(8), lpadmin(8), …
BSD printer commands for CUPS: lpr(1), lpq(1),
cups-bsd V:34, I:320 121 ,,
lprm(1), lpc(8)
printer-driver-gutenprint Not
V:66, I:275 941 printer drivers for CUPS
applicable

Table 6.12: List of print servers and utilities

package popcon size protocol description

telnetd V:0, I:2 111 TELNET TELNET server
telnetd-ssl V:0, I:0 169 ,, , , (SSL support)
nfs-kernel-server
V:43, I:74 342 NFS Unix file sharing
samba V:102, I:150 16643 SMB Windows file and printer sharing
netatalk V:1, I:3 2082 ATP Apple/Mac file and printer sharing (AppleTalk)
proftpd-basic V:19, I:28 488 FTP General file download
apache2 V:237, I:300 618 HTTP General web server
squid V:12, I:13 9085 ,, General web proxy server
squid3 V:3, I:8 240 ,, ,,
bind9 V:49, I:59 1131 DNS IP address for other hosts
isc-dhcp-server
V:19, I:49 1471 DHCP IP address of client itself

Table 6.13: List of other network application servers

Debian Reference 116 / 231

6.5 Other network application servers

Here are other network application servers.

Common Internet File System Protocol (CIFS) is the same protocol as Server Message Block (SMB) and is used widely by
Microsoft Windows.

Tip
See Section 4.5.2 for integration of server systems.

Tip
The hostname resolution is usually provided by the DNS server. For the host IP address dynamically assigned
by DHCP, Dynamic DNS can be set up for the hostname resolution using bind9 and isc-dhcp-server as
described in the DDNS page on the Debian wiki.

Tip
Use of proxy server such as squid is much more efficient for saving bandwidth than use of local mirror server with
the full Debian archive contents.

6.6 Other network application clients

Here are other network application clients.

package popcon size protocol description

netcat I:40 16 TCP/IP TCP/IP swiss army knife
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) binary and related
openssl V:806, I:994 1466 SSL
cryptographic tools
stunnel4 V:6, I:15 539 ,, universal SSL Wrapper
telnet V:62, I:903 163 TELNET TELNET client
telnet-ssl V:0, I:3 209 ,, , , (SSL support)
nfs-common V:171, I:303 768 NFS Unix file sharing
smbclient V:18, I:190 2018 SMB MS Windows file and printer sharing client
mount and umount commands for remote MS
cifs-utils V:31, I:120 307 ,,
Windows file
ftp V:15, I:228 137 FTP FTP client
lftp V:5, I:38 2377 ,, ,,
ncftp V:2, I:20 1339 ,, full screen FTP client
HTTP and
wget V:249, I:986 3581 web downloader
FTP
curl V:166, I:565 452 ,, ,,
axel V:0, I:4 216 ,, accelerated downloader
accelerated downloader with BitTorrent and Metalink
aria2 V:2, I:19 1857 ,,
supports
bind9-host V:149, I:946 380 DNS host(1) from bind9, ”Priority: standard”
dnsutils V:42, I:446 271 ,, dig(1) from bind, ”Priority: standard”
isc-dhcp-client
V:220, I:981 686 DHCP obtain IP address
ldap-utils V:13, I:73 719 LDAP obtain data from LDAP server

Table 6.14: List of network application clients

Debian Reference 117 / 231

6.7 The diagnosis of the system daemons

The telnet program enables manual connection to the system daemons and its diagnosis.
For testing plain POP3 service, try the following
$ telnet mail.ispname.net pop3

For testing the TLS/SSL enabled POP3 service by some ISPs, you need TLS/SSL enabled telnet client by the telnet-ssl
or openssl packages.
$ telnet -z ssl pop.gmail.com 995

$ openssl s_client -connect pop.gmail.com:995

The following RFCs provide required knowledge to each system daemon.

RFC description
rfc1939 and rfc2449 POP3 service
rfc3501 IMAP4 service
rfc2821 (rfc821) SMTP service
rfc2822 (rfc822) Mail file format
rfc2045 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
rfc819 DNS service
rfc2616 HTTP service
rfc2396 URI definition

Table 6.15: List of popular RFCs

The port usage is described in ”/etc/services”.

Debian Reference 118 / 231

Chapter 7

GUI System

7.1 GUI desktop environment

There are several choices for the full featured GUI desktop environment on the Debian system.

task package popcon size description

task-gnome-desktop
I:183 9 GNOME desktop environment
task-xfce-desktop
I:105 9 Xfce desktop environment
task-kde-desktop
I:68 6 KDE Plasma desktop environment
task-mate-desktop
I:49 9 MATE desktop environment
task-cinnamon-desktop
I:38 9 Cinnamon desktop environment
task-lxde-desktop
I:34 9 LXDE desktop environment
task-lxqt-desktop
I:15 9 LXQt desktop environment
task-gnome-flashback-desktop
I:6 6 GNOME Flashback desktop environment

Table 7.1: List of desktop environment

Debian Reference 119 / 231

Tip
Dependency packages selected by a task metapackage may be out of sync with the latest package transition
state under the Debian unstable/testing environment. For task-gnome-desktop, you may need to adjust
package selections as follows:

• Start aptitude(8) as sudo aptitude -u.

• Move cursor to ”Tasks” and press ”Enter”.
• Move cursor to ”End-user” press ”Enter”.
• Move cursor to ”GNOME” press ”Enter”.

• Move cursor to task-gnome-desktop and press ”Enter”.

• Move cursor to ”Depends” and press ”m” (manually selected).
• Move cursor to ”Recommends” and press ”m” (manually selected).
• Move cursor to ”task-gnome-desktop and press ”-”. (drop)

• Adjust selected packages while dropping problematic ones causing package conflicts.
• Press ”g” to start install.

This chapter will focus mostly on the default desktop environment of Debian: task-gnome-desktop offering GNOME on
wayland.

7.2 GUI communication protocol

GUI communication protocol used on the GNOME desktop can be:

• Wayland (display server protocol) (native)

• X Window System core protocol (via xwayland)

Please check freedesktop.org site for how Wayland architecture is different from X Window architecture.
From user’s perspective, differences can be colloquially summarized as:

• Wayland is a same-host GUI communication protocol: new, simpler, faster, no setuid root binary
• X Window is a network-capable GUI communication protocol: traditional, complex, slower, setuid root binary

For applications using Wayland protocol, the access to their display contents from a remote host is supported by the VNC or RDP.
See Section 7.7
Modern X servers have the MIT Shared Memory Extension and communicate with their local X clients using the local shared
memory. This bypasses the network transparent Xlib interprocess communication channel and gains performance. This situation
was the background of creating Wayland as a local-only GUI communication protocol.
Using the xeyes program started from the GNOME terminal, you can check GUI communication protocol used by each GUI
application.
$ xeyes

• If the mouse cursor is on an application such as ”GNOME terminal” which uses Wayland display server protocol, eyes don’t
move with the mouse cursor.
Debian Reference 120 / 231

• If the mouse cursor is on an application such as ”xterm” which uses X Window System core protocol, eyes move with the
mouse cursor exposing not-so-isolated nature of X Window architecture.

As of April 2021, many popular GUI applications such as GNOME and LibreOffice (LO) applications have been migrated to the
Wayland display server protocol. I see xterm, gitk, chromium, firefox, gimp, dia, and KDE applications still use X
Window System core protocol.

Note
For both the xwayland on Wayland or the native X Window System, the old X server configuration file
”/etc/X11/xorg.conf” shouldn’t exist on the system. The graphics and input devices are now configured by
the kernel with DRM, KMS, and udev. The native X server has been rewritten to use them. See ”modedb default
video mode support” in the Linux kernel documentation.

7.3 GUI infrastructure

Here are notable GUI infrastructure packages for the GNOME on Wayland environment.

package
package popcon description
size
mutter V:5, I:160 211 GNOME’s mutter window manager [auto]
xwayland V:152, I:247 4572 An X server running on top of wayland [auto]
gnome-remote-desktop
V:42, I:87 516 Remote desktop daemon for GNOME using PipeWire [auto]
gnome-tweaks V:18, I:192 1284 Advanced configuration settings for GNOME

Table 7.2: List of notable GUI infrastructure packages

Here, ”[auto]” means that these packages are automatically installed when task-gnome-desktop is installed.

Tip
gnome-tweaks is the indispensable configuration utility. For example:

• You can force ”Over-Amplification” of sound volume from ”General”.

• You can force ”Caps” to become ”Esc” from ”Keyboard & Mouse” -> ”Keyboard” -> ”Additional Layout Option”.

7.4 GUI applications

Many useful GUI applications are available on Debian now. Installing software packages such as scribus (KDE) on GNOME
desktop environment are quite acceptable since corresponding functionality is not available under GNOME desktop environment.
But installing too many packages with duplicated functionalities may clutter your system.
Here is a list of GUI applications which caught my eyes.

7.5 Fonts

Many useful scalable fonts are available for users on Debian. User’s concern is how to avoid redundancy and how to configure
parts of installed fonts to be disabled. Otherwise, useless font choices may clutter your GUI application menus.
Debian system uses FreeType 2.0 library to rasterise many scalable font formats for screen and print:
Debian Reference 121 / 231

package
package popcon type description
size
Personal information Management (groupware and
evolution V:32, I:237 484 GNOME
email)
thunderbird V:59, I:133 201927 GTK Email client (Mozilla Thunderbird)
Personal information Management (groupware and
kontact V:1, I:14 2203 KDE
email)
libreoffice-writer
V:161, I:440 40255 LO word processor
abiword V:2, I:11 5133 GNOME word processor
calligrawords V:0, I:7 5908 KDE word processor
scribus V:2, I:22 31781 KDE desktop publishing editor to edit PDF files
glabels V:0, I:4 1327 GNOME label editor
libreoffice-calc
V:158, I:436 32875 LO spreadsheet
gnumeric V:5, I:20 9959 GNOME spreadsheet
calligrasheets V:0, I:5 11289 KDE spreadsheet
libreoffice-impress
V:133, I:433 10097 LO presentation
calligrastage V:0, I:5 5193 KDE presentation
libreoffice-base
V:94, I:245 6975 LO database management
kexi V:0, I:2 7118 KDE database management
libreoffice-draw
V:133, I:433 14469 LO vector graphics editor (draw)
inkscape V:38, I:178 89027 GNOME vector graphics editor (draw)
karbon V:0, I:6 3588 KDE vector graphics editor (draw)
dia V:4, I:29 3620 GTK flowchart and diagram editor
gimp V:63, I:312 19729 GTK bitmap graphics editor (paint)
shotwell V:18, I:237 6454 GTK digital photo organizer
digikam V:2, I:12 2647 KDE digital photo organizer
darktable V:6, I:16 24145 GTK lighttable and darkroom for photographers
planner V:0, I:4 1146 GNOME project management
calligraplan V:0, I:1 18517 KDE project management
gnucash V:3, I:10 32435 GNOME personal accounting
homebank V:0, I:2 1114 GTK personal accounting
lilypond V:1, I:8 7363 - music typesetter
kmymoney V:0, I:2 12850 KDE personal accounting
librecad V:2, I:17 7893 Qt-app computer-aided design (CAD) system (2D)
freecad I:18 53 Qt-app computer-aided design (CAD) system (3D)
kicad V:2, I:15 98819 GTK electronic schematic and PCB design software
xsane V:16, I:165 2346 GTK scanner frontend
libreoffice-math
V:121, I:437 2335 LO mathematical equation/formula editor
calibre V:8, I:34 55463 KDE e-book converter and library management
fbreader V:1, I:13 2698 GTK e-book reader
evince V:111, I:327 977 GNOME document(pdf) viewer
okular V:42, I:117 15376 KDE document(pdf) viewer
x11-apps V:29, I:469 2437 pure X-app xeyes(1), etc.
x11-utils V:180, I:589 712 pure X-app xev(1), xwininfo(1)etc.

Table 7.3: List of notable GUI applications

Debian Reference 122 / 231

• Type 1 (PostScript) fonts which use cubic Bézier curves (almost obsolete format)
• TrueType fonts which use quadratic Bézier curves (good choice format)
• OpenType fonts which use cubic Bézier curves (best choice format)

7.5.1 Basic fonts

The following table is compiled in the hope to help users to chose appropriate scalable fonts with clear understanding of the metric
compatibility and the glyph coverage. Most fonts cover all Latin fonts, Greek, and Cyril character glyphs. The final choice of
activated fonts can also be affected by your aesthetics. These fonts can be used for the screen display or for the paper printing.

package popcon size sans serif mono note on font

Cantarell (GNOME 3,
fonts-cantarell V:84, I:295 836 59 - -
display)
Noto fonts (Google,
fonts-noto I:137 35 61 63 40
multi-lingual with CJK)
DejaVu (GNOME 2,
fonts-dejavu I:458 39 58 68 40 MCM:Verdana, extended
Bitstream Vera)
Liberation fonts for
fonts-liberation2 V:90, I:364 4290 56 60 40 LibreOffice (Red Hat,
MCMATC)
Chrome OS: Arimo, Tinos
fonts-croscore V:15, I:47 5278 56 60 40 and Cousine (Google,
MCMATC)
fonts-crosextra- Chrome OS: Carlito
V:22, I:235 2732 57 - -
carlito (Google, MCM:Calibri )
Chrome OS: Caladea
fonts-crosextra-
I:234 258 - 55 - (Google, MCM:Cambria )
caladea
(Latin only )
GNU FreeFont (extended
fonts-freefont-ttf V:68, I:253 6656 57 59 40
URW Nimbus)
Debian task-desktop,
fonts-quicksand I:385 392 56 - - Quicksand (display, Latin
only)
A typeface designed for
fonts-hack V:15, I:94 2508 - - 40 P source code Hack
(Facebook)
fonts-sil-
I:38 5756 - 54 - Gentium SIL
gentiumplus
fonts-sil-charis V:3, I:20 8900 - 59 - Charis SIL
URW Nimbus (Sans,
fonts-urw-base35 V:94, I:243 11095 56 60 40 Roman No. 9 L, Mono L,
MCAHTC)
fonts-ubuntu V:2, I:5 4103 58 - 33 P Ubuntu fonts (display)
fonts-terminus V:0, I:1 450 - - 33 Cool retro terminal fonts
ttf-mscorefonts- Downloader of Microsoft
V:1, I:60 92 56? 60 40
installer non-free fonts (see below)

Table 7.4: List of notable TrueType and OpenType fonts

Here:

• ”MCM” stands for ”metric compatible with fonts provided by Microsoft”

Debian Reference 123 / 231

• ”MCMATC” stands for ”metric compatible with fonts provided by Microsoft: Arial, Times New Roman, Courier New”
• ”MCAHTC” stands for ”metric compatible with fonts provided by Adobe: Helvetica, Times, Courier”
• Numbers in font type columns stands for the rough relative ”M” width for the same point size font.
• ”P” in mono font type columns stands for its usability for programming having clearly distinguishable ”0”/”O” and ”1”/”I”/”l”.

• The ttf-mscorefonts-installer package downloads Microsoft’s ”Core fonts for the Web” and installs Arial, Times
New Roman, Courier New, Verdana, ... . These installed font data are non-free data.

Many free Latin fonts have their lineage traced to URW Nimbus family or Bitstream Vera.

Tip
If your locale needs fonts not covered well by the above fonts, please use aptitude to check under task packages
listed under ”Tasks” -> ”Localization”. The font packages listed as ”Depends:” or ”Recommends:” in the localization
task packages are the primary candidates.

7.5.2 Font rastarization

Debian uses FreeType to rasterize fonts. Its font choice infrastructure is provided by the Fontconfig font configuration library.

package popcon size description

libfreetype6 V:472, I:996 934 FreeType font rasterization library
libfontconfig1 V:474, I:863 526 Fontconfig font configuration library
fontconfig V:373, I:754 583 fc-*: CLI commands for Fontconfig
font-manager V:2, I:8 1046 Font Manager: GUI command for Fontconfig
nautilus-font-manager
V:0, I:0 61 Nautilus extension for Font Manager

Table 7.5: List of notable font environment and related packages

Tip
Some font packages such as fonts-noto* install too many fonts. You may also want to keep some font packages
installed but disabled under the normal use situation. The multiple glyphs are expected for some Unicode code
points due to Han unification and unwanted gliphs may be chosen by the unconfigured Fontconfig library. One of
the most annoying case is ”U+3001 IDEOGRAPHIC COMMA” and ”U+3002 IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP” among
CJK countries. You can avoid this problematic situation easily by configuring font availability using Font Manager
GUI (font-manager).

You can list font configuration state from the command line, too.

• ”fc-match(1)” for fontconfig font default

• ”fc-list(1)” for available fontconfig fonts

You can configure font configuration state from the text editor but this is non-trivial. See fonts.conf(5).
Debian Reference 124 / 231

7.6 Sandbox

Many mostly GUI applications on Linux are available in binary formats from non-Debian sources.

• AppImage -- Linux apps that run anywhere

• FLATHUB -- Apps for Linux, right here

• snapcraft -- The app store for Linux

Warning
Binaries from these sites may include proprietary non-free software packages.

There is some raison d’être for these binary format distributions for Free Software aficionados using Debian since these can ac-
commodate clean set of libraries used for each application by the respective upstream developer independent of the ones provided
by Debian.
The inherent risk of running external binaries can be reduced by using the sandbox environment which leverages modern Linux
security features (see Section 4.7.4.

• For binaries from AppImage and some upstream sites, run them in firejail with manual configuration.
• For binaries from FLATHUB, run them in Flatpak . (No manual configuration required.)
• For binaries from snapcraft, run them in Snap . (No manual configuration required. Compatible with daemon programs.)

The xdg-desktop-portal package provides a standardized API to common desktop features. See xdg-desktop-portal (flat-
pak) and xdg-desktop-portal (snap)

package popcon size description

flatpak V:34, I:37 6716 Flatpak application deployment framework for desktop apps
gnome-software-plugin-flatpak
V:7, I:15 224 Flatpak support for GNOME Software
snapd V:56, I:60 56040 Daemon and tooling that enable snap packages
gnome-software-plugin-snap
V:1, I:2 127 Snap support for GNOME Software
xdg-desktop-portal
V:168, I:269 1467 desktop integration portal for Flatpak and Snap
xdg-desktop-portal-gtk
V:116, I:266 942 xdg-desktop-portal backend for gtk (GNOME)
xdg-desktop-portal-kde
V:2, I:4 943 xdg-desktop-portal backend for Qt (KDE)
xdg-desktop-portal-wlr
V:0, I:0 103 xdg-desktop-portal backend for wlroots (Wayland)
firejail V:1, I:5 1411 a SUID security sandbox program firejail for use with AppImage

Table 7.6: List of notable sandbox environment and related packages

This sandbox environment technology is very much like apps on smart phone OS where apps are executed under controlled
resource accesses.
Some large GUI applications such as web browsers on Debian also use sandbox environment technology internally to make them
more secure.
Debian Reference 125 / 231

package popcon size protocols description

gnome-remote-desktop RDP, RFB
V:42, I:87 516 GNOME Remote Desktop server
(VNC)
RDP, RFB
vinagre V:7, I:176 4249 (VNC), Vinagre: GNOME remote desktop client
SPICE, SSH
RDP, RFB
(VNC),
remmina V:13, I:56 876 Remmnia: GTK remote desktop client
SPICE,
SSH, ...
RDP, RFB
krdc V:2, I:20 3591 KRDC: KDE remote desktop client
(VNC)
RDP, RFB
Apache Guacamole: clientless remote desktop
guacd V:0, I:0 83 (VNC), SSH
gateway (HTML5)
/ HTML5
RFB (VNC), Virtual Machine Manager’s GUI display client of guest
virt-viewer V:4, I:50 1554
SPICE OS

Table 7.7: List of notable remote access server

7.7 Remote desktop

7.8 X server connection

There are several ways to connect from an application on a remote host to the X server including xwayland on the local host.

package popcon size command description

sshd with
openssh-server V:694, I:827 1690 option SSH server (secure)
X11-forwarding
openssh-client V:813, I:996 4754 ssh -X SSH client (secure)
xauth V:157, I:952 86 xauth X authority file utility
x11-xserver-utils
V:292, I:530 570 xhost server access control for X

Table 7.8: List of connection methods to the X server

7.8.1 X server local connection

Access to the local X server by the local applications which use X core protocol can be locally connected through a local UNIX
domain socket. This can be authorized by the authority file holding access cookie. The authority file location is identified by the
”$XAUTHORITY” environment variable and X display is identified by the ”$DISPLAY” environment variable. Since these are
normally set automatically, no special action is needed, e.g. ”gitk” as the following.
username $ gitk

Note
For xwayland, XAUTHORITY holds value like ”/run/user/1000/.mutter-Xwaylandauth.YVSU30”.
Debian Reference 126 / 231

7.8.2 X server remote connection

Access to the local X server display from the remote applications which use X core protocol is supported by using the X11
forwarding feature.

• Open an gnome-terminal on the local host.

• Run ssh(1) with -X option to establish a connection with the remote site as the following.
localname @ localhost $ ssh -q -X loginname@remotehost.domain
Password:

• Run an X application command, e.g. ”gitk”, on the remote site as the following.
loginname @ remotehost $ gitk

This method can display the output from a remote X client as if it were locally connected through a local UNIX domain socket.
See Section 6.3 for SSH/SSHD.

Warning
A remote TCP/IP to the X server is disabled by default on the Debian system for security reasons. Don’t
enable them by simply setting ”xhost +” nor by enabling XDMCP connection, if you can avoid it.

7.8.3 X server chroot connection

Access to the X server by the applications which use X core protocol and run on the same host but in an environment such as
chroot where the authority file is not accessible, can be authorized securely with xhost by using the User-based access, e.g.
”gitk” as the following.
username $ xhost + si:localuser:root ; sudo chroot /path/to
# cd /src
# gitk
# exit
username $ xhost -

7.9 Clipboard

For clipping text to clipboard, see Section 1.4.4.

For clipping graphics to clipboard, see Section 11.6.
Some CLI commands can manipulate character clipboard (PRIMARY and CLIPBOARD), too.
Debian Reference 127 / 231

package
package popcon target description
size
xsel V:9, I:43 59 X command line interface to X selections (clipboard)
xclip V:11, I:50 64 X command line interface to X selections (clipboard)
wl-copy wl-paste: command line interface to
wl-clipboard V:0, I:1 129 Wayland
Wayland clipboard
Linux
gpm V:11, I:15 539 a daemon that captures mouse events on Linux console
console

Table 7.9: List of programs related to manipulating character clipboard

Debian Reference 128 / 231

Chapter 8

I18N and L10N

Multilingualization (M17N) or Native Language Support for an application software is done in 2 steps.

• Internationalization (I18N): To make a software potentially handle multiple locales.

• Localization (L10N): To make a software handle an specific locale.

Tip
There are 17, 18, or 10 letters between ”m” and ”n”, ”i” and ”n”, or ”l” and ”n” in multilingualization, internationaliza-
tion, and localization which correspond to M17N, I18N, and L10N. See Introduction to i18n for details.

8.1 The locale

The behavior of programs supporting internationalization are configured by the environment variable ”$LANG” to support lo-
calization. Actual support of locale dependent features by the libc library requires to install locales or locales-all
packages. The locales package requires to be initialized properly.
If neither locales or locales-all package are installed, support of locale features are lost and system uses US English mes-
sages and handles data as ASCII. This behavior is the same way as ”$LANG” is set by ”LANG=”, ”LANG=C”, or ”LANG=POSIX”.
The modern software such as GNOME and KDE are multilingualized. They are internationalized by making them handle UTF-8
data and localized by providing their translated messages through the gettext(1) infrastructure. Translated messages may be
provided as separate localization packages.
The current Debian desktop GUI system normally sets the locale under GUI environment as ”LANG=xx_YY.UTF-8”. Here,
”xx” is ISO 639 language codes and ”YY” is ISO 3166 country codes. These values are set by the desktop configuration GUI
dialogue and change the program behavior. See Section 1.5.2

8.1.1 Rationale for UTF-8 locale

The simplest representation of the text data is ASCII which is sufficient for English and uses less than 127 characters (repre-
sentable with 7 bits).
Even plain English text may contain non-ASCII characters, e.g. slightly curly left and right quotation marks are not available in
ASCII.
b’’“b’’double quoted textb’’”b’’ is not ”double quoted ASCII”
b’’‘b’’single quoted textb’’’b’’ is not ’single quoted ASCII’
Debian Reference 129 / 231

In order to support more characters, many character sets and encoding systems have been used to support many languages (see
Table 11.2).
Unicode character set can represent practically all characters known to human with 21 bit code point range (i.e., 0 to 10FFFF in
hexadecimal notation).
Text encoding system UTF-8 fits Unicode code points into a sensible 8 bit data stream mostly compatible with the ASCII data
processing system. This makes UTF-8 the modern preferred choice. UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format. When
ASCII plain text data is converted to UTF-8 one, it has exactly the same content and size as the original ASCII one. So you loose
nothing by deploying UTF-8 locale.
Under UTF-8 locale with the compatible application program, you can display and edit any foreign language text data as long as
required fonts and input methods are installed and enabled. For example under ”LANG=fr_FR.UTF-8” locale, gedit(1) (text
editor for the GNOME Desktop) can display and edit Chinese character text data while presenting menus in French.

Tip
Both the new standard ”en_US.UTF-8” locale and the old standard ”C”/”POSIX” locale use the standard US English
message, they have subtle differences in sorting order etc. If you want to handle not only ASCII characters but also
handle all UTF-8 encoded characters gracefully while maintaining the old ”C” local behavior, use the non-standard
”C.UTF-8” locale on Debian.

Note
Some programs consume more memory after supporting I18N. This is because they are coded to use UTF-
32(UCS4) internally to support Unicode for speed optimization and consume 4 bytes per each ASCII character
data independent of locale selected. Again, you loose nothing by deploying UTF-8 locale.

8.1.2 The reconfiguration of the locale

In order for the system to access a particular locale, the locale data must be compiled from the locale database.
The locales package does not come with pre-compiled locale data. You need to configure it as:
# dpkg-reconfigure locales

This process involves 2 steps.

1. Select all required locale data to be compiled into the binary form. (Please make sure to include at least one UTF-8 locale)

2. Set the system wide default locale value by creating ”/etc/default/locale” for use by PAM (see Section 4.5).

The system wide default locale value set in ”/etc/default/locale” may be overridden by the GUI configuration for GUI
applications.

Note
Actual traditional encoding system can be identified by ”/usr/share/i18n/SUPPORTED”. Thus, the
”LANG=en_US” is ”LANG=en_US.ISO-8859-1”.

The locales-all package comes with all locale data pre-compiled but doesn’t creating ”/etc/default/locale”.
Debian Reference 130 / 231

8.1.3 Filename encoding

For cross platform data exchanges (see Section 10.1.7), you may need to mount some filesystem with particular encodings. For
example, mount(8) for vfat filesystem assumes CP437 if used without option. You need to provide explicit mount option to use
UTF-8 or CP932 for filenames.

Note
When auto-mounting a hot-pluggable USB memory stick under modern desktop environment such as GNOME, you
may provide such mount option by right clicking the icon on the desktop, click ”Drive” tab, click to expand ”Setting”,
and entering ”utf8” to ”Mount options:”. The next time this memory stick is mounted, mount with UTF-8 is enabled.

Note
If you are upgrading system or moving disk drives from older non-UTF-8 system, file names with non-ASCII char-
acters may be encoded in the historic and deprecated encodings such as ISO-8859-1 or eucJP. Please seek help
of text conversion tools to convert them to UTF-8. See Section 11.1.

Samba uses Unicode for newer clients (Windows NT, 200x, XP) but uses CP850 for older clients (DOS and Windows 9x/Me) as
default. This default for older clients can be changed using ”dos charset” in the ”/etc/samba/smb.conf” file, e.g., to
CP932 for Japanese.

8.1.4 Localized messages and translated documentation

Translations exist for many of the text messages and documents that are displayed in the Debian system, such as error messages,
standard program output, menus, and manual pages. GNU gettext(1) command tool chain is used as the backend tool for most
translation activities.
Under ”Tasks” → ”Localization” aptitude(8) provides an extensive list of useful binary packages which add localized mes-
sages to applications and provide translated documentation.
For example, you can obtain the localized message for manpage by installing the manpages-LANG package. To read the
Italian-language manpage for programname from ”/usr/share/man/it/”, execute as the following.
LANG=it_IT.UTF-8 man programname

GNU gettext can accommodate priority list of translation languages with $LANGUAGE environment variable. For example:
$ export LANGUAGE=”pt:pt_BR:es:it:fr”

For more, see info gettext and read the section ”The LANGUAGE variable”.

8.1.5 Effects of the locale

The sort order of characters with sort(1) is affected by the language choice of the locale. Spanish and English locale sort
differently.
The date format of ls(1) is affected by the locale. The date format of ”LANG=C ls -l” and ”LANG=en_US.UTF-8” are
different (see Section 9.3.4).
Number punctuation are different for locales. For example, in English locale, one thousand one point one is displayed as
”1,000.1” while in German locale, it is displayed as ”1.000,1”. You may see this difference in spreadsheet program.
Each detail feature of ”$LANG” environment variable may be overridden by setting ”$LC_*” variables. These environment
variables can be overridden again by setting ”$LC_ALL” variable. See locale(7) manpage for the details. Unless you have
strong reason to create complicated configuration, please stay away from them and use only ”$LANG” variable set to one of the
UTF-8 locales.
Debian Reference 131 / 231

8.2 The keyboard input

8.2.1 The keyboard input for Linux console and X Window

The Debian system can be configured to work with many international keyboard arrangements using the keyboard-configuration
and console-setup packages.
# dpkg-reconfigure keyboard-configuration
# dpkg-reconfigure console-setup

For the Linux console and the X Window system, this updates configuration parameters in ”/etc/default/keyboard” and
”/etc/default/console-setup”. This also configures the Linux console font. Many non-ASCII characters including
accented characters used by many European languages can be made available with dead key, AltGr key, and compose key.

8.2.2 The keyboard input for Wayland

For GNOME on Wayland desktop system, Section 8.2.1 can’t support non-English European languages. IBus was made to support
not only Asian languages but also European languages. The package dependency of GNOME Desktop Environment recommends
”ibus” via ”gnome-shell”. The code of ”ibus” has been updated to integrate setxkbmap and XKB option functionalities.
You need to configure ibus from ”GNOME Settings” or ”GNOME Tweaks” for the multilingualized keyboard input.

Note
If ibus is active, your classic X keyboard configuration by the setxkbmap may be overridden by ibus even under
classic X-based desktop environment. You can disable installed ibus using im-config to set input method to
”None”. For more, see Debian Wiki on keyboard.

8.2.3 The input method support with IBus

Since GNOME Desktop Environment recommends ”ibus” via ”gnome-shell”, ”ibus” is the good choice for input method.
Multilingual input to the application is processed as:
Keyboard Application
| ^
| |
+-> Linux kernel -> Input method (ibus) -> Gtk, Qt, X, Wayland
+-- Engine--+

The list of IBus and its engine packages are the following.

Note
For Chinese, ”fcitx” may be an alternative input method framework. For Emacs aficionados, ”uim” may be an
alternative. Either cases, you may need to do exra manual configuration with im-config. Some old classic
input methods such as ”kinput2” may still exist in Debian repository but are not recommended for the modern
environment.

8.2.4 An example for Japanese

I find the Japanese input method started under English environment (”en_US.UTF-8”) very useful. Here is how I did this with
IBus for GNOME on Wayland:

1. Install the Japanese input tool package ibus-mozc (or ibus-anthy) with its recommended packages such as im-config.
Debian Reference 132 / 231

package popcon size supported locale

ibus V:125, I:167 1598 input method framework using dbus
ibus-mozc V:1, I:3 1003 Japanese
ibus-anthy V:1, I:1 8790 ,,
ibus-kkc V:0, I:0 214 ,,
ibus-skk V:0, I:0 244 ,,
ibus-pinyin V:0, I:1 1434 Chinese (for zh_CN)
ibus-chewing V:0, I:0 415 , , (for zh_TW)
ibus-hangul V:0, I:1 288 Korean
ibus-table V:0, I:1 1984 table engine for IBus
ibus-table-thai I:0 47 Thai
ibus-unikey V:0, I:0 318 Vietnamese
ibus-m17n V:0, I:1 187 Multilingual: Indic, Arabic and others

Table 8.1: List of IBus and its engine packages

2. Select ”Settings” → ”Keyboard” → ”Input Sources” → click ”+” in ”Input Sources” → ”Japanese” → ”Japanese mozc (or
anthy)” and click ”Add” if it hasn’t been activated.
3. You may chose as many input sources.
4. Relogin to user’s account.
5. Setup each input source by right clicking the GUI toolbar icon.
6. Switch among installed input sources by SUPER-SPACE. (SUPER is normally the Windows key.)

Tip
If you wish to have access to alphabet only keyboard environment with the physical Japanese keyboard on which
shift-2 has ” (double quotation mark) engraved, you select ”Japanese” in the above procedure. You can enter
Japanese using ”Japanese mozc (or anthy)” with physical ”US” keyboard on which shift-2 has @ (at mark) engraved.

• The GUI menu entry for im-config(8) is ”Input method”.

• Alternatively, execute ”im-config” from user’s shell.
• im-config(8) behaves differently if command is executed from root or not.
• im-config(8) enables the best input method on the system as default without any user actions.

8.3 The display output

Linux console can only display limited characters. (You need to use special terminal program such as jfbterm(1) to display
non-European languages on the non-GUI console.)
GUI environment (Chapter 7) can display any characters in the UTF-8 as long as required fonts are installed and enabled. (The
encoding of the original font data is taken care and transparent to the user.)

8.4 East Asian Ambiguous Character Width Characters

Under the East Asian locale, the box drawing, Greek, and Cyrillic characters may be displayed wider than your desired width to
cause the unaligned terminal output (see Unicode Standard Annex #11).
You can work around this problem:
Debian Reference 133 / 231

• gnome-terminal: Preferences → Profiles → Profile name → Compatibility → Ambiguous-wide characters → Narrow

• ncurses: Set environment export NCURSES_NO_UTF8_ACS=0.
Debian Reference 134 / 231

Chapter 9

System tips

Here, I describe basic tips to configure and manage systems, mostly from the console.

9.1 The console tips

There are some utility programs to help your console activities.

package popcon size description

mc V:56, I:227 1508 See Section 1.3
bsdutils V:681, I:999 402 script command to make typescript of terminal session
screen V:106, I:270 1014 terminal multiplexer with VT100/ANSI terminal emulation
tmux V:35, I:140 1045 terminal multiplexer alternative (Use ”Control-B” instead)
fzf V:3, I:8 2637 fuzzy text finder
fzy V:0, I:0 54 fuzzy text finder
rlwrap V:1, I:19 297 readline feature command line wrapper
ledit V:0, I:14 306 readline feature command line wrapper
rlfe V:0, I:0 49 readline feature command line wrapper

Table 9.1: List of programs to support console activities

9.1.1 Recording the shell activities cleanly

The simple use of script(1) (see Section 1.4.9) to record shell activity produces a file with control characters. This can be
avoided by using col(1) as the following.
$ script
Script started, file is typescript

Do whatever …and press Ctrl-D to exit script.

$ col -bx < typescript > cleanedfile
$ vim cleanedfile

There are alternative methods to record the shell activities:

• Use tee (usable during the boot process in the initramfs):

$ sh -i 2>&1 | tee typescript
Debian Reference 135 / 231

• Use gnome-terminal with the extend line buffer for scrollback.

• Use screen with ”^A H” (see Section 9.1.2) to perform recording of console.
• Use vim with ”:terminal” to enter the terminal mode. Use ”Ctrl-W N” to exit from terminal mode to normal mode. Use
”:w typescript” to write the buffer to a file.

• Use emacs with ”M-x shell”, ”M-x eshell”, or ”M-x term” to enter recording console. Use ”C-x C-w” to write
the buffer to a file.

9.1.2 The screen program

screen(1) not only allows one terminal window to work with multiple processes, but also allows remote shell process to
survive interrupted connections. Here is a typical use scenario of screen(1).

1. You login to a remote machine.

2. You start screen on a single console.

3. You execute multiple programs in screen windows created with ^A c (”Control-A” followed by ”c”).
4. You switch among the multiple screen windows by ^A n (”Control-A” followed by ”n”).
5. Suddenly you need to leave your terminal, but you don’t want to lose your active work by keeping the connection.

6. You may detach the screen session by any methods.

• Brutally unplug your network connection
• Type ^A d (”Control-A” followed by ”d”) and manually logging out from the remote connection
• Type ^A DD (”Control-A” followed by ”DD”) to have screen detach and log you out

7. You log in again to the same remote machine (even from a different terminal).
8. You start screen as ”screen -r”.
9. screen magically reattaches all previous screen windows with all actively running programs.

Tip
You can save connection fees with screen for metered network connections such as dial-up and packet ones,
because you can leave a process active while disconnected, and then re-attach it later when you connect again.

In a screen session, all keyboard inputs are sent to your current window except for the command keystroke. All screen
command keystrokes are entered by typing ^A (”Control-A”) plus a single key [plus any parameters]. Here are important ones
to remember.
See screen(1) for details.
See tmux(1) for functionalities of the alternative command.

9.1.3 Navigating around directories

In Section 1.4.2, 2 tips to allow quick navigation around directories are described: $CDPATH and mc.
If you use fuzzy text filter program, you can do without typing the exact path. For fzf, include following in ~/.bashrc.
Debian Reference 136 / 231

key binding meaning

^A ? show a help screen (display key bindings)
^A c create a new window and switch to it
^A n go to next window
^A p go to previous window
^A 0 go to window number 0
^A 1 go to window number 1
^A w show a list of windows
^A a send a Ctrl-A to current window as keyboard input
^A h write a hardcopy of current window to file
^A H begin/end logging current window to file
^A ^X lock the terminal (password protected)
^A d detach screen session from the terminal
^A DD detach screen session and log out

Table 9.2: List of key bindings for screen

FZF_KEYBINDINGS_PATH=/usr/share/doc/fzf/examples/key-bindings.bash
if [ -f $FZF_KEYBINDINGS_PATH ]; then
. $FZF_KEYBINDINGS_PATH
fi
FZF_COMPLETION_PATH=/usr/share/doc/fzf/examples/completion.bash
if [ -f $FZF_COMPLETION_PATH ]; then
. $FZF_COMPLETION_PATH
fi

For example:

• You can jump to a very deep subdirectory with minimal efforts. You first type ”cd **” and press Tab. Then you will be
prompted with candidate paths. Typing in partial path strings, e.g., s/d/b foo, will narrow down candidate paths. You
select the path to be used by cd with cursor and return keys.
• You can select a command from the command history more efficiently with minimal efforts. You press Ctrl-R at the command
prompt. Then you will be prompted with candidate commands. Typing in partial command strings, e.g., vim d, will narrow
down candidates. You select the one to be used with cursor and return keys.

9.1.4 Readline wrapper

Some commands such as /usr/bin/dash which lacks command line history editing capability can add such functionality
transparently by running under rlwrap or its equivalents.
$ rlwrap dash -i

This provides convenient platform to test subtle points for dash with friendly bash-like environment.

9.2 Customizing vim

After you learn basics of vim(1) through Section 1.4.8, please read Bram Moolenaar’s ”Seven habits of effective text editing
(2000)” to understand how vim should be used.

Caution
Don’t try to change the default key bindings without very good reasons.
Debian Reference 137 / 231

9.2.1 Customizing vim with internal features

The behavior of vim can be changed significantly by enabling its internal features through the Ex-mode commands such as ”set
...” to set vim options.
These Ex-mode commands can be included in user’s vimrc file, traditional ”~/.vimrc” or git-friendly ”~/.vim/vimrc”.
Here is a very simple example 1:
colorscheme murphy ” from /usr/share/vim/vim??/colors/*.vim
filetype plugin indent on ” filetype aware behavior
syntax enable ” Syntax highlight
”set spelllang=en_us ” Spell check language as en_us
”set spell ” Enable spell check
set autoindent ” Copy indent from current line
set smartindent ” More than autoindent (Drop/Pop after {/})
set nosmarttab ” <Tab>-key always inserts blanks
set backspace=indent,eol,start ” Back space through everything
set laststatus=2 ” Always show status line
set statusline=%<%f%m%r%h%w%=%y[U+%04B]%2l/%2L=%P,%2c%V

9.2.2 Customizing vim with external packages

Simple customization to enable secure-modelines and classical IDE can be enabled by installing vim-scripts package and append-
ing the following to user’s vimrc file.
packadd! secure-modelines
packadd! winmanager
let mapleader = ’ ’
” Toggle paste mode with <SPACE>p
set pastetoggle=<leader>p
” IDE-like UI for files and buffers with <space>w
nnoremap <leader>w :WMToggle<CR>
” Use safer keys <SPACE>? for moving to another window
nnoremap <leader>h <C-W>h
nnoremap <leader>j <C-W>j
nnoremap <leader>k <C-W>k
nnoremap <leader>l <C-W>l

The new native Vim package system works nicely with ”git” and ”git submodule”. One such example configuration can
be found at my git repository: dot-vim. This does essentially:

• By using ”git” and ”git submodule”, latest external packages, such as ”name”, are placed into ~/.vim/pack/*/opt/name
and similar.
• By adding :packadd! name line to user’s vimrc file, these packages are placed on runtimepath.
• Vim loads these packages on runtimepath during its initialization.
• At the end of its initialization, tags for the installed documents are updated with ”helptags ALL”.

For more, please start vim with ”vim --startuptime vimstart.log” to check actual execution sequence and time
spent for each step.
Interesting external plugin packages can be found:

• Vim - the ubiquitous text editor -- The official upstream site of Vim and vim scripts
• VimAwsome -- The listing of Vim plugins
• vim-scripts -- Debian package: a collection of vim scripts

It is quite confusing to see too many ways2 to manage and load these external packages to vim. Checking the original information
1More elaborate customization examples: ”Vim Galore”, ”sensible.vim”, ”#vim Recommendations” ...
2vim-pathogen was popular.
Debian Reference 138 / 231

is the best cure.

key strokes information

:help package explanation on the vim package mechanism
:help runtimepath explanation on the runtimepath mechanism
:version internal states including candidates for the vimrc file
:echo $VIM the environment variable ”$VIM” used to locate the vimrc file
:set runtimepath? list of directories which will be searched for all runtime support files
the environment variable ”$VIMRUNTIME” used to locate various
:echo $VIMRUNTIME
system provided runtime support files

Table 9.3: Information on the initialization of vim

9.3 Data recording and presentation

9.3.1 The log daemon

Many traditional programs record their activities in the text file format under the ”/var/log/” directory.
logrotate(8) is used to simplify the administration of log files on a system which generates a lot of log files.
Many new programs record their activities in the binary file format using systemd-journald(8) Journal service under the
”/var/log/journal” directory.
You can log data to the systemd-journald(8) Journal from a shell script by using the systemd-cat(1) command.
See Section 3.4 and Section 3.3.

9.3.2 Log analyzer

Here are notable log analyzers (”~Gsecurity::log-analyzer” in aptitude(8)).

package popcon size description

logwatch V:14, I:17 2276 log analyzer with nice output written in Perl
fail2ban V:109, I:122 2092 ban IPs that cause multiple authentication errors
analog V:3, I:104 3534 web server log analyzer
awstats V:9, I:13 6910 powerful and featureful web server log analyzer
sarg V:2, I:2 843 squid analysis report generator
pflogsumm V:2, I:4 111 Postfix log entry summarizer
syslog-summary V:0, I:1 30 summarize the contents of a syslog log file
fwlogwatch V:0, I:0 478 firewall log analyzer
squidview V:0, I:1 189 monitor and analyze squid access.log files
swatch V:0, I:0 101 log file viewer with regexp matching, highlighting, and hooks
crm114 V:0, I:0 1119 Controllable Regex Mutilator and Spam Filter (CRM114)
icmpinfo V:0, I:0 44 interpret ICMP messages

Table 9.4: List of system log analyzers

Note
CRM114 provides language infrastructure to write fuzzy filters with the TRE regex library. Its popular use is spam
mail filter but it can be used as log analyzer.
Debian Reference 139 / 231

9.3.3 Customized display of text data

Although pager tools such as more(1) and less(1) (see Section 1.4.5) and custom tools for highlighting and formatting (see
Section 11.1.8) can display text data nicely, general purpose editors (see Section 1.4.6) are most versatile and customizable.

Tip
For vim(1) and its pager mode alias view(1), ”:set hls” enables highlighted search.

9.3.4 Customized display of time and date

The default display format of time and date by the ”ls -l” command depends on the locale (see Section 1.2.6 for value). The
”$LANG” variable is referred first and it can be overridden by the ”$LC_TIME” or ”$LC_ALL” exported environment variables.
The actual default display format for each locale depends on the version of the standard C library (the libc6 package) used.
I.e., different releases of Debian had different defaults. For iso-formats, see ISO 8601.
If you really wish to customize this display format of time and date beyond the locale, you should set the time style value by the
”--time-style” argument or by the ”$TIME_STYLE” value (see ls(1), date(1), ”info coreutils ’ls invocation’”).

time style value locale display of time and date

iso any 01-19 00:15
long-iso any 2009-01-19 00:15
2009-01-19 00:15:16.000000000
full-iso any
+0900
locale C Jan 19 00:15
locale en_US.UTF-8 Jan 19 00:15
locale es_ES.UTF-8 ene 19 00:15
+%d.%m.%y %H:%M any 19.01.09 00:15
+%d.%b.%y %H:%M C or en_US.UTF-8 19.Jan.09 00:15
+%d.%b.%y %H:%M es_ES.UTF-8 19.ene.09 00:15

Table 9.5: Display examples of time and date for the ”ls -l” command with the time style value

Tip
You can eliminate typing long option on commandline using command alias (see Section 1.5.9):
alias ls=’ls --time-style=+%d.%m.%y %H:%M’

9.3.5 Colorized shell echo

Shell echo to most modern terminals can be colorized using ANSI escape code (see ”/usr/share/doc/xterm/ctlseqs.txt.gz”
For example, try the following
$ RED=$(printf ”\x1b[31m”)
$ NORMAL=$(printf ”\x1b[0m”)
$ REVERSE=$(printf ”\x1b[7m”)
$ echo ”${RED}RED-TEXT${NORMAL} ${REVERSE}REVERSE-TEXT${NORMAL}”
Debian Reference 140 / 231

9.3.6 Colorized commands

Colorized commands are handy for inspecting their output in the interactive environment. I include the following in my ”~/.bashrc”.
if [ ”$TERM” != ”dumb” ]; then
eval ”‘dircolors -b‘”
alias ls=’ls --color=always’
alias ll=’ls --color=always -l’
alias la=’ls --color=always -A’
alias less=’less -R’
alias ls=’ls --color=always’
alias grep=’grep --color=always’
alias egrep=’egrep --color=always’
alias fgrep=’fgrep --color=always’
alias zgrep=’zgrep --color=always’
else
alias ll=’ls -l’
alias la=’ls -A’
fi

The use of alias limits color effects to the interactive command usage. It has advantage over exporting environment variable
”export GREP_OPTIONS=’--color=auto’” since color can be seen under pager programs such as less(1). If you
wish to suppress color when piping to other programs, use ”--color=auto” instead in the above example for ”~/.bashrc”.

Tip
You can turn off these colorizing aliases in the interactive environment by invoking shell with ”TERM=dumb bash”.

9.3.7 Recording the editor activities for complex repeats

You can record the editor activities for complex repeats.

For Vim, as follows.

• ”qa”: start recording typed characters into named register ”a”.

• …editor activities

• ”q”: end recording typed characters.

• ”@a”: execute the contents of register ”a”.

For Emacs, as follows.

• ”C-x (”: start defining a keyboard macro.

• …editor activities
• ”C-x )”: end defining a keyboard macro.

• ”C-x e”: execute a keyboard macro.

9.3.8 Recording the graphic image of an X application

There are few ways to record the graphic image of an X application, including an xterm display.
Debian Reference 141 / 231

package popcon size screen

gnome-screenshot
V:29, I:283 1172 Wayland
flameshot V:6, I:12 1722 Wayland
gimp V:63, I:312 19729 Wayland + X
x11-apps V:29, I:469 2437 X
imagemagick I:365 220 X
scrot V:7, I:77 126 X

Table 9.6: List of graphic image manipulation tools

package popcon size description

store configuration files and their metadata with Git (default),
etckeeper V:27, I:31 176
Mercurial, or Bazaar (new)
timeshift V:2, I:5 3142 system restore utility using rsync or BTRFS snapshots
snapper V:2, I:3 2170 Linux filesystem snapshot management tool

Table 9.7: List of packages which can record configuration history

9.3.9 Recording changes in configuration files

There are specialized tools to record changes in configuration files with help of DVCS and to make system snapshots on Btrfs.
You may also think about local script Section 10.2.3 approach.

9.4 Monitoring, controlling, and starting program activities

Program activities can be monitored and controlled using specialized tools.

Tip
The procps packages provide very basics of monitoring, controlling, and starting program activities. You should
learn all of them.

9.4.1 Timing a process

Display time used by the process invoked by the command.

# time some_command >/dev/null
real 0m0.035s # time on wall clock (elapsed real time)
user 0m0.000s # time in user mode
sys 0m0.020s # time in kernel mode

9.4.2 The scheduling priority

A nice value is used to control the scheduling priority for the process.
# nice -19 top # very nice
# nice --20 wodim -v -eject speed=2 dev=0,0 disk.img # very fast

Sometimes an extreme nice value does more harm than good to the system. Use this command carefully.
Debian Reference 142 / 231

package popcon size description

coreutils V:892, I:999 17372 nice(1): run a program with modified scheduling priority
bsdutils V:681, I:999 402 renice(1): modify the scheduling priority of a running process
procps V:738, I:999 1648 ”/proc” filesystem utilities: ps(1), top(1), kill(1), watch(1), …
”/proc” filesystem utilities: killall(1), fuser(1), peekfd(1),
psmisc V:407, I:828 793
pstree(1)
time(1): run a program to report system resource usages with
time V:12, I:228 129
respect to time
sar(1), iostat(1), mpstat(1), …: system performance tools for
sysstat V:160, I:183 1923
Linux
isag V:0, I:3 117 Interactive System Activity Grapher for sysstat
lsof V:383, I:945 451 lsof(8): list files opened by a running process using ”-p” option
strace V:15, I:144 2367 strace(1): trace system calls and signals
ltrace V:1, I:20 363 ltrace(1): trace library calls
xtrace V:0, I:0 353 xtrace(1): trace communication between X11 client and server
powertop V:11, I:213 680 powertop(1): information about system power use
run processes according to a schedule in background from cron(8)
cron V:796, I:996 263
daemon
cron-like command scheduler for systems that don’t run 24 hours a
anacron V:407, I:482 107
day
at(1) or batch(1): run a job at a specified time or below certain
at V:143, I:255 161
load level

Table 9.8: List of tools for monitoring and controlling program activities

nice value scheduling priority

19 lowest priority process (nice)
0 very high priority process for user
-20 very high priority process for root (not-nice)

Table 9.9: List of nice values for the scheduling priority

Debian Reference 143 / 231

9.4.3 The ps command

The ps(1) command on a Debian system support both BSD and SystemV features and helps to identify the process activity
statically.

style typical command feature

BSD ps aux display %CPU %MEM
System V ps -efH display PPID

Table 9.10: List of ps command styles

For the zombie (defunct) children process, you can kill them by the parent process ID identified in the ”PPID” field.
The pstree(1) command display a tree of processes.

9.4.4 The top command

top(1) on the Debian system has rich features and helps to identify what process is acting funny dynamically.
It is an interactive full screen program. You can get its usage help press by pressing the ”h”-key and terminate it by pressing the
”q”-key.

9.4.5 Listing files opened by a process

You can list all files opened by a process with a process ID (PID), e.g. 1, by the following.
$ sudo lsof -p 1

PID=1 is usually the init program.

9.4.6 Tracing program activities

You can trace program activity with strace(1), ltrace(1), or xtrace(1) for system calls and signals, library calls, or com-
munication between X11 client and server.
You can trace system calls of the ls command as the following.
$ sudo strace ls

Tip
Use strace-graph script found in /usr/share/doc/strace/examples/ to make a nice tree view

9.4.7 Identification of processes using files or sockets

You can also identify processes using files by fuser(1), e.g. for ”/var/log/mail.log” by the following.
$ sudo fuser -v /var/log/mail.log
USER PID ACCESS COMMAND
/var/log/mail.log: root 2946 F.... rsyslogd

You see that file ”/var/log/mail.log” is open for writing by the rsyslogd(8) command.
You can also identify processes using sockets by fuser(1), e.g. for ”smtp/tcp” by the following.
Debian Reference 144 / 231

$ sudo fuser -v smtp/tcp

USER PID ACCESS COMMAND
smtp/tcp: Debian-exim 3379 F.... exim4

Now you know your system runs exim4(8) to handle TCP connections to SMTP port (25).

9.4.8 Repeating a command with a constant interval

watch(1) executes a program repeatedly with a constant interval while showing its output in fullscreen.
$ watch w

This displays who is logged on to the system updated every 2 seconds.

9.4.9 Repeating a command looping over files

There are several ways to repeat a command looping over files matching some condition, e.g. matching glob pattern ”*.ext”.

• Shell for-loop method (see Section 12.1.4):

for x in *.ext; do if [ -f ”$x”]; then command ”$x” ; fi; done

• find(1) and xargs(1) combination:

find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name ’*.ext’ -print0 | xargs -0 -n 1 command

• find(1) with ”-exec” option with a command:

find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name ’*.ext’ -exec command ’{}’ \;

• find(1) with ”-exec” option with a short shell script:

find . -type f -maxdepth 1 -name ’*.ext’ -exec sh -c ”command ’{}’ && echo ’successful’” \;

The above examples are written to ensure proper handling of funny file names such as ones containing spaces. See Section 10.1.5
for more advance uses of find(1).

9.4.10 Starting a program from GUI

For the command-line interface (CLI), the first program with the matching name found in the directories specified in the $PATH
environment variable is executed. See Section 1.5.3.
For the graphical user interface (GUI) compliant to the freedesktop.org standards, the *.desktop files in the /usr/share/applicat
directory provide necessary attributes for the GUI menu display of each program. Each package which is compliant to Freedesk-
top.org’s xdg menu system installs its menu data provided by ”*.desktop” under ”/usr/share/applications/”. Modern desktop
environments which are compliant to Freedesktop.org standard use these data to generate their menu using the xdg-utils package.
See ”/usr/share/doc/xdg-utils/README”.
For example, the chromium.desktop file defines attributes for the ”Chromium Web Browser” such as ”Name” for the program
name, ”Exec” for the program execution path and arguments, ”Icon” for the icon used, etc. (see the Desktop Entry Specification)
as follows:
Debian Reference 145 / 231

[Desktop Entry]
Version=1.0
Name=Chromium Web Browser
GenericName=Web Browser
Comment=Access the Internet
Comment[fr]=Explorer le Web
Exec=/usr/bin/chromium %U
Terminal=false
X-MultipleArgs=false
Type=Application
Icon=chromium
Categories=Network;WebBrowser;
MimeType=text/html;text/xml;application/xhtml_xml;x-scheme-handler/http;x-scheme-handler/ ←-
https;
StartupWMClass=Chromium
StartupNotify=true

This is an oversimplified description. The *.desktop files are scanned as follows.

The desktop environment sets $XDG_DATA_HOME and $XDG_DATA_DIR environment variables. For example, under the
GNOME 3:

• $XDG_DATA_HOME is unset. (The default value of $HOME/.local/share is used.)

• $XDG_DATA_DIRS is set to /usr/share/gnome:/usr/local/share/:/usr/share/.

So the base directories (see XDG Base Directory Specification) and the applications directories are as follows.

• $HOME/.local/share/ → $HOME/.local/share/applications/
• /usr/share/gnome/ → /usr/share/gnome/applications/

• /usr/local/share/ → /usr/local/share/applications/
• /usr/share/ → /usr/share/applications/

The *.desktop files are scanned in these applications directories in this order.

Tip
A user custom GUI menu entry can be created by adding a *.desktop file in the
$HOME/.local/share/applications/ directory.

Tip
Similarly, if a *.desktop file is created in the autostart directory under these base directories, the specified
program in the *.desktop file is executed automatically when the desktop environment is started. See Desktop
Application Autostart Specification.

Tip
Similarly, if a *.desktop file is created in the $HOME/Desktop directory and the Desktop environment is
configured to support the desktop icon launcher feature, the specified program in it is executed upon click-
ing the icon. Please note that the actual name of the $HOME/Desktop directory is locale dependent. See
xdg-user-dirs-update(1).
Debian Reference 146 / 231

9.4.11 Customizing program to be started

Some programs start another program automatically. Here are check points for customizing this process.

• Application configuration menu:

– GNOME3 desktop: ”Settings” → ”System” → ”Details” → ”Default Applications”
– KDE desktop: ”K” → ”Control Center” → ”KDE Components” → ”Component Chooser”
– Iceweasel browser: ”Edit” → ”Preferences” → ”Applications”
– mc(1): ”/etc/mc/mc.ext”
• Environment variables such as ”$BROWSER”, ”$EDITOR”, ”$VISUAL”, and ”$PAGER” (see eviron(7))
• The update-alternatives(1) system for programs such as ”editor”, ”view”, ”x-www-browser”, ”gnome-www-browse
and ”www-browser” (see Section 1.4.7)
• the ”~/.mailcap” and ”/etc/mailcap” file contents which associate MIME type with program (see mailcap(5))
• The ”~/.mime.types” and ”/etc/mime.types” file contents which associate file name extension with MIME type (see
run-mailcap(1))

Tip
update-mime(8) updates the ”/etc/mailcap” file using ”/etc/mailcap.order” file (see
mailcap.order(5)).

Tip
The debianutils package provides sensible-browser(1), sensible-editor(1), and
sensible-pager(1) which make sensible decisions on which editor, pager, and web browser to call, re-
spectively. I recommend you to read these shell scripts.

Tip
In order to run a console application such as mutt under X as your preferred application, you should create an X
application as following and set ”/usr/local/bin/mutt-term” as your preferred application to be started as
described.

# cat /usr/local/bin/mutt-term <<EOF

#!/bin/sh
gnome-terminal -e ”mutt \$@”
EOF
chmod 755 /usr/local/bin/mutt-term

9.4.12 Killing a process

Use kill(1) to kill (or send a signal to) a process by the process ID.
Use killall(1) or pkill(1) to do the same by the process command name and other attributes.

9.4.13 Scheduling tasks once

Run the at(1) command to schedule a one-time job by the following.

$ echo ’command -args’| at 3:40 monday
Debian Reference 147 / 231

signal value signal name action note

no
signal
0 --- is sent check if process is running
(see
kill(2))
terminate
the
1 SIGHUP disconnected terminal (signal hang up)
pro-
cess
terminate
the
2 SIGINT interrupt from keyboard (CTRL-C)
pro-
cess
terminate
the
pro-
3 SIGQUIT cess quit from keyboard (CTRL-\)
and
dump
core
terminate
the
9 SIGKILL unblockable kill signal
pro-
cess
terminate
the
15 SIGTERM blockable termination signal
pro-
cess

Table 9.11: List of frequently used signals for kill command

Debian Reference 148 / 231

9.4.14 Scheduling tasks regularly

Use cron(8) to schedule tasks regularly. See crontab(1) and crontab(5).
You can schedule to run processes as a normal user, e.g. foo by creating a crontab(5) file as ”/var/spool/cron/crontabs/foo
with ”crontab -e” command.
Here is an example of a crontab(5) file.
# use /bin/sh to run commands, no matter what /etc/passwd says
SHELL=/bin/sh
# mail any output to paul, no matter whose crontab this is
MAILTO=paul
# Min Hour DayOfMonth Month DayOfWeek command (Day... are OR’ed)
# run at 00:05, every day
5 0 * * * $HOME/bin/daily.job >> $HOME/tmp/out 2>&1
# run at 14:15 on the first of every month -- output mailed to paul
15 14 1 * * $HOME/bin/monthly
# run at 22:00 on weekdays(1-5), annoy Joe. % for newline, last % for cc:
0 22 * * 1-5 mail -s ”It’s 10pm” joe%Joe,%%Where are your kids?%.%%
23 */2 1 2 * echo ”run 23 minutes after 0am, 2am, 4am ..., on Feb 1”
5 4 * * sun echo ”run at 04:05 every Sunday”
# run at 03:40 on the first Monday of each month
40 3 1-7 * * [ ”$(date +%a)” == ”Mon” ] && command -args

Tip
For the system not running continuously, install the anacron package to schedule periodic commands at the
specified intervals as closely as machine-uptime permits. See anacron(8) and anacrontab(5).

Tip
For scheduled system maintenance scripts, you can run them periodically from root account by placing such scripts
in ”/etc/cron.hourly/”, ”/etc/cron.daily/”, ”/etc/cron.weekly/”, or ”/etc/cron.monthly/”. Exe-
cution timings of these scripts can be customized by ”/etc/crontab” and ”/etc/anacrontab”.

Systemd has low level capability to schedule programs to run without cron daemon. For example, /lib/systemd/system/apt-da
and /lib/systemd/system/apt-daily.service set up daily apt download activities. See systemd.timer(5) .

9.4.15 Alt-SysRq key

Pressing Alt-SysRq (PrtScr) followed by one keys does the magic of rescuing control of the system.

key following Alt-SysRq description of action

k kill all processes on the current virtual console (SAK)
s sync all mounted filesystems to avoid data corruption
u remount all mounted filesystems read-only (umount)
r restore the keyboard from raw mode after X crashes

Table 9.12: List of notable SAK command keys

See more on Linux kernel user’s and administrator’s guide » Linux Magic System Request Key Hacks

Tip
From SSH terminal etc., you can use the Alt-SysRq feature by writing to the ”/proc/sysrq-trigger”. For ex-
ample, ”echo s > /proc/sysrq-trigger; echo u > /proc/sysrq-trigger” from the root shell prompt
syncs and umounts all mounted filesystems.
Debian Reference 149 / 231

The current (2021) Debian amd64 Linux kernel has /proc/sys/kernel/sysrq=438=0b110110110:

• 2 = 0x2 - enable control of console logging level (ON)

• 4 = 0x4 - enable control of keyboard (SAK, unraw) (ON)

• 8 = 0x8 - enable debugging dumps of processes etc. (OFF)
• 16 = 0x10 - enable sync command (ON)

• 32 = 0x20 - enable remount read-only (ON)

• 64 = 0x40 - enable signaling of processes (term, kill, oom-kill) (OFF)
• 128 = 0x80 - allow reboot/poweroff (ON)
• 256 = 0x100 - allow nicing of all RT tasks (ON)

9.5 System maintenance tips

9.5.1 Who is on the system?

You can check who is on the system by the following.

• who(1) shows who is logged on.

• w(1) shows who is logged on and what they are doing.

• last(1) shows listing of last logged in user.

• lastb(1) shows listing of last bad logged in users.

Tip
”/var/run/utmp”, and ”/var/log/wtmp” hold such user information. See login(1) and utmp(5).

9.5.2 Warning everyone

You can send message to everyone who is logged on to the system with wall(1) by the following.
$ echo ”We are shutting down in 1 hour” | wall

9.5.3 Hardware identification

For the PCI-like devices (AGP, PCI-Express, CardBus, ExpressCard, etc.), lspci(8) (probably with ”-nn” option) is a good
start for the hardware identification.
Alternatively, you can identify the hardware by reading contents of ”/proc/bus/pci/devices” or browsing directory tree
under ”/sys/bus/pci” (see Section 1.2.12).
Debian Reference 150 / 231

package popcon size description

pciutils V:208, I:991 196 Linux PCI Utilities: lspci(8)
usbutils V:73, I:862 325 Linux USB utilities: lsusb(8)
nvme-cli V:4, I:11 779 NVMe utilities for Linux: nvme(1)
pcmciautils V:10, I:17 97 PCMCIA utilities for Linux: pccardctl(8)
scsitools V:0, I:3 375 collection of tools for SCSI hardware management: lsscsi(8)
procinfo V:0, I:12 136 system information obtained from ”/proc”: lsdev(8)
lshw V:12, I:94 906 information about hardware configuration: lshw(1)
discover V:37, I:951 97 hardware identification system: discover(8)

Table 9.13: List of hardware identification tools

package popcon size description

console-setup V:106, I:963 420 Linux console font and keytable utilities
x11-xserver-utils
V:292, I:530 570 X server utilities: xset(1), xmodmap(1)
daemon to manage events delivered by the Advanced Configuration
acpid V:124, I:258 169
and Power Interface (ACPI)
acpi V:14, I:243 45 utility to display information on ACPI devices
sleepd V:0, I:0 86 daemon to put a laptop to sleep during inactivity
hdparm V:343, I:610 256 hard disk access optimization (see Section 9.6.9)
smartmontools V:164, I:224 2117 control and monitor storage systems using S.M.A.R.T.
setserial V:4, I:8 117 collection of tools for serial port management
memtest86+ V:1, I:26 2391 collection of tools for memory hardware management
scsitools V:0, I:3 375 collection of tools for SCSI hardware management
setcd V:0, I:1 35 compact disc drive access optimization
big-cursor I:1 27 larger mouse cursors for X

Table 9.14: List of hardware configuration tools

Debian Reference 151 / 231

9.5.4 Hardware configuration

Although most of the hardware configuration on modern GUI desktop systems such as GNOME and KDE can be managed
through accompanying GUI configuration tools, it is a good idea to know some basics methods to configure them.
Here, ACPI is a newer framework for the power management system than APM.

Tip
CPU frequency scaling on modern system is governed by kernel modules such as acpi_cpufreq.

9.5.5 System and hardware time

The following sets system and hardware time to MM/DD hh:mm, CCYY.
# date MMDDhhmmCCYY
# hwclock --utc --systohc
# hwclock --show

Times are normally displayed in the local time on the Debian system but the hardware and system time usually use UTC(GMT).
If the hardware time is set to UTC, change the setting to ”UTC=yes” in the ”/etc/default/rcS”.
The following reconfigure the timezone used by the Debian system.
# dpkg-reconfigure tzdata

If you wish to update system time via network, consider to use the NTP service with the packages such as ntp, ntpdate, and
chrony.

Tip
Under systemd, use systemd-timesyncd for the network time synchronization instead. See
systemd-timesyncd(8).

See the following.

• Managing Accurate Date and Time HOWTO

• NTP Public Services Project
• The ntp-doc package

Tip
ntptrace(8) in the ntp package can trace a chain of NTP servers back to the primary source.

9.5.6 The terminal configuration

There are several components to configure character console and ncurses(3) system features.

• The ”/etc/terminfo/*/*” file (terminfo(5))

• The ”$TERM” environment variable (term(7))
• setterm(1), stty(1), tic(1), and toe(1)

If the terminfo entry for xterm doesn’t work with a non-Debian xterm, change your terminal type, ”$TERM”, from ”xterm”
to one of the feature-limited versions such as ”xterm-r6” when you log in to a Debian system remotely. See ”/usr/share/doc/lib
for more. ”dumb” is the lowest common denominator for ”$TERM”.
Debian Reference 152 / 231

9.5.7 The sound infrastructure

Device drivers for sound cards for current Linux are provided by Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA). ALSA provides
emulation mode for previous Open Sound System (OSS) for compatibility.
Application softwares may be configured not only to access sound devices directly but also to access them via some standardized
sound server system. Currently, PulseAudio, JACK, and PipeWire are used as sound server system. See Debian wiki page on
Sound for the latest situation.
There is usually a common sound engine for each popular desktop environment. Each sound engine used by the application can
choose to connect to different sound servers.

Tip
Use ”cat /dev/urandom > /dev/audio” or speaker-test(1) to test speaker (^C to stop).

Tip
If you can not get sound, your speaker may be connected to a muted output. Modern sound system has many
outputs. alsamixer(1) in the alsa-utils package is useful to configure volume and mute settings.

package popcon size description

alsa-utils V:336, I:472 2424 utilities for configuring and using ALSA
OSS compatibility under ALSA preventing ”/dev/dsp not
oss-compat V:1, I:25 20
found” errors
audio and video processing engine multimedia server - metapackage
pipewire V:145, I:211 27
(unify JACK and PulseAudio)
audio and video processing engine multimedia server - programs
pipewire-bin V:162, I:210 1402
(unify JACK and PulseAudio)
pipewire-audio-client-libraries audio and video processing engine multimedia server - audio client
V:0, I:2 684
libraries to replace ALSA, JACK and PulseAudio (experimental)
pulseaudio V:366, I:469 6384 PulseAudio server (standard)
libpulse0 V:364, I:595 996 PulseAudio client library (standard)
jackd V:3, I:25 9 JACK Audio Connection Kit. (JACK) server (low latency)
libjack0 V:1, I:11 338 JACK Audio Connection Kit. (JACK) library (low latency)
libgstreamer1.0-0
V:395, I:582 5287 GStreamer: GNOME sound engine
libphonon4 I:67 680 Phonon: KDE sound engine

Table 9.15: List of sound packages

9.5.8 Disabling the screen saver

For disabling the screen saver, use following commands.

environment command
The Linux console setterm -powersave off
The X Window (turning off screensaver) xset s off
The X Window (disabling dpms) xset -dpms
The X Window (GUI configuration of screen
xscreensaver-command -prefs
saver)

Table 9.16: List of commands for disabling the screen saver

Debian Reference 153 / 231

9.5.9 Disabling beep sounds

One can always unplug the PC speaker to disable beep sounds. Removing pcspkr kernel module does this for you.
The following prevents the readline(3) program used by bash(1) to beep when encountering an alert character (ASCII=7).
$ echo ”set bell-style none”>> ~/.inputrc

9.5.10 Memory usage

There are 2 resources available for you to get the memory usage situation.

• The kernel boot message in the ”/var/log/dmesg” contains the total exact size of available memory.

• free(1) and top(1) display information on memory resources on the running system.

Here is an example.
# grep ’\] Memory’ /var/log/dmesg
[ 0.004000] Memory: 990528k/1016784k available (1975k kernel code, 25868k reserved, 931k ←-
data, 296k init)
$ free -k
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 997184 976928 20256 0 129592 171932
-/+ buffers/cache: 675404 321780
Swap: 4545576 4 4545572

You may be wondering ”dmesg tells me a free of 990 MB, and free -k says 320 MB is free. More than 600 MB missing …”.
Do not worry about the large size of ”used” and the small size of ”free” in the ”Mem:” line, but read the one under them
(675404 and 321780 in the example above) and relax.
For my MacBook with 1GB=1048576k DRAM (video system steals some of this), I see the following.

report size
Total size in dmesg 1016784k = 1GB - 31792k
Free in dmesg 990528k
Total under shell 997184k
Free under shell 20256k (but effectively 321780k)

Table 9.17: List of memory sizes reported

9.5.11 System security and integrity check

Poor system maintenance may expose your system to external exploitation.

For system security and integrity check, you should start with the following.

• The debsums package, see debsums(1) and Section 2.5.2.

• The chkrootkit package, see chkrootkit(1).

• The clamav package family, see clamscan(1) and freshclam(1).

• Debian security FAQ.
• Securing Debian Manual.
Debian Reference 154 / 231

package popcon size description

logcheck V:8, I:9 102 daemon to mail anomalies in the system logfiles to the administrator
debsums V:5, I:41 108 utility to verify installed package files against MD5 checksums
chkrootkit V:5, I:22 972 rootkit detector
clamav V:12, I:53 776 anti-virus utility for Unix - command-line interface
tiger V:2, I:3 7822 report system security vulnerabilities
tripwire V:2, I:3 11701 file and directory integrity checker
john V:2, I:11 460 active password cracking tool
aide V:1, I:1 2049 Advanced Intrusion Detection Environment - static binary
integrit V:0, I:0 329 file integrity verification program
crack V:0, I:1 152 password guessing program

Table 9.18: List of tools for system security and integrity check

Here is a simple script to check for typical world writable incorrect file permissions.
# find / -perm 777 -a \! -type s -a \! -type l -a \! \( -type d -a -perm 1777 \)

Caution
Since the debsums package uses MD5 checksums stored locally, it can not be fully trusted as the system
security audit tool against malicious attacks.

9.6 Data storage tips

Booting your system with Linux live CDs or debian-installer CDs in rescue mode makes it easy for you to reconfigure data storage
on your boot device.
You may need to umount(8) some devices manually from the command line before operating on them if they are automatically
mounted by the GUI desktop system.

9.6.1 Disk space usage

The disk space usage can be evaluated by programs provided by the mount, coreutils, and xdu packages:

• mount(8) reports all mounted filesystems (= disks).

• df(1) reports the disk space usage for the file system.
• du(1) reports the disk space usage for the directory tree.

Tip
You can feed the output of du(8) to xdu(1x) to produce its graphical and interactive presentation with ”du -k .
|xdu”, ”sudo du -k -x / |xdu”, etc.

9.6.2 Disk partition configuration

For disk partition configuration, although fdisk(8) has been considered standard, parted(8) deserves some attention. ”Disk
partitioning data”, ”partition table”, ”partition map”, and ”disk label” are all synonyms.
Debian Reference 155 / 231

Older PCs use the classic Master Boot Record (MBR) scheme to hold disk partitioning data in the first sector, i.e., LBA sector 0
(512 bytes).
Recent PCs with Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), including Intel-based Macs, use GUID Partition Table (GPT)
scheme to hold disk partitioning data not in the first sector.
Although fdisk(8) has been standard for the disk partitioning tool, parted(8) is replacing it.

package popcon size description

util-linux V:884, I:999 4843 miscellaneous system utilities including fdisk(8) and cfdisk(8)
parted V:365, I:562 307 GNU Parted disk partition resizing program
gparted V:16, I:121 2063 GNOME partition editor based on libparted
gdisk V:321, I:518 874 partition editor for the GPT/MBR hybrid disk
kpartx V:19, I:32 88 program to create device mappings for partitions

Table 9.19: List of disk partition management packages

Caution
Although parted(8) claims to create and to resize filesystem too, it is safer to do such things using
best maintained specialized tools such as mkfs(8) (mkfs.msdos(8), mkfs.ext2(8), mkfs.ext3(8),
mkfs.ext4(8), …) and resize2fs(8).

Note
In order to switch between GPT and MBR, you need to erase first few blocks of disk contents directly (see
Section 9.8.6) and use ”parted /dev/sdx mklabel gpt” or ”parted /dev/sdx mklabel msdos” to set
it. Please note ”msdos” is use here for MBR.

9.6.3 Accessing partition using UUID

Although reconfiguration of your partition or activation order of removable storage media may yield different names for partitions,
you can access them consistently. This is also helpful if you have multiple disks and your BIOS/UEFI doesn’t give them consistent
device names.

• mount(8) with ”-U” option can mount a block device using UUID, instead of using its file name such as ”/dev/sda3”.
• ”/etc/fstab” (see fstab(5)) can use UUID.
• Boot loaders (Section 3.1.2) may use UUID too.

Tip
You can probe UUID of a block special device with blkid(8).
You can also probe it and other information with ”lsblk -f”.

9.6.4 LVM2

LVM2 is a logical volume manager for the Linux kernel. With LVM2, disk partitions can be created on logical volumes instead
of the physical harddisks.
LVM requires the following.

• device-mapper support in the Linux kernel (default for Debian kernels)

Debian Reference 156 / 231

• the userspace device-mapper support library (libdevmapper* package)

• the userspace LVM2 tools (lvm2 package)

Please start learning LVM2 from the following manpages.

• lvm(8): Basics of LVM2 mechanism (list of all LVM2 commands)

• lvm.conf(5): Configuration file for LVM2
• lvs(8): Report information about logical volumes
• vgs(8): Report information about volume groups
• pvs(8): Report information about physical volumes

9.6.5 Filesystem configuration

For ext4 filesystem, the e2fsprogs package provides the following.

• mkfs.ext4(8) to create new ext4 filesystem

• fsck.ext4(8) to check and to repair existing ext4 filesystem
• tune2fs(8) to configure superblock of ext4 filesystem
• debugfs(8) to debug ext4 filesystem interactively. (It has undel command to recover deleted files.)

The mkfs(8) and fsck(8) commands are provided by the e2fsprogs package as front-ends to various filesystem dependent
programs (mkfs.fstype and fsck.fstype). For ext4 filesystem, they are mkfs.ext4(8) and fsck.ext4(8) (they are
symlinked to mke2fs(8) and e2fsck(8)).
Similar commands are available for each filesystem supported by Linux.

package popcon size description

e2fsprogs V:601, I:999 1529 utilities for the ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystems
btrfs-progs V:38, I:67 4183 utilities for the Btrfs filesystem
reiserfsprogs V:9, I:28 1132 utilities for the Reiserfs filesystem
zfsutils-linux V:19, I:24 1499 utilities for the OpenZFS filesystem
dosfstools V:138, I:524 315 utilities for the FAT filesystem. (Microsoft: MS-DOS, Windows)
exfatprogs V:1, I:24 171 utilities for the exFAT filesystem maintained by Samsung.
exfat-fuse V:21, I:426 71 read/write exFAT filesystem (Microsoft) driver for FUSE.
exfat-utils V:18, I:423 231 utilities for the exFAT filesystem maintained by the exfat-fuse author.
xfsprogs V:20, I:99 3311 utilities for the XFS filesystem. (SGI: IRIX)
read/write NTFS filesystem (Microsoft: Windows NT, …) driver for
ntfs-3g V:129, I:509 1482
FUSE.
jfsutils V:1, I:11 1577 utilities for the JFS filesystem. (IBM: AIX, OS/2)
reiser4progs V:0, I:3 1373 utilities for the Reiser4 filesystem
hfsprogs V:0, I:7 389 utilities for HFS and HFS Plus filesystem. (Apple: Mac OS)
zerofree V:3, I:106 25 program to zero free blocks from ext2/3/4 filesystems

Table 9.20: List of filesystem management packages

Tip
Ext4 filesystem is the default filesystem for the Linux system and strongly recommended to use it unless you have
some specific reasons not to.
Btrfs status can be found at Debian wiki on btrfs and kernel.org wiki on btrfs. It is expected to be the next default
filesystem after the ext4 filesystem.
Some tools allow access to filesystem without Linux kernel support (see Section 9.8.2).
Debian Reference 157 / 231

9.6.6 Filesystem creation and integrity check

The mkfs(8) command creates the filesystem on a Linux system. The fsck(8) command provides the filesystem integrity check
and repair on a Linux system.
Debian now defaults to no periodic fsck after filesystem creation.

Caution
It is generally not safe to run fsck on mounted filesystems.

Tip
You can run the fsck(8) command safely on all filesystems including root filesystem on reboot by setting
”enable_periodic_fsck” in ”/etc/mke2fs.conf” and the max mount count to 0 using ”tune2fs -c0
/dev/partition_name”. See mke2fs.conf(5) and tune2fs(8).
Check files in ”/var/log/fsck/” for the result of the fsck(8) command run from the boot script.

9.6.7 Optimization of filesystem by mount options

The basic static filesystem configuration is given by ”/etc/fstab”. For example,
«file system» «mount point» «type» «options» «dump» «pass»
proc /proc proc defaults 0 0
UUID=709cbe4c-80c1-56db-8ab1-dbce3146d2f7 / ext4 errors=remount-ro 0 1
UUID=817bae6b-45d2-5aca-4d2a-1267ab46ac23 none swap sw 0 0
/dev/scd0 /media/cdrom0 udf,iso9660 user,noauto 0 0

Tip
UUID (see Section 9.6.3) may be used to identify a block device instead of normal block device names such as
”/dev/sda1”, ”/dev/sda2”, …

Since Linux 2.6.30, the kernel defaults to the behavior provided by ”relatime” option.
See fstab(5) and mount(8).

9.6.8 Optimization of filesystem via superblock

Characteristics of a filesystem can be optimized via its superblock using the tune2fs(8) command.

• Execution of ”sudo tune2fs -l /dev/hda1” displays the contents of the filesystem superblock on ”/dev/hda1”.
• Execution of ”sudo tune2fs -c 50 /dev/hda1” changes frequency of filesystem checks (fsck execution during
boot-up) to every 50 boots on ”/dev/hda1”.
• Execution of ”sudo tune2fs -j /dev/hda1” adds journaling capability to the filesystem, i.e. filesystem conversion
from ext2 to ext3 on ”/dev/hda1”. (Do this on the unmounted filesystem.)
• Execution of ”sudo tune2fs -O extents,uninit_bg,dir_index /dev/hda1 && fsck -pf /dev/hda1”
converts it from ext3 to ext4 on ”/dev/hda1”. (Do this on the unmounted filesystem.)

Tip
Despite its name, tune2fs(8) works not only on the ext2 filesystem but also on the ext3 and ext4 filesystems.
Debian Reference 158 / 231

9.6.9 Optimization of hard disk

Warning
Please check your hardware and read manpage of hdparam(8) before playing with hard disk configuration
because this may be quite dangerous for the data integrity.

You can test disk access speed of a hard disk, e.g. ”/dev/hda”, by ”hdparm -tT /dev/hda”. For some hard disk connected
with (E)IDE, you can speed it up with ”hdparm -q -c3 -d1 -u1 -m16 /dev/hda” by enabling the ”(E)IDE 32-bit I/O
support”, enabling the ”using_dma flag”, setting ”interrupt-unmask flag”, and setting the ”multiple 16 sector I/O” (dangerous!).
You can test write cache feature of a hard disk, e.g. ”/dev/sda”, by ”hdparm -W /dev/sda”. You can disable its write
cache feature with ”hdparm -W 0 /dev/sda”.
You may be able to read badly pressed CDROMs on modern high speed CD-ROM drive by slowing it down with ”setcd -x
2”.

9.6.10 Optimization of solid state drive

Solid state drive (SSD) is auto detected now.

Reduce unnecessary disk accesses to prevent disk wear out by mounting ”tmpfs” on volatile data path in /etc/fstab.

9.6.11 Using SMART to predict hard disk failure

You can monitor and log your hard disk which is compliant to SMART with the smartd(8) daemon.

1. Enable SMART feature in BIOS.

2. Install the smartmontools package.

3. Identify your hard disk drives by listing them with df(1).
• Let’s assume a hard disk drive to be monitored as ”/dev/hda”.
4. Check the output of ”smartctl -a /dev/hda” to see if SMART feature is actually enabled.

• If not, enable it by ”smartctl -s on -a /dev/hda”.

5. Enable smartd(8) daemon to run by the following.
• uncomment ”start_smartd=yes” in the ”/etc/default/smartmontools” file.
• restart the smartd(8) daemon by ”sudo systemctl restart smartmontools”.

Tip
The smartd(8) daemon can be customized with the /etc/smartd.conf file including how to be notified of warn-
ings.

9.6.12 Specify temporary storage directory via $TMPDIR

Applications create temporary files normally under the temporary storage directory ”/tmp”. If ”/tmp” does not provide enough
space, you can specify such temporary storage directory via the $TMPDIR variable for well-behaving programs.
Debian Reference 159 / 231

9.6.13 Expansion of usable storage space via LVM

For partitions created on Logical Volume Manager (LVM) (Linux feature) at install time, they can be resized easily by concate-
nating extents onto them or truncating extents from them over multiple storage devices without major system reconfiguration.

9.6.14 Expansion of usable storage space by mounting another partition

If you have an empty partition (e.g., ”/dev/sdx”), you can format it with mkfs.ext4(1) and mount(8) it to a directory where
you need more space. (You need to copy original data contents.)
$ sudo mv work-dir old-dir
$ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdx
$ sudo mount -t ext4 /dev/sdx work-dir
$ sudo cp -a old-dir/* work-dir
$ sudo rm -rf old-dir

Tip
You may alternatively mount an empty disk image file (see Section 9.7.5) as a loop device (see Section 9.7.3). The
actual disk usage grows with the actual data stored.

9.6.15 Expansion of usable storage space by bind-mounting another directory

If you have an empty directory (e.g., ”/path/to/emp-dir”) on another partition with usable space, you can mount(8) it with
”--bind” option to a directory (e.g., ”work-dir”) where you need more space.
$ sudo mount --bind /path/to/emp-dir work-dir

9.6.16 Expansion of usable storage space by overlay-mounting another directory

If you have usable space in another partition (e.g., ”/path/to/empty” and ”/path/to/work”), you can create a directory
in it and stack that on to an old directory (e.g., ”/path/to/old”) where you need space using the OverlayFS for Linux kernel
3.18 or newer (Debian Stretch 9.0 or newer).
$ sudo mount -t overlay overlay \
-olowerdir=/path/to/old-dir,upperdir=/path/to/empty,workdir=/path/to/work

Here, ”/path/to/empty” and ”/path/to/work” should be on the RW-enabled partition to write on ”/path/to/old”.

9.6.17 Expansion of usable storage space using symlink

Caution
This is a deprecated method. Some software may not function well with ”symlink to a directory”. Instead,
use the ”mounting” approaches described in the above.

If you have an empty directory (e.g., ”/path/to/emp-dir”) in another partition with usable space, you can create a symlink
to the directory with ln(8).
Debian Reference 160 / 231

$ sudo mv work-dir old-dir

$ sudo mkdir -p /path/to/emp-dir
$ sudo ln -sf /path/to/emp-dir work-dir
$ sudo cp -a old-dir/* work-dir
$ sudo rm -rf old-dir

Warning
Do not use ”symlink to a directory” for directories managed by the system such as ”/opt”. Such a symlink
may be overwritten when the system is upgraded.

9.7 The disk image

Here, we discuss manipulations of the disk image.

9.7.1 Making the disk image file

The disk image file, ”disk.img”, of an unmounted device, e.g., the second SCSI or serial ATA drive ”/dev/sdb”, can be
made using cp(1) or dd(1) by the following.
# cp /dev/sdb disk.img
# dd if=/dev/sdb of=disk.img

The disk image of the traditional PC’s master boot record (MBR) (see Section 9.6.2) which reside on the first sector on the primary
IDE disk can be made by using dd(1) by the following.
# dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr.img bs=512 count=1
# dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr-nopart.img bs=446 count=1
# dd if=/dev/hda of=mbr-part.img skip=446 bs=1 count=66

• ”mbr.img”: The MBR with the partition table

• ”mbr-nopart.img”: The MBR without the partition table
• ”mbr-part.img”: The partition table of the MBR only

If you have an SCSI or serial ATA device as the boot disk, substitute ”/dev/hda” with ”/dev/sda”.
If you are making an image of a disk partition of the original disk, substitute ”/dev/hda” with ”/dev/hda1” etc.

9.7.2 Writing directly to the disk

The disk image file, ”disk.img” can be written to an unmounted device, e.g., the second SCSI drive ”/dev/sdb” with
matching size, by the following.
# dd if=disk.img of=/dev/sdb

Similarly, the disk partition image file, ”partition.img” can be written to an unmounted partition, e.g., the first partition of
the second SCSI drive ”/dev/sdb1” with matching size, by the following.
# dd if=partition.img of=/dev/sdb1
Debian Reference 161 / 231

9.7.3 Mounting the disk image file

The disk image ”partition.img” containing a single partition image can be mounted and unmounted by using the loop device
as follows.
# losetup -v -f partition.img
Loop device is /dev/loop0
# mkdir -p /mnt/loop0
# mount -t auto /dev/loop0 /mnt/loop0
...hack...hack...hack
# umount /dev/loop0
# losetup -d /dev/loop0

This can be simplified as follows.

# mkdir -p /mnt/loop0
# mount -t auto -o loop partition.img /mnt/loop0
...hack...hack...hack
# umount partition.img

Each partition of the disk image ”disk.img” containing multiple partitions can be mounted by using the loop device. Since the
loop device does not manage partitions by default, we need to reset it as follows.
# modinfo -p loop # verify kernel capability
max_part:Maximum number of partitions per loop device
max_loop:Maximum number of loop devices
# losetup -a # verify nothing using the loop device
# rmmod loop
# modprobe loop max_part=16

Now, the loop device can manage up to 16 partitions.

# losetup -v -f disk.img
Loop device is /dev/loop0
# fdisk -l /dev/loop0

Disk /dev/loop0: 5368 MB, 5368709120 bytes

255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 652 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Disk identifier: 0x452b6464

Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System

/dev/loop0p1 1 600 4819468+ 83 Linux
/dev/loop0p2 601 652 417690 83 Linux
# mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p1
# mount -t ext4 /dev/loop0p1 /mnt/loop0p1
# mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p2
# mount -t ext4 /dev/loop0p2 /mnt/loop0p2
...hack...hack...hack
# umount /dev/loop0p1
# umount /dev/loop0p2
# losetup -d /dev/loop0

Alternatively, similar effects can be done by using the device mapper devices created by kpartx(8) from the kpartx package
as follows.
# kpartx -a -v disk.img
...
# mkdir -p /mnt/loop0p2
# mount -t ext4 /dev/mapper/loop0p2 /mnt/loop0p2
...
...hack...hack...hack
Debian Reference 162 / 231

# umount /dev/mapper/loop0p2
...
# kpartx -d /mnt/loop0

Note
You can mount a single partition of such disk image with loop device using offset to skip MBR etc., too. But this is
more error prone.

9.7.4 Cleaning a disk image file

A disk image file, ”disk.img” can be cleaned of all removed files into clean sparse image ”new.img” by the following.
# mkdir old; mkdir new
# mount -t auto -o loop disk.img old
# dd bs=1 count=0 if=/dev/zero of=new.img seek=5G
# mount -t auto -o loop new.img new
# cd old
# cp -a --sparse=always ./ ../new/
# cd ..
# umount new.img
# umount disk.img

If ”disk.img” is in ext2, ext3 or ext4, you can also use zerofree(8) from the zerofree package as follows.
# losetup -f -v disk.img
Loop device is /dev/loop3
# zerofree /dev/loop3
# cp --sparse=always disk.img new.img

9.7.5 Making the empty disk image file

The empty disk image ”disk.img” which can grow up to 5GiB can be made using dd(1) as follows.
$ dd bs=1 count=0 if=/dev/zero of=disk.img seek=5G

Instead of using dd(1), specialized fallocate(8) may be used here.

You can create an ext4 filesystem on this disk image ”disk.img” using the loop device as follows.
# losetup -f -v disk.img
Loop device is /dev/loop1
# mkfs.ext4 /dev/loop1
...hack...hack...hack
# losetup -d /dev/loop1
$ du --apparent-size -h disk.img
5.0G disk.img
$ du -h disk.img
83M disk.img

For ”disk.img”, its file size is 5.0 GiB and its actual disk usage is mere 83MiB. This discrepancy is possible since ext4 can
hold sparse file.

Tip
The actual disk usage of sparse file grows with data which are written to it.

Using similar operation on devices created by the loop device or the device mapper devices as Section 9.7.3, you can partition this
disk image ”disk.img” using parted(8) or fdisk(8), and can create filesystem on it using mkfs.ext4(8), mkswap(8),
etc.
Debian Reference 163 / 231

9.7.6 Making the ISO9660 image file

The ISO9660 image file, ”cd.iso”, from the source directory tree at ”source_directory” can be made using genisoimage(1)
provided by cdrkit by the following.
# genisoimage -r -J -T -V volume_id -o cd.iso source_directory

Similarly, the bootable ISO9660 image file, ”cdboot.iso”, can be made from debian-installer like directory tree at
”source_directory” by the following.
# genisoimage -r -o cdboot.iso -V volume_id \
-b isolinux/isolinux.bin -c isolinux/boot.cat \
-no-emul-boot -boot-load-size 4 -boot-info-table source_directory

Here Isolinux boot loader (see Section 3.1.2) is used for booting.

You can calculate the md5sum value and make the ISO9660 image directly from the CD-ROM device as follows.
$ isoinfo -d -i /dev/cdrom
CD-ROM is in ISO 9660 format
...
Logical block size is: 2048
Volume size is: 23150592
...
# dd if=/dev/cdrom bs=2048 count=23150592 conv=notrunc,noerror | md5sum
# dd if=/dev/cdrom bs=2048 count=23150592 conv=notrunc,noerror > cd.iso

Warning
You must carefully avoid ISO9660 filesystem read ahead bug of Linux as above to get the right result.

9.7.7 Writing directly to the CD/DVD-R/RW

Tip
DVD is only a large CD to wodim(1) provided by cdrkit.

You can find a usable device by the following.

# wodim --devices

Then the blank CD-R is inserted to the CD drive, and the ISO9660 image file, ”cd.iso” is written to this device, e.g., ”/dev/hda”,
using wodim(1) by the following.
# wodim -v -eject dev=/dev/hda cd.iso

If CD-RW is used instead of CD-R, do this instead by the following.

# wodim -v -eject blank=fast dev=/dev/hda cd.iso

Tip
If your desktop system mounts CDs automatically, unmount it by ”sudo umount /dev/hda” from console before
using wodim(1).
Debian Reference 164 / 231

9.7.8 Mounting the ISO9660 image file

If ”cd.iso” contains an ISO9660 image, then the following manually mounts it to ”/cdrom”.
# mount -t iso9660 -o ro,loop cd.iso /cdrom

Tip
Modern desktop system may mount removable media such as ISO9660 formatted CD automatically (see Sec-
tion 10.1.7).

9.8 The binary data

Here, we discuss direct manipulations of the binary data on storage media.

9.8.1 Viewing and editing binary data

The most basic viewing method of binary data is to use ”od -t x1” command.

package popcon size description

basic package which has od(1) to dump files (HEX, ASCII, OCTAL,
coreutils V:892, I:999 17372
…)
utility package which has hd(1) to dump files (HEX, ASCII, OCTAL,
bsdmainutils V:36, I:762 27
…)
hexedit V:1, I:11 73 binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII)
bless V:0, I:3 1028 full featured hexadecimal editor (GNOME)
okteta V:1, I:13 1505 full featured hexadecimal editor (KDE4)
ncurses-hexedit
V:0, I:2 132 binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII, EBCDIC)
beav V:0, I:0 133 binary editor and viewer (HEX, ASCII, EBCDIC, OCTAL, …)

Table 9.21: List of packages which view and edit binary data

Tip
HEX is used as an acronym for hexadecimal format with radix 16. OCTAL is for octal format with radix 8. ASCII is
for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, i.e., normal English text code. EBCDIC is for Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code used on IBM mainframe operating systems.

9.8.2 Manipulating files without mounting disk

There are tools to read and write files without mounting disk.

package popcon size description

mtools V:9, I:77 399 utilities for MSDOS files without mounting them
hfsutils V:0, I:6 184 utilities for HFS and HFS+ files without mounting them

Table 9.22: List of packages to manipulate files without mounting disk

Debian Reference 165 / 231

9.8.3 Data redundancy

Software RAID systems offered by the Linux kernel provide data redundancy in the kernel filesystem level to achieve high levels
of storage reliability.
There are tools to add data redundancy to files in application program level to achieve high levels of storage reliability, too.

package popcon size description

par2 V:9, I:50 271 Parity Archive Volume Set, for checking and repair of files
dvdisaster V:0, I:2 1742 data loss/scratch/aging protection for CD/DVD media
dvbackup I:0 413 backup tool using MiniDV camcorders (providing rsbep(1))

Table 9.23: List of tools to add data redundancy to files

9.8.4 Data file recovery and forensic analysis

There are tools for data file recovery and forensic analysis.

package popcon size description

testdisk V:3, I:35 1430 utilities for partition scan and disk recovery
magicrescue V:0, I:3 259 utility to recover files by looking for magic bytes
scalpel V:0, I:4 87 frugal, high performance file carver
myrescue V:0, I:3 83 rescue data from damaged harddisks
extundelete V:0, I:10 147 utility to undelete files on the ext3/4 filesystem
ext4magic V:0, I:5 233 utility to undelete files on the ext3/4 filesystem
ext3grep V:0, I:3 293 tool to help recover deleted files on the ext3 filesystem
scrounge-ntfs V:0, I:3 50 data recovery program for NTFS filesystems
gzrt V:0, I:0 33 gzip recovery toolkit
sleuthkit V:2, I:25 1602 tools for forensics analysis. (Sleuthkit)
autopsy V:0, I:1 1027 graphical interface to SleuthKit
foremost V:0, I:6 101 forensics application to recover data
guymager V:0, I:1 1035 forensic imaging tool based on Qt
dcfldd V:0, I:4 106 enhanced version of dd for forensics and security

Table 9.24: List of packages for data file recovery and forensic analysis

Tip
You can undelete files on the ext2 filesystem using list_deleted_inodes and undel commands of debugfs(8)
in the e2fsprogs package.

9.8.5 Splitting a large file into small files

When a data is too big to backup as a single file, you can backup its content after splitting it into, e.g. 2000MiB chunks and merge
those chunks back into the original file later.
$ split -b 2000m large_file
$ cat x* >large_file

Caution
Please make sure you do not have any files starting with ”x” to avoid name crashes.
Debian Reference 166 / 231

9.8.6 Clearing file contents

In order to clear the contents of a file such as a log file, do not use rm(1) to delete the file and then create a new empty file,
because the file may still be accessed in the interval between commands. The following is the safe way to clear the contents of
the file.
$ :>file_to_be_cleared

9.8.7 Dummy files

The following commands create dummy or empty files.

$ dd if=/dev/zero of=5kb.file bs=1k count=5
$ dd if=/dev/urandom of=7mb.file bs=1M count=7
$ touch zero.file
$ : > alwayszero.file

You should find following files.

• ”5kb.file” is 5KB of zeros.

• ”7mb.file” is 7MB of random data.
• ”zero.file” may be a 0 byte file. If it existed, its mtime is updated while its content and its length are kept.
• ”alwayszero.file” is always a 0 byte file. If it existed, its mtime is updated and its content is reset.

9.8.8 Erasing an entire hard disk

There are several ways to completely erase data from an entire hard disk like device, e.g., USB memory stick at ”/dev/sda”.

Caution
Check your USB memory stick location with mount(8) first before executing commands here. The device
pointed by ”/dev/sda” may be SCSI hard disk or serial-ATA hard disk where your entire system resides.

Erase all the disk content by resetting data to 0 with the following.
# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda

Erase everything by overwriting with random data as follows.

# dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/sda

Erase everything by overwriting with random data very efficiently as follows.

# shred -v -n 1 /dev/sda

You may alternatively use badblocks(8) with -t random option.

Since dd(1) is available from the shell of many bootable Linux CDs such as Debian installer CD, you can erase your installed
system completely by running an erase command from such media on the system hard disk, e.g., ”/dev/hda”, ”/dev/sda”,
etc.
Debian Reference 167 / 231

9.8.9 Erasing unused area of an hard disk

Unused area on an hard disk (or USB memory stick), e.g. ”/dev/sdb1” may still contain erased data themselves since they are
only unlinked from the filesystem. These can be cleaned by overwriting them.
# mount -t auto /dev/sdb1 /mnt/foo
# cd /mnt/foo
# dd if=/dev/zero of=junk
dd: writing to ‘junk’: No space left on device
...
# sync
# umount /dev/sdb1

Warning
This is usually good enough for your USB memory stick. But this is not perfect. Most parts of erased
filenames and their attributes may be hidden and remain in the filesystem.

9.8.10 Undeleting deleted but still open files

Even if you have accidentally deleted a file, as long as that file is still being used by some application (read or write mode), it is
possible to recover such a file.
For example, try the following
$ echo foo > bar
$ less bar
$ ps aux | grep ’ less[ ]’
bozo 4775 0.0 0.0 92200 884 pts/8 S+ 00:18 0:00 less bar
$ rm bar
$ ls -l /proc/4775/fd | grep bar
lr-x------ 1 bozo bozo 64 2008-05-09 00:19 4 -> /home/bozo/bar (deleted)
$ cat /proc/4775/fd/4 >bar
$ ls -l
-rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-09 00:25 bar
$ cat bar
foo

Execute on another terminal (when you have the lsof package installed) as follows.
$ ls -li bar
2228329 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-11 11:02 bar
$ lsof |grep bar|grep less
less 4775 bozo 4r REG 8,3 4 2228329 /home/bozo/bar
$ rm bar
$ lsof |grep bar|grep less
less 4775 bozo 4r REG 8,3 4 2228329 /home/bozo/bar (deleted)
$ cat /proc/4775/fd/4 >bar
$ ls -li bar
2228302 -rw-r--r-- 1 bozo bozo 4 2008-05-11 11:05 bar
$ cat bar
foo

9.8.11 Searching all hardlinks

Files with hardlinks can be identified by ”ls -li”.

Debian Reference 168 / 231

$ ls -li
total 0
2738405 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 bar
2738404 -rw-r--r-- 2 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 baz
2738404 -rw-r--r-- 2 root root 0 2008-09-15 20:21 foo

Both ”baz” and ”foo” have link counts of ”2” (>1) showing them to have hardlinks. Their inode numbers are common
”2738404”. This means they are the same hardlinked file. If you do not happen to find all hardlinked files by chance, you
can search it by the inode, e.g., ”2738404” as the following.
# find /path/to/mount/point -xdev -inum 2738404

9.8.12 Invisible disk space consumption

All deleted but open files consume disk space although they are not visible from normal du(1). They can be listed with their size
by the following.
# lsof -s -X / |grep deleted

9.9 Data encryption tips

With physical access to your PC, anyone can easily gain root privilege and access all the files on your PC (see Section 4.6.4).
This means that login password system can not secure your private and sensitive data against possible theft of your PC. You must
deploy data encryption technology to do it. Although GNU privacy guard (see Section 10.3) can encrypt files, it takes some user
efforts.
Dm-crypt facilitates automatic data encryption via native Linux kernel modules with minimal user efforts using device-mapper.

package popcon size description

cryptsetup V:21, I:78 444 utilities for encrypted block device (dm-crypt / LUKS)
utilities for encrypted block device (dm-crypt / LUKS) with focus on
cryptmount V:3, I:4 228
mount/unmount by normal users
fscrypt V:0, I:1 4316 utilities for Linux filesystem encryption (fscrypt)
libpam-fscrypt V:0, I:0 4411 PAM module for Linux filesystem encryption (fscrypt)

Table 9.25: List of data encryption utilities

Caution
Data encryption costs CPU time etc. Encrypted data becomes inaccessible if its password is lost. Please
weigh its benefits and costs.

Note
Entire Debian system can be installed on a encrypted disk by the debian-installer (lenny or newer) using dm-
crypt/LUKS and initramfs.

Tip
See Section 10.3 for user space encryption utility: GNU Privacy Guard.
Debian Reference 169 / 231

9.9.1 Removable disk encryption with dm-crypt/LUKS

You can encrypt contents of removable mass devices, e.g. USB memory stick on ”/dev/sdx”, using dm-crypt/LUKS. You
simply format it as the following.
# fdisk /dev/sdx
... ”n” ”p” ”1” ”return” ”return” ”w”
# cryptsetup luksFormat /dev/sdx1
...
# cryptsetup open /dev/sdx1 secret
...
# ls -l /dev/mapper/
total 0
crw-rw---- 1 root root 10, 60 2021-10-04 18:44 control
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 2021-10-04 23:55 secret -> ../dm-0
# mkfs.vfat /dev/mapper/secret
...
# cryptsetup close secret

Then, it can be mounted just like normal one on to ”/media/username/disk_label”, except for asking password (see
Section 10.1.7) under modern desktop environment using the udisks2 package. The difference is that every data written to it
is encrypted. The password entry may be automated using keyring (see Section 10.3.6).
You may alternatively format media in different filesystem, e.g., ext4 with ”mkfs.ext4 /dev/mapper/sdx1”. If btrfs is
used instead, the udisks2-btrfs package needs to be installed. For these filesystems, the file ownership and permissions
may need to be configured.

9.9.2 Mounting encrypted disk with dm-crypt/LUKS

For example, an encrypted disk partition created with dm-crypt/LUKS on ”/dev/sdc5” by Debian Installer can be mounted
onto ”/mnt” as follows:
$ sudo cryptsetup open /dev/sdc5 ninja --type luks
Enter passphrase for /dev/sdc5: ****
$ sudo lvm
lvm> lvscan
inactive ’/dev/ninja-vg/root’ [13.52 GiB] inherit
inactive ’/dev/ninja-vg/swap_1’ [640.00 MiB] inherit
ACTIVE ’/dev/goofy/root’ [180.00 GiB] inherit
ACTIVE ’/dev/goofy/swap’ [9.70 GiB] inherit
lvm> lvchange -a y /dev/ninja-vg/root
lvm> exit
Exiting.
$ sudo mount /dev/ninja-vg/root /mnt

9.10 The kernel

Debian distributes modularized Linux kernel as packages for supported architectures.

If you are reading this documentation, you probably don’t need to compile Linux kernel by yourself.

9.10.1 Kernel parameters

Many Linux features are configurable via kernel parameters as follows.

• Kernel parameters initialized by the bootloader (see Section 3.1.2)

Debian Reference 170 / 231

• Kernel parameters changed by sysctl(8) at runtime for ones accessible via sysfs (see Section 1.2.12)
• Module parameters set by arguments of modprobe(8) when a module is activated (see Section 9.7.3)

See ”The Linux kernel user’s and administrator’s guide » The kernel’s command-line parameters” for the detail.

9.10.2 Kernel headers

Most normal programs don’t need kernel headers and in fact may break if you use them directly for compiling. They should
be compiled against the headers in ”/usr/include/linux” and ”/usr/include/asm” provided by the libc6-dev
package (created from the glibc source package) on the Debian system.

Note
For compiling some kernel-specific programs such as the kernel modules from the external source
and the automounter daemon (amd), you must include path to the corresponding kernel headers, e.g.
”-I/usr/src/linux-particular-version/include/”, to your command line.

9.10.3 Compiling the kernel and related modules

Debian has its own method of compiling the kernel and related modules.

package popcon size description

build-essential
I:492 20 essential packages for building Debian packages: make, gcc, …
bzip2 V:161, I:974 122 compress and decompress utilities for bz2 files
libncurses5-dev
I:105 6 developer’s libraries and docs for ncurses
git V:318, I:498 36744 git: distributed revision control system used by the Linux kernel
fakeroot V:32, I:510 228 provide fakeroot environment for building package as non-root
initramfs-tools
V:347, I:990 112 tool to build an initramfs (Debian specific)
dkms V:47, I:200 293 dynamic kernel module support (DKMS) (generic)
module-assistant
V:1, I:29 391 helper tool to make module package (Debian specific)
devscripts V:8, I:51 2672 helper scripts for a Debian Package maintainer (Debian specific)

Table 9.26: List of key packages to be installed for the kernel recompilation on the Debian system

If you use initrd in Section 3.1.2, make sure to read the related information in initramfs-tools(8), update-initramfs(8),
mkinitramfs(8) and initramfs.conf(5).

Warning
Do not put symlinks to the directories in the source tree (e.g. ”/usr/src/linux*”) from
”/usr/include/linux” and ”/usr/include/asm” when compiling the Linux kernel source. (Some out-
dated documents suggest this.)
Debian Reference 171 / 231

Note
When compiling the latest Linux kernel on the Debian stable system, the use of backported latest tools from the
Debian unstable may be needed.
module-assistant(8) (or its short form m-a) helps users to build and install module package(s) easily for one
or more custom kernels.
The dynamic kernel module support (DKMS) is a new distribution independent framework designed to allow in-
dividual kernel modules to be upgraded without changing the whole kernel. This is used for the maintenance of
out-of-tree modules. This also makes it very easy to rebuild modules as you upgrade kernels.

9.10.4 Compiling the kernel source: Debian Kernel Team recommendation

For building custom kernel binary packages from the upstream kernel source, you should use the ”deb-pkg” target provided by
it.
$ sudo apt-get build-dep linux
$ cd /usr/src
$ wget http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v3.11/linux-version.tar.bz2
$ tar -xjvf linux-version.tar.bz2
$ cd linux-version
$ cp /boot/config-version .config
$ make menuconfig
...
$ make deb-pkg

Tip
The linux-source-version package provides the Linux kernel source with Debian patches as
”/usr/src/linux-version.tar.bz2”.

For building specific binary packages from the Debian kernel source package, you should use the ”binary-arch_architecture_fe
targets in ”debian/rules.gen”.
$ sudo apt-get build-dep linux
$ apt-get source linux
$ cd linux-3.*
$ fakeroot make -f debian/rules.gen binary-arch_i386_none_686

See further information:

• Debian Wiki: KernelFAQ

• Debian Wiki: DebianKernel

• Debian Linux Kernel Handbook: https://kernel-handbook.debian.net

9.10.5 Hardware drivers and firmware

The hardware driver is the code running on the main CPUs of the target system. Most hardware drivers are available as free
software now and are included in the normal Debian kernel packages in the main area.

• GPU driver

– Intel GPU driver (main)

– AMD/ATI GPU driver (main)
Debian Reference 172 / 231

– NVIDIA GPU driver (main for nouveau driver, and non-free for binary-only drivers supported by the vendor.)
• Softmodem driver
– martian-modem and sl-modem-dkms packages (non-free)

The firmware is the code or data loaded on the device attach to the target system (e.g., CPU microcode, rendering code running
on GPU, or FPGA / CPLD data, …). Some firmware packages are available as free software but many firmware packages are
not available as free software since they contain sourceless binary data. Installing these firmware data is essential for the device
to function as expected.

• The firmware data packages containing data loaded to the volatile memory on the target device.

– firmware-linux-free (main)
– firmware-linux-nonfree (non-free)
– firmware-linux-* (non-free)
– *-firmware (non-free)
– intel-microcode (non-free)
– amd64-microcode (non-free)
• The firmware update program packages which update data on the non-volatile memory on the target device.
– fwupd (main): Firmware update daemon which downloads firmware data from Linux Vendor Firmware Service.
– gnome-firmware (main): GTK front end for fwupd
– plasma-discover-backend-fwupd (main): Qt front end for fwupd

Please note that non-free and contrib packages are not part of the Debian system. The access configuration to enable and
to disable the non-free and contrib areas is described in Section 2.1.4. You should be aware of negatives associated with
the use of the non-free and contrib packages as described in Section 2.1.5.
Please also note that the firmware data downloaded by fwupd from Linux Vendor Firmware Service and loaded to the running
Linux kernel may be non-free.

9.11 Virtualized system

Use of virtualized system enables us to run multiple instances of system simultaneously on a single hardware.

Tip
See http://wiki.debian.org/SystemVirtualization.

9.11.1 Virtualization and emulation tools

There are several virtualization and emulation tool platforms.

• Complete hardware emulation packages such as ones installed by the games-emulator metapackage
• Mostly CPU level emulation with some I/O device emulations such as QEMU
• Mostly CPU level virtualization with some I/O device emulations such as Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM)

• OS level container virtualization with the kernel level support such as LXC (Linux Containers), Docker, ...
• OS level filesystem access virtualization with the system library call override on the file path such as chroot
Debian Reference 173 / 231

• OS level filesystem access virtualization with the system library call override on the file ownership such as fakeroot
• OS API emulation such as Wine
• Interpreter level virtualization with its executable selection and run-time library overrides such as virtualenv and venv for
Python

The container virtualization uses Section 4.7.4 and it is the backend technology of Section 7.6.
Here are some packages to help you to setup the virtualized system.

package popcon size description

schroot V:7, I:9 2708 specialized tool for executing Debian binary packages in chroot
sbuild V:1, I:4 271 tool for building Debian binary packages from Debian sources
debootstrap V:5, I:61 308 bootstrap a basic Debian system (written in sh)
cdebootstrap V:0, I:2 116 bootstrap a Debian system (written in C)
Virtual Machine Manager: desktop application for managing virtual
virt-manager V:11, I:42 2298
machines
libvirt-clients
V:43, I:62 1185 programs for the libvirt library
games-emulator I:0 26 games-emulator: Debian’s emulators for games
bochs V:0, I:1 6999 Bochs: IA-32 PC emulator
qemu I:29 100 QEMU: fast generic processor emulator
qemu-system I:21 101 QEMU: full system emulation binaries
qemu-user V:0, I:10 106589 QEMU: user mode emulation binaries
qemu-utils V:12, I:105 6471 QEMU: utilities
KVM: full virtualization on x86 hardware with the hardware-assisted
qemu-kvm V:5, I:37 107
virtualization
virtualbox V:11, I:14 106967 VirtualBox: x86 virtualization solution on i386 and amd64
xen-tools V:0, I:3 727 tools to manage debian XEN virtual server
wine V:17, I:73 191 Wine: Windows API Implementation (standard suite)
DOSBox: x86 emulator with Tandy/Herc/CGA/EGA/VGA/SVGA
dosbox V:2, I:17 2718
graphics, sound and DOS
lxc V:10, I:14 21166 Linux containers user space tools
python3-venv I:52 6 venv for creating virtual python environments (system library)
python3-virtualenv
V:9, I:59 415 virtualenv for creating isolated virtual python environments
pipx V:0, I:1 885 pipx for installing python applications in isolated environments

Table 9.27: List of virtualization tools

See Wikipedia article Comparison of platform virtual machines for detail comparison of different platform virtualization solutions.

9.11.2 Virtualization work flow

Note
Default Debian kernels support KVM since lenny.

Typical work flow for virtualization involves several steps.

• Create an empty filesystem (a file tree or a disk image).

– The file tree can be created by ”mkdir -p /path/to/chroot”.
– The raw disk image file can be created with dd(1) (see Section 9.7.1 and Section 9.7.5).
Debian Reference 174 / 231

– qemu-img(1) can be used to create and convert disk image files supported by QEMU.
– The raw and VMDK file format can be used as common format among virtualization tools.
• Mount the disk image with mount(8) to the filesystem (optional).
– For the raw disk image file, mount it as loop device or device mapper devices (see Section 9.7.3).
– For disk images supported by QEMU, mount them as network block device (see Section 9.11.3).
• Populate the target filesystem with required system data.
– The use of programs such as debootstrap and cdebootstrap helps with this process (see Section 9.11.4).
– Use installers of OSs under the full system emulation.

• Run a program under a virtualized environment.

– chroot provides basic virtualized environment enough to compile programs, run console applications, and run daemons in it.
– QEMU provides cross-platform CPU emulation.
– QEMU with KVM provides full system emulation by the hardware-assisted virtualization.
– VirtualBox provides full system emulation on i386 and amd64 with or without the hardware-assisted virtualization.

9.11.3 Mounting the virtual disk image file

For the raw disk image file, see Section 9.7.

For other virtual disk image files, you can use qemu-nbd(8) to export them using network block device protocol and mount
them using the nbd kernel module.
qemu-nbd(8) supports disk formats supported by QEMU: QEMU supports following disk formats: raw, qcow2, qcow, vmdk,
vdi, bochs, cow (user-mode Linux copy-on-write), parallels, dmg, cloop, vpc, vvfat (virtual VFAT), and host_device.
The network block device can support partitions in the same way as the loop device (see Section 9.7.3). You can mount the first
partition of ”disk.img” as follows.
# modprobe nbd max_part=16
# qemu-nbd -v -c /dev/nbd0 disk.img
...
# mkdir /mnt/part1
# mount /dev/nbd0p1 /mnt/part1

Tip
You may export only the first partition of ”disk.img” using ”-P 1” option to qemu-nbd(8).

9.11.4 Chroot system

If you wish to try a new Debian environment from a terminal console, I recommend you to use chroot. This enables you to run
console applications of Debian unstable and testing without usual risks associated and without rebooting. chroot(8) is
the most basic way.

Caution
Examples below assumes both parent system and chroot system share the same amd64 CPU architecture.
Debian Reference 175 / 231

Although you can manually create a chroot(8) environment using debootstrap(1). But this requires non-trivial efforts.
The sbuild package to build Debian packages from source uses the chroot environment managed by the schroot package. It comes
with helper script sbuild-createchroot(1). Let’s learn how it works by running it under script(1) as follows.
$ sudo mkdir -p /srv/chroot
$ sudo sbuild-createchroot -v --include=eatmydata,ccache unstable /srv/chroot/unstable- ←-
amd64-sbuild http://deb.debian.org/debian

You see how debootstrap(8) populates system data for unstable environment under ”/srv/chroot/unstable-amd64-sbu
for a minimal build system.
You can login to this environment using schroot(1).
$ sudo schroot -v -c chroot:unstable-amd64-sbuild

You see how a system shell running under unstable environment is created.

Note
The ”/usr/sbin/policy-rc.d” file which always exits with 101 prevents daemon programs to be started auto-
matically on the Debian system. See ”/usr/share/doc/sysv-rc/README.policy-rc.d.gz”.

Note
Some programs under chroot may require access to more files from the parent system to function
than sbuild-createchroot provides as above. For example, ”/sys”, ”/etc/passwd”, ”/etc/group”,
”/var/run/utmp”, ”/var/log/wtmp”, etc. may need to be bind-mounted or copied.

Tip
The sbuild package helps to construct a chroot system and builds a package inside the chroot using schroot
as its backend. It is an ideal system to check build-dependencies. See more on sbuild at Debian wiki and sbuild
configuration example in ”Guide for Debian Maintainers”.

9.11.5 Multiple desktop systems

If you wish to try a new GUI Desktop environment of any OS, I recommend you to use QEMU, KVM, or VirtualBox on a
Debian stable system to run multiple desktop systems safely using virtualization. These enable you to run any desktop ap-
plications including ones of Debian unstable and testing without usual risks associated with them and without rebooting.
The configuration of these tools are relatively straight forward.
Since pure QEMU is very slow, it is recommended to accelerate it with KVM when the host system supports it.
The virtual disk image ”virtdisk.qcow2” containing a Debian system for QEMU can be created using debian-installer:
Small CDs as follows.
$ wget http://cdimage.debian.org/debian-cd/5.0.3/amd64/iso-cd/debian-503-amd64-netinst.iso
$ qemu-img create -f qcow2 virtdisk.qcow2 5G
$ qemu -hda virtdisk.qcow2 -cdrom debian-503-amd64-netinst.iso -boot d -m 256
...

See more tips at Debian wiki: QEMU.

VirtualBox comes with Qt GUI tools and quite intuitive. Its GUI and command line tools are explained in VirtualBox User
Manual and VirtualBox User Manual (PDF).

Tip
Running other GNU/Linux distributions such as Ubuntu and Fedora under virtualization is a great way to learn
configuration tips. Other proprietary OSs may be run nicely under this GNU/Linux virtualization, too.
Debian Reference 176 / 231

Chapter 10

Data management

Tools and tips for managing binary and text data on the Debian system are described.

10.1 Sharing, copying, and archiving

Warning
The uncoordinated write access to actively accessed devices and files from multiple processes must not be
done to avoid the race condition. File locking mechanisms using flock(1) may be used to avoid it.

The security of the data and its controlled sharing have several aspects.

• The creation of data archive

• The remote storage access
• The duplication
• The tracking of the modification history
• The facilitation of data sharing
• The prevention of unauthorized file access
• The detection of unauthorized file modification

These can be realized by using some combination of tools.

• Archive and compression tools

• Copy and synchronization tools
• Network filesystems
• Removable storage media
• The secure shell
• The authentication system
• Version control system tools
• Hash and cryptographic encryption tools
Debian Reference 177 / 231

10.1.1 Archive and compression tools

Here is a summary of archive and compression tools available on the Debian system.

package popcon size extension command comment

tar V:904, I:999 3152 .tar tar(1) the standard archiver (de facto standard)
Unix System V style archiver, use with
cpio V:392, I:998 1140 .cpio cpio(1)
find(1)
archiver for the creation of static
binutils V:160, I:657 98 .ar ar(1)
libraries
fastjar V:2, I:23 183 .jar fastjar(1) archiver for Java (zip like)
new POSIX standard archiver,
pax V:11, I:22 170 .pax pax(1)
compromise between tar and cpio
gzip(1), GNU LZ77 compression utility (de facto
gzip V:878, I:999 242 .gz
zcat(1), … standard)
Burrows-Wheeler block-sorting
bzip2(1),
compression utility with higher
bzip2 V:161, I:974 122 .bz2 bzcat(1),
compression ratio than gzip(1) (slower
…
than gzip with similar syntax)
LZMA compression utility with higher
lzma V:2, I:24 149 .lzma lzma(1) compression ratio than gzip(1)
(deprecated)
XZ compression utility with higher
xz(1), compression ratio than bzip2(1)
xz-utils V:437, I:980 612 .xz xzdec(1), (slower than gzip but faster than
… bzip2; replacement for LZMA
compression utility)
zstd(1),
Zstandard fast lossless compression
zstd V:5, I:29 1898 .zstd zstdcat(1),
utility
…
7zr(1), 7-Zip file archiver with high
p7zip V:84, I:471 987 .7z
p7zip(1) compression ratio (LZMA compression)
7-Zip file archiver with high
7z(1),
p7zip-full V:117, I:485 4664 .7z compression ratio (LZMA compression
7za(1)
and others)
LZO compression utility with higher
compression and decompression speed
lzop V:12, I:111 164 .lzo lzop(1)
than gzip(1) (lower compression ratio
than gzip with similar syntax)
InfoZIP: DOS archive and compression
zip V:48, I:420 623 .zip zip(1)
tool
InfoZIP: DOS unarchive and
unzip V:141, I:793 385 .zip unzip(1)
decompression tool

Table 10.1: List of archive and compression tools

Warning
Do not set the ”$TAPE” variable unless you know what to expect. It changes tar(1) behavior.

• The gzipped tar(1) archive uses the file extension ”.tgz” or ”.tar.gz”.
• The xz-compressed tar(1) archive uses the file extension ”.txz” or ”.tar.xz”.
Debian Reference 178 / 231

• Popular compression method in FOSS tools such as tar(1) has been moving as follows: gzip → bzip2 → xz
• cp(1), scp(1) and tar(1) may have some limitation for special files. cpio(1) is most versatile.
• cpio(1) is designed to be used with find(1) and other commands and suitable for creating backup scripts since the file
selection part of the script can be tested independently.
• Internal structure of Libreoffice data files are ”.jar” file which can be opened also by unzip.
• The de-facto cross platform archive tool is zip. Use it as ”zip -rX” to attain the maximum compatibility. Use also the ”-s”
option, if the maximum file size matters.

10.1.2 Copy and synchronization tools

Here is a summary of simple copy and backup tools available on the Debian system.

package popcon size tool function

coreutils V:892, I:999 17372 GNU cp locally copy files and directories (”-a” for recursive)
remotely copy files and directories (client, ”-r” for
openssh-client V:813, I:996 4754 scp
recursive)
openssh-server V:694, I:827 1690 sshd remotely copy files and directories (remote server)
rsync V:274, I:564 737 1-way remote synchronization and backup
unison V:3, I:16 14 2-way remote synchronization and backup

Table 10.2: List of copy and synchronization tools

Copying files with rsync(8) offers richer features than others.

• delta-transfer algorithm that sends only the differences between the source files and the existing files in the destination
• quick check algorithm (by default) that looks for files that have changed in size or in last-modified time
• ”--exclude” and ”--exclude-from” options similar to tar(1)
• ”a trailing slash on the source directory” syntax that avoids creating an additional directory level at the destination.

Tip
Version control system (VCS) tools in Table 10.14 can function as the multi-way copy and synchronization tools.

10.1.3 Idioms for the archive

Here are several ways to archive and unarchive the entire content of the directory ”./source” using different tools.
GNU tar(1):
$ tar -cvJf archive.tar.xz ./source
$ tar -xvJf archive.tar.xz

Alternatively, by the following.

$ find ./source -xdev -print0 | tar -cvJf archive.tar.xz --null -F -

cpio(1):
$ find ./source -xdev -print0 | cpio -ov --null > archive.cpio; xz archive.cpio
$ zcat archive.cpio.xz | cpio -i
Debian Reference 179 / 231

10.1.4 Idioms for the copy

Here are several ways to copy the entire content of the directory ”./source” using different tools.

• Local copy: ”./source” directory → ”/dest” directory

• Remote copy: ”./source” directory at local host → ”/dest” directory at ”user@host.dom” host

rsync(8):
# cd ./source; rsync -aHAXSv . /dest
# cd ./source; rsync -aHAXSv . user@host.dom:/dest

You can alternatively use ”a trailing slash on the source directory” syntax.
# rsync -aHAXSv ./source/ /dest
# rsync -aHAXSv ./source/ user@host.dom:/dest

Alternatively, by the following.

# cd ./source; find . -print0 | rsync -aHAXSv0 --files-from=- . /dest
# cd ./source; find . -print0 | rsync -aHAXSv0 --files-from=- . user@host.dom:/dest

GNU cp(1) and openSSH scp(1):

# cd ./source; cp -a . /dest
# cd ./source; scp -pr . user@host.dom:/dest

GNU tar(1):
# (cd ./source && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest && tar xvfp - )
# (cd ./source && tar cf - . ) | ssh user@host.dom ’(cd /dest && tar xvfp - )’

cpio(1):
# cd ./source; find . -print0 | cpio -pvdm --null --sparse /dest

You can substitute ”.” with ”foo” for all examples containing ”.” to copy files from ”./source/foo” directory to ”/dest/foo”
directory.
You can substitute ”.” with the absolute path ”/path/to/source/foo” for all examples containing ”.” to drop ”cd ./source;”.
These copy files to different locations depending on tools used as follows.

• ”/dest/foo”: rsync(8), GNU cp(1), and scp(1)

• ”/dest/path/to/source/foo”: GNU tar(1), and cpio(1)

Tip
rsync(8) and GNU cp(1) have option ”-u” to skip files that are newer on the receiver.

10.1.5 Idioms for the selection of files

find(1) is used to select files for archive and copy commands (see Section 10.1.3 and Section 10.1.4) or for xargs(1) (see
Section 9.4.9). This can be enhanced by using its command arguments.
Basic syntax of find(1) can be summarized as the following.

• Its conditional arguments are evaluated from left to right.

Debian Reference 180 / 231

• This evaluation stops once its outcome is determined.

• ”Logical OR” (specified by ”-o” between conditionals) has lower precedence than ”logical AND” (specified by ”-a” or
nothing between conditionals).
• ”Logical NOT” (specified by ”!” before a conditional) has higher precedence than ”logical AND”.
• ”-prune” always returns logical TRUE and, if it is a directory, searching of file is stopped beyond this point.
• ”-name” matches the base of the filename with shell glob (see Section 1.5.6) but it also matches its initial ”.” with metachar-
acters such as ”*” and ”?”. (New POSIX feature)
• ”-regex” matches the full path with emacs style BRE (see Section 1.6.2) as default.
• ”-size” matches the file based on the file size (value precedented with ”+” for larger, precedented with ”-” for smaller)
• ”-newer” matches the file newer than the one specified in its argument.
• ”-print0” always returns logical TRUE and print the full filename (null terminated) on the standard output.

find(1) is often used with an idiomatic style as the following.

# find /path/to \
-xdev -regextype posix-extended \
-type f -regex ”.*\.cpio|.*~” -prune -o \
-type d -regex ”.*/\.git” -prune -o \
-type f -size +99M -prune -o \
-type f -newer /path/to/timestamp -print0

This means to do following actions.

1. Search all files starting from ”/path/to”

2. Globally limit its search within its starting filesystem and uses ERE (see Section 1.6.2) instead
3. Exclude files matching regex of ”.*\.cpio” or ”.*~” from search by stop processing
4. Exclude directories matching regex of ”.*/\.git” from search by stop processing
5. Exclude files larger than 99 Megabytes (units of 1048576 bytes) from search by stop processing
6. Print filenames which satisfy above search conditions and are newer than ”/path/to/timestamp”

Please note the idiomatic use of ”-prune -o” to exclude files in the above example.

Note
For non-Debian Unix-like system, some options may not be supported by find(1). In such a case, please consider
to adjust matching methods and replace ”-print0” with ”-print”. You may need to adjust related commands
too.

10.1.6 Archive media

When choosing computer data storage media for important data archive, you should be careful about their limitations. For small
personal data backup, I use CD-R and DVD-R by the brand name company and store in a cool, shaded, dry, clean environment.
(Tape archive media seem to be popular for professional use.)

Note
A fire-resistant safe are meant for paper documents. Most of the computer data storage media have less tempera-
ture tolerance than paper. I usually rely on multiple secure encrypted copies stored in multiple secure locations.
Debian Reference 181 / 231

Optimistic storage life of archive media seen on the net (mostly from vendor info).

• 100+ years : Acid free paper with ink

• 100 years : Optical storage (CD/DVD, CD/DVD-R)
• 30 years : Magnetic storage (tape, floppy)
• 20 years : Phase change optical storage (CD-RW)

These do not count on the mechanical failures due to handling etc.

Optimistic write cycle of archive media seen on the net (mostly from vendor info).

• 250,000+ cycles : Harddisk drive

• 10,000+ cycles : Flash memory
• 1,000 cycles : CD/DVD-RW
• 1 cycles : CD/DVD-R, paper

Caution
Figures of storage life and write cycle here should not be used for decisions on any critical data storage.
Please consult the specific product information provided by the manufacture.

Tip
Since CD/DVD-R and paper have only 1 write cycle, they inherently prevent accidental data loss by overwriting.
This is advantage!

Tip
If you need fast and frequent backup of large amount of data, a hard disk on a remote host linked by a fast network
connection, may be the only realistic option.

10.1.7 Removable storage device

Removable storage devices may be any one of the following.

• USB flash drive

• Hard disk drive
• Optical disc drive
• Digital camera
• Digital music player

They may be connected via any one of the following.

• USB
• IEEE 1394 / FireWire
• PC Card
Debian Reference 182 / 231

Modern desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE can mount these removable devices automatically without a matching
”/etc/fstab” entry.

• udisks2 package provides a daemon and associated utilities to mount and unmount these devices.
• D-bus creates events to initiate automatic processes.
• PolicyKit provides required privileges.

Tip
Automounted devices may have the ”uhelper=” mount option which is used by umount(8).

Tip
Automounting under modern desktop environment happens only when those removable media devices are not
listed in ”/etc/fstab”.

Mount point under modern desktop environment is chosen as ”/media/username/disk_label” which can be customized
by the following.

• mlabel(1) for FAT filesystem

• genisoimage(1) with ”-V” option for ISO9660 filesystem
• tune2fs(1) with ”-L” option for ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystem

Tip
The choice of encoding may need to be provided as mount option (see Section 8.1.3).

Tip
The use of the GUI menu to unmount a filesystem may remove its dynamically generated device node such as
”/dev/sdc”. If you wish to keep its device node, unmount it with the umount(8) command from the shell prompt.

10.1.8 Filesystem choice for sharing data

When sharing data with other system via removable storage device, you should format it with common filesystem supported by
both systems. Here is a list of filesystem choices.

Tip
See Section 9.9.1 for cross platform sharing of data using device level encryption.

The FAT filesystem is supported by almost all modern operating systems and is quite useful for the data exchange purpose via
removable hard disk like media.
When formatting removable hard disk like devices for cross platform sharing of data with the FAT filesystem, the following
should be safe choices.

• Partitioning them with fdisk(8), cfdisk(8) or parted(8) (see Section 9.6.2) into a single primary partition and to mark it
as the following.
Debian Reference 183 / 231

filesystem name typical usage scenario

FAT12 cross platform sharing of data on the floppy disk (<32MiB)
FAT16 cross platform sharing of data on the small hard disk like device (<2GiB)
cross platform sharing of data on the large hard disk like device (<8TiB, supported by newer
FAT32
than MS Windows95 OSR2)
cross platform sharing of data on the large hard disk like device (<512TiB, supported by
exFAT
WindowsXP, Mac OS X Snow Leopard 10.6.5, and Linux kernel since 5.4 release)
cross platform sharing of data on the large hard disk like device (supported natively on MS
NTFS
Windows NT and later version, and supported by NTFS-3G via FUSE on Linux)
ISO9660 cross platform sharing of static data on CD-R and DVD+/-R
UDF incremental data writing on CD-R and DVD+/-R (new)
MINIX space efficient unix file data storage on the floppy disk
ext2 sharing of data on the hard disk like device with older Linux systems
ext3 sharing of data on the hard disk like device with older Linux systems
ext4 sharing of data on the hard disk like device with current Linux systems
sharing of data on the hard disk like device with current Linux systems with read-only
btrfs
snapshots

Table 10.3: List of filesystem choices for removable storage devices with typical usage scenarios

– Type ”6” for FAT16 for media smaller than 2GB.

– Type ”c” for FAT32 (LBA) for larger media.

• Formatting the primary partition with mkfs.vfat(8) with the following.

– Just its device name, e.g. ”/dev/sda1” for FAT16
– The explicit option and its device name, e.g. ”-F 32 /dev/sda1” for FAT32

When using the FAT or ISO9660 filesystems for sharing data, the following should be the safe considerations.

• Archiving files into an archive file first using tar(1), or cpio(1) to retain the long filename, the symbolic link, the original
Unix file permission and the owner information.
• Splitting the archive file into less than 2 GiB chunks with the split(1) command to protect it from the file size limitation.
• Encrypting the archive file to secure its contents from the unauthorized access.

Note
For FAT filesystems by its design, the maximum file size is (2^32 - 1) bytes = (4GiB - 1 byte). For
some applications on the older 32 bit OS, the maximum file size was even smaller (2^31 - 1) bytes = (2GiB
- 1 byte). Debian does not suffer the latter problem.

Note
Microsoft itself does not recommend to use FAT for drives or partitions of over 200 MB. Microsoft highlights its short
comings such as inefficient disk space usage in their ”Overview of FAT, HPFS, and NTFS File Systems”. Of course,
we should normally use the ext4 filesystem for Linux.

Tip
For more on filesystems and accessing filesystems, please read ”Filesystems HOWTO”.
Debian Reference 184 / 231

network service description of typical usage scenario

sharing files via ”Microsoft Windows Network”, see smb.conf(5)
SMB/CIFS network mounted filesystem with
and The Official Samba 3.x.x HOWTO and Reference Guide or the
Samba
samba-doc package
NFS network mounted filesystem with the sharing files via ”Unix/Linux Network”, see exports(5) and Linux
Linux kernel NFS-HOWTO
HTTP service sharing file between the web server/client
sharing file between the web server/client with encrypted Secure
HTTPS service
Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS)
FTP service sharing file between the FTP server/client

Table 10.4: List of the network service to chose with the typical usage scenario

10.1.9 Sharing data via network

When sharing data with other system via network, you should use common service. Here are some hints.
Although these filesystems mounted over network and file transfer methods over network are quite convenient for sharing data,
these may be insecure. Their network connection must be secured by the following.

• Encrypt it with SSL/TLS

• Tunnel it via SSH

• Tunnel it via VPN
• Limit it behind the secure firewall

See also Section 6.5 and Section 6.6.

10.2 Backup and recovery

We all know that computers fail sometime or human errors cause system and data damages. Backup and recovery operations are
the essential part of successful system administration. All possible failure modes hit you some day.

Tip
Keep your backup system simple and backup your system often. Having backup data is more important than how
technically good your backup method is.

10.2.1 Backup and recovery policy

There are 3 key factors which determine actual backup and recovery policy.

1. Knowing what to backup and recover.

• Data files directly created by you: data in ”~/”

• Data files created by applications used by you: data in ”/var/” (except ”/var/cache/”, ”/var/run/”, and
”/var/tmp/”)
• System configuration files: data in ”/etc/”
• Local programs: data in ”/usr/local/” or ”/opt/”
• System installation information: a memo in plain text on key steps (partition, …)
Debian Reference 185 / 231

• Proven set of data: confirmed by experimental recovery operations in advance

– Cron job as a user process: files in ”/var/spool/cron/crontabs” directory and restart cron(8). See Sec-
tion 9.4.14 for cron(8) and crontab(1).
– Systemd timer jobs as user processes: files in ”~/.config/systemd/user” directory. See systemd.timer(5)
and systemd.service(5).
– Autostart jobs as user processes: files in ”~/.config/autostart” directory. See Desktop Application Autostart
Specification.
2. Knowing how to backup and recover.
• Secure storage of data: protection from overwrite and system failure
• Frequent backup: scheduled backup
• Redundant backup: data mirroring
• Fool proof process: easy single command backup
3. Assessing risks and costs involved.
• Risk of data when lost
– Data should be at least on different disk partitions preferably on different disks and machines to withstand the filesystem
corruption. Important data are best stored on a read-only filesystem. 1
• Risk of data when breached
– Sensitive identity data such as ”/etc/ssh/ssh_host_*_key”, ”~/.gnupg/*”, ”~/.ssh/*”, ”~/.local/share/
”/etc/passwd”, ”/etc/shadow”, ”popularity-contest.conf”, ”/etc/ppp/pap-secrets”, and ”/etc/e
should be backed up as encrypted. 2 (See Section 9.9.)
– Never hard code system login password nor decryption passphrase in any script even on any trusted system. (See
Section 10.3.6.)
• Failure mode and their possibility
– Hardware (especially HDD) will break
– Filesystem may be corrupted and data in it may be lost
– Remote storage system can’t be trusted for security breaches
– Weak password protection can be easily compromised
– File permission system may be compromised
• Required resources for backup: human, hardware, software, …
– Automatic scheduled backup with cron job or systemd timer job

Note
Do not back up the pseudo-filesystem contents found on /proc, /sys, /tmp, and /run (see Section 1.2.12 and
Section 1.2.13). Unless you know exactly what you are doing, they are huge useless data.

Note
You may wish to stop some application daemons such as MTA (see Section 6.2.4) while backing up data.

10.2.2 Backup utility suites

Here is a select list of notable backup utility suites available on the Debian system.
Backup tools have their specialized focuses.
1A write-once media such as CD/DVD-R can prevent overwrite accidents. (See Section 9.8 for how to write to the storage media from the shell commandline.
GNOME desktop GUI environment gives you easy access via menu: ”Places→CD/DVD Creator”.
2Some of these data can not be regenerated by entering the same input string to the system.
Debian Reference 186 / 231

package popcon size description

dump V:1, I:6 351 4.4 BSD dump(8) and restore(8) for ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystems
dump and restore with xfsdump(8) and xfsrestore(8) for XFS
xfsdump V:0, I:8 854
filesystem on GNU/Linux and IRIX
backupninja V:3, I:4 367 lightweight, extensible meta-backup system
Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - common support
bacula-common V:9, I:13 2158
files
Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - client
bacula-client I:3 183
meta-package
bacula-console V:1, I:4 107 Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - text console
Bacula: network backup, recovery and verification - server
bacula-server I:1 183
meta-package
Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver
amanda-common V:0, I:2 9998
(Libs)
Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver
amanda-client V:0, I:2 1088
(Client)
Amanda: Advanced Maryland Automatic Network Disk Archiver
amanda-server V:0, I:0 1090
(Server)
backup-manager V:1, I:1 571 command-line backup tool
low-maintenance backup/restore tool for mountable media (disk
backup2l V:0, I:1 114
based)
BackupPC is a high-performance, enterprise-grade system for
backuppc V:2, I:3 3184
backing up PCs (disk based)
duplicity V:13, I:32 1834 (remote) incremental backup
flexbackup V:0, I:0 243 (remote) incremental backup
rdiff-backup V:5, I:13 733 (remote) incremental backup
restic V:1, I:4 21080 (remote) incremental backup
slbackup V:0, I:0 151 (remote) incremental backup

Table 10.5: List of backup suite utilities

Debian Reference 187 / 231

• Mondo Rescue is a backup system to facilitate restoration of complete system quickly from backup CD/DVD etc. without
going through normal system installation processes.
• Bacula, Amanda, and BackupPC are full featured backup suite utilities which are focused on regular backups over network.
• Regular backups of user data can be realized by a simple script (Section 10.2.3).

Basic tools described in Section 10.1.1 and Section 10.1.2 can be used to facilitate system backup via custom scripts. Such script
can be enhanced by the following.

• The restic package enables incremental (remote) backups.

• The rdiff-backup package enables incremental (remote) backups.

• The dump package helps to archive and restore the whole filesystem incrementally and efficiently.

Tip
See files in ”/usr/share/doc/dump/” and ”Is dump really deprecated?” to learn about the dump package.

10.2.3 Personal backup

For a personal Debian desktop system running testing suite, I only need to protect personal and critical data. I reinstall system
once a year anyway. Thus I see no reason to backup the whole system or to install a full featured backup utility.
At the same time, it is very valuable to have frequent recent snapshots of personal data and system configuration, and occasional
full backups of personal data.
I usually make these snapshots and backups with a simple shell script bss. This script is a short shell which uses standard utilities:
btrfs subvolume snapshot, rsync. For data encryption, disk image is created by fallocate(1) and configured with
cryptsetup(8).

Tip
You can recover debconf configuration data with ”debconf-set-selections debconf-selections” and
dpkg selection data with ”dpkg --set-selection <dpkg-selections.list”.

10.3 Data security infrastructure

The data security infrastructure is provided by the combination of data encryption tool, message digest tool, and signature tool.
See Section 9.9 on dm-crypt and fscrypt which implement automatic data encryption infrastructure via Linux kernel modules.

10.3.1 Key management for GnuPG

Here are GNU Privacy Guard commands for the basic key management.
Here is the meaning of the trust code.
The following uploads my key ”1DD8D791” to the popular keyserver ”hkp://keys.gnupg.net”.
$ gpg --keyserver hkp://keys.gnupg.net --send-keys 1DD8D791

A good default keyserver set up in ”~/.gnupg/gpg.conf” (or old location ”~/.gnupg/options”) contains the following.
keyserver hkp://keys.gnupg.net
Debian Reference 188 / 231

package popcon size command description

GNU Privacy Guard - OpenPGP encryption and
gnupg V:533, I:936 864 gpg(1)
signing tool
gpgv V:874, I:999 882 gpgv(1) GNU Privacy Guard - signature verification tool
extract just the secret information out of OpenPGP
paperkey V:1, I:13 58 paperkey(1)
secret keys
cryptsetup(8),utilities for dm-crypt block device encryption
cryptsetup V:21, I:78 444
… supporting LUKS
coreutils V:892, I:999 17372 md5sum(1) compute and check MD5 message digest
coreutils V:892, I:999 17372 sha1sum(1) compute and check SHA1 message digest
compute message digest with ”openssl dgst”
openssl V:806, I:994 1466 openssl(1ssl)
(OpenSSL)
libsecret-tools
V:1, I:8 45 store and retrieve passwords (CLI)
secret-tool(1)
seahorse V:77, I:253 7804 seahorse(1) key management tool (GNOME)

Table 10.6: List of data security infrastructure tools

command description
gpg --gen-key generate a new key
gpg --gen-revoke my_user_ID generate revoke key for my_user_ID
gpg --edit-key user_ID edit key interactively, ”help” for help
gpg -o file --export export all keys to file
gpg --import file import all keys from file
gpg --send-keys user_ID send key of user_ID to keyserver
gpg --recv-keys user_ID recv. key of user_ID from keyserver
gpg --list-keys user_ID list keys of user_ID
gpg --list-sigs user_ID list sig. of user_ID
gpg --check-sigs user_ID check sig. of user_ID
gpg --fingerprint user_ID check fingerprint of user_ID
gpg --refresh-keys update local keyring

Table 10.7: List of GNU Privacy Guard commands for the key management

code description of trust

- no owner trust assigned / not yet calculated
e trust calculation failed
q not enough information for calculation
n never trust this key
m marginally trusted
f fully trusted
u ultimately trusted

Table 10.8: List of the meaning of the trust code

Debian Reference 189 / 231

The following obtains unknown keys from the keyserver.

$ gpg --list-sigs --with-colons | grep ’^sig.*\[User ID not found\]’ |\
cut -d ’:’ -f 5| sort | uniq | xargs gpg --recv-keys

There was a bug in OpenPGP Public Key Server (pre version 0.9.6) which corrupted key with more than 2 sub-keys. The newer
gnupg (>1.2.1-2) package can handle these corrupted subkeys. See gpg(1) under ”--repair-pks-subkey-bug” option.

10.3.2 Using GnuPG on files

Here are examples for using GNU Privacy Guard commands on files.

command description
gpg -a -s file sign file into ASCII armored file.asc
gpg --armor --sign file ,,
gpg --clearsign file clear-sign message
gpg --clearsign file|mail
mail a clear-signed message to foo@example.org
foo@example.org
gpg --clearsign
clear-sign patchfile
--not-dash-escaped patchfile
gpg --verify file verify clear-signed file
gpg -o file.sig -b file create detached signature
gpg -o file.sig --detach-sig
,,
file
gpg --verify file.sig file verify file with file.sig
gpg -o crypt_file.gpg -r name public-key encryption intended for name from file to binary
-e file crypt_file.gpg
gpg -o crypt_file.gpg
,,
--recipient name --encrypt file
gpg -o crypt_file.asc -a -r public-key encryption intended for name from file to ASCII armored
name -e file crypt_file.asc
gpg -o crypt_file.gpg -c file symmetric encryption from file to crypt_file.gpg
gpg -o crypt_file.gpg
,,
--symmetric file
gpg -o crypt_file.asc -a -c symmetric encryption intended for name from file to ASCII armored
file crypt_file.asc
gpg -o file -d crypt_file.gpg
decryption
-r name
gpg -o file --decrypt
,,
crypt_file.gpg

Table 10.9: List of GNU Privacy Guard commands on files

10.3.3 Using GnuPG with Mutt

Add the following to ”~/.muttrc” to keep a slow GnuPG from automatically starting, while allowing it to be used by typing
”S” at the index menu.
macro index S ”:toggle pgp_verify_sig\n”
set pgp_verify_sig=no
Debian Reference 190 / 231

10.3.4 Using GnuPG with Vim

The gnupg plugin let you run GnuPG transparently for files with extension ”.gpg”, ”.asc”, and ”.ppg”.3
$ sudo aptitude install vim-scripts
$ echo ”packadd! gnupg” >> ~/.vim/vimrc

10.3.5 The MD5 sum

md5sum(1) provides utility to make a digest file using the method in rfc1321 and verifying each file with it.
$ md5sum foo bar >baz.md5
$ cat baz.md5
d3b07384d113edec49eaa6238ad5ff00 foo
c157a79031e1c40f85931829bc5fc552 bar
$ md5sum -c baz.md5
foo: OK
bar: OK

Note
The computation for the MD5 sum is less CPU intensive than the one for the cryptographic signature by GNU
Privacy Guard (GnuPG). Usually, only the top level digest file is cryptographically signed to ensure data integrity.

10.3.6 Password keyring

On GNOME system, the GUI tool seahorse(1) manages passwords and stores them securely in the keyring ~/.local/share/keyr
secret-tool(1) can store password to the keyring from the command line.
Let’s store passphrase used for LUKS/dm-crypt encrypted disk image secret-tool(1) can store password to the keyring from
the command line.
$ secret-tool store --label=’LUKS passphrase for disk.img’ LUKS my_disk.img
Password: ********

This stored password can be retrieved and fed to other programs, e.g., cryptsetup(8).
$ secret-tool lookup LUKS my_disk.img | \
cryptsetup open disk.img disk_img --type luks --keyring -
$ sudo mount /dev/mapper/disk_img /mnt

Tip
Whenever you need to provide password in a script, use secret-tool and avoid directly hardcoding the
passphrase in it..

10.4 Source code merge tools

There are many merge tools for the source code. Following commands caught my eyes.
3If you use ”~/.vimrc” instead of ”~/.vim/vimrc”, please substitute accordingly.
Debian Reference 191 / 231

package popcon size command description

patch V:75, I:714 248 patch(1) apply a diff file to an original
vim V:103, I:394 3498 vimdiff(1) compare 2 files side by side in vim
imediff V:0, I:0 169 imediff(1) interactive full screen 2/3-way merge tool
meld V:14, I:37 3086 meld(1) compare and merge files (GTK)
wiggle V:0, I:0 174 wiggle(1) apply rejected patches
diffutils V:870, I:993 1598 diff(1) compare files line by line
diffutils V:870, I:993 1598 diff3(1) compare and merges three files line by line
quilt V:3, I:30 788 quilt(1) manage series of patches
wdiff V:8, I:65 644 wdiff(1) display word differences between text files
diffstat V:14, I:143 81 diffstat(1) produce a histogram of changes by the diff
create a cumulative patch from two incremental
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 combinediff(1)
patches
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 extract a diff from an HTML page
dehtmldiff(1)
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 extract or excludes diffs from a diff file
filterdiff(1)
fix diff files created by CVS that patch(1)
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 fixcvsdiff(1)
mis-interprets
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 flipdiff(1) exchange the order of two patches
show which files are modified by a patch matching a
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 grepdiff(1)
regex
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 interdiff(1)show differences between two unified diff files
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 lsdiff(1) show which files are modified by a patch
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 recompute counts and offsets in unified context diffs
recountdiff(1)
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 rediff(1) fix offsets and counts of a hand-edited diff
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 splitdiff(1)separate out incremental patches
patchutils V:16, I:139 232 demangle patches that have been word-wrapped
unwrapdiff(1)
display differences and merge changes between
dirdiff V:0, I:2 166 dirdiff(1)
directory trees
docdiff V:0, I:0 555 docdiff(1) compare two files word by word / char by char
makepatch V:0, I:0 102 makepatch(1)generate extended patch files
makepatch V:0, I:0 102 apply extended patch files
applypatch(1)

Table 10.10: List of source code merge tools

Debian Reference 192 / 231

10.4.1 Extracting differences for source files

The following procedures extract differences between two source files and create unified diff files ”file.patch0” or ”file.patch1”
depending on the file location.
$ diff -u file.old file.new > file.patch0
$ diff -u old/file new/file > file.patch1

10.4.2 Merging updates for source files

The diff file (alternatively called patch file) is used to send a program update. The receiving party applies this update to another
file by the following.
$ patch -p0 file < file.patch0
$ patch -p1 file < file.patch1

10.4.3 Interactive merge

If you have two versions of a source code, you can perform 2-way merge interactively using imediff(1) by the following.
$ imediff -o file.merged file.old file.new

If you have three versions of a source code, you can perform 3-way merge interactively using imediff(1) by the following.
$ imediff -o file.merged file.yours file.base file.theirs

10.5 Git

Git is the tool of choice these days for the version control system (VCS) since Git can do everything for both local and remote
source code management.
Debian provides free Git services via Debian Salsa service. Its documentation can be found at https://wiki.debian.org/Salsa .
Here are some Git related packages.

package popcon size command description

Git, the fast, scalable, distributed revision control
git V:318, I:498 36744 git(7)
system
gitk V:6, I:40 1760 gitk(1) GUI Git repository browser with history
git-gui V:1, I:22 2354 git-gui(1) GUI for Git (No history)
git-email V:0, I:11 1006 send a collection of patches as email from the Git
git-send-email(1)
git-buildpackage
V:1, I:11 4220 automate the Debian packaging with the Git
git-buildpackage(1)
dgit V:0, I:1 497 dgit(1) git interoperability with the Debian archive
imediff V:0, I:0 169 git-ime(1) interactive git commit split helper tool
stgit V:0, I:0 603 stg(1) quilt on top of git (Python)
git-doc I:14 12150 N/A official documentation for Git
gitmagic I:1 721 N/A ”Git Magic”, easier to understand guide for Git

Table 10.11: List of git related packages and commands

Debian Reference 193 / 231

10.5.1 Configuration of Git client

You may wish to set several global configuration in ”~/.gitconfig” such as your name and email address used by Git by the
following.
$ git config --global user.name ”Name Surname”
$ git config --global user.email yourname@example.com

You may also customize the Git default behavior by the following.
$ git config --global init.defaultBranch main
$ git config --global pull.rebase true
$ git config --global push.default current

If you are too used to CVS or Subversion commands, you may wish to set several command aliases by the following.
$ git config --global alias.ci ”commit -a”
$ git config --global alias.co checkout

You can check your global configuration by the following.

$ git config --global --list

10.5.2 Basic Git commands

Git operation involves several data.

• The working tree which holds user facing files and you make changes to them.
– The changes to be recorded must be explicitly selected and staged to the index. This is git add and git rm commands.

• The index which holds staged files.

– Staged files will be committed to the local repository upon the subsequent request. This is git commit command.
• The local repository which holds committed files.

– Git records the linked history of the committed data and organizes them as branches in the repository.
– The local repository can send data to the remote repository by git push command.
– The local repository can receive data from the remote repository by git fetch and git pull commands.

* The git pull command performs git merge or git rebase command after git fetch command.
* Here, git merge combines two separate branches of history at the end to a point. (This is default of git pull without
customization and may be good for upstream people who publish branch to many people.)
* Here, git rebase creates one single branch of sequential history of the remote branch one followed by the local branch
one. (This is pull.rebase true customization case and may be good for rest of us.)
• The remote repository which holds committed files.
– The communication to the remote repository uses secure communication protocols such as SSH or HTTPS.

The working tree is files outside of the .git/ directory. Files inside of the .git/ directory hold the index, the local repository
data, and some git configuration text files.
Here is an overview of main Git commands.
Debian Reference 194 / 231

Git command function

git init create the (local) repository
git clone URL clone the remote repository to a local repository with the working tree
git pull origin main update the local main branch by the remote repository origin
add file(s) in the working tree to the index for pre-existing files in
git add .
index only
add file(s) in the working tree to the index for all files including
git add -A .
removals
git rm filename remove file(s) from the working tree and the index
git commit commit staged changes in the index to the local repository
add all changes in the working tree to the index and commit them to the
git commit -a
local repository (add + commit)
update the remote repository origin by the local branch_name
git push -u origin branch_name
branch (initial invocation)
update the remote repository origin by the local branch_name
git push origin branch_name
branch (subsequent invocation)
git diff treeish1 treeish2 show difference between treeish1 commit and treeish2 commit
gitk GUI display of VCS repository branch history tree

Table 10.12: Main Git commands

10.5.3 Git tips

Here are some Git tips.

Warning
Do not use the tag string with spaces in it even if some tools such as gitk(1) allow you to use it. It may
choke some other git commands.

Caution
If a local branch which has been pushed to remote repository is rebased or squashed, pushing this branch
has risks and requires --force option. This is usually not an acceptable for main branch but may be
acceptable for a topic branch before merging to main branch.

Caution
Invoking a git subcommand directly as ”git-xyz” from the command line has been deprecated since
early 2006.

Tip
If there is a executable file git-foo in the path specified by $PATH, entering ”git foo” without hyphen to the
command line invokes this git-foo. This is a feature of the git command.

10.5.4 Git references

See the following.

• manpage: git(1) (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/git.html)

Debian Reference 195 / 231

Git command line function

see complete Git history and operate on them such as resetting HEAD
gitk --all to another commit, cheery-picking patches, creating tags and branches
...
git stash get the clean working tree without loosing data
git remote -v check settings for remote
git branch -vv check settings for branch
git status show working tree status
git config -l list git settings
git reset --hard HEAD; git
revert all working tree changes and clean them up completely
clean -x -d -f
git rm --cached filename revert staged index changed by git add filename
get reference log (useful for recovering commits from the removed
git reflog
branch)
git branch new_branch_name
create a new branch from reflog information
HEAD@{6}
git remote add new_remote URL add a new_remote remote repository pointed by URL
git remote rename origin
rename the remote repository name from origin to upstream
upstream
git branch -u set the remote tracking to the remote repository upstream and its
upstream/branch_name branch name branch_name.
git remote set-url origin
change URL of origin
https://foo/bar.git
git remote set-url --push
disable push to upstream (Edit .git/config to re-enable)
upstream DISABLED
git checkout -b topic_branch ;
make a new topic_branch and push it to origin
git push -u topic_branch origin
git branch -m oldname newname rename local branch name
git push -d origin
remove remote branch (new method)
branch_to_be_removed
git push origin
remove remote branch (old method)
:branch_to_be_removed
git checkout --orphan
create a new unconnected branch
unconnected
reorder/drop/squish commits from origin/main to clean branch
git rebase -i origin/main
history
git reset HEAD^; git commit
squash last 2 commits into one
--amend
git checkout topic_branch ; git
squash entire topic_branch into a commit
merge --squash topic_branch
git fetch --unshallow
--update-head-ok origin convert a shallow clone to the full clone of all branches
’+refs/heads/*:refs/heads/*’
split the last commit into a series of file-by-file smaller commits etc.
git ime
(imediff package required)
repack the local repository into single pack (this may limit chance of
git repack -a -d; git prune
lost data recovery from erased branch etc.)

Table 10.13: Git tips

Debian Reference 196 / 231

• Git User’s Manual (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/user-manual.html)

• A tutorial introduction to git (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/gittutorial.html)
• A tutorial introduction to git: part two (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/gittutorial-2.html)
• Everyday GIT With 20 Commands Or So (/usr/share/doc/git-doc/giteveryday.html)

• Git Magic (/usr/share/doc/gitmagic/html/index.html)

10.5.5 Other version control systems

The version control systems (VCS) is sometimes known as the revision control system (RCS), or the software configuration
management (SCM).
Here is a summary of the notable other non-Git VCS on the Debian system.

package popcon size tool VCS type comment

mercurial V:6, I:42 1059 Mercurial distributed DVCS in Python and some C
DVCS with smart algebra of patches
darcs V:0, I:7 23160 Darcs distributed
(slow)
DVCS influenced by tla written in
bzr V:1, I:14 28 Bazaar distributed
Python (historic)
tla V:0, I:2 1011 GNU arch distributed DVCS mainly by Tom Lord (historic)
”CVS done right”, newer standard
subversion V:17, I:98 4874 Subversion remote
remote VCS (historic)
cvs V:4, I:36 4620 CVS remote previous standard remote VCS (historic)
GUI display of VCS (CVS, Subversion,
tkcvs V:0, I:1 1498 CVS, … remote
RCS) repository tree
rcs V:3, I:17 562 RCS local ”Unix SCCS done right” (historic)
cssc V:0, I:2 2044 CSSC local clone of the Unix SCCS (historic)

Table 10.14: List of other version control system tools

Debian Reference 197 / 231

Chapter 11

Data conversion

Tools and tips for converting data formats on the Debian system are described.
Standard based tools are in very good shape but support for proprietary data formats are limited.

11.1 Text data conversion tools

Following packages for the text data conversion caught my eyes.

package popcon size keyword description

text encoding converter between locales by iconv(1)
libc6 V:922, I:999 12775 charset
(fundamental)
text encoding converter between locales (versatile,
recode V:3, I:24 603 charset+eol
more aliases and features)
konwert V:1, I:53 134 charset text encoding converter between locales (fancy)
nkf V:0, I:10 358 charset character set translator for Japanese
tcs V:0, I:0 518 charset character set translator
unaccent V:0, I:0 35 charset replace accented letters by their unaccented equivalent
text format converter between DOS and Unix:
tofrodos V:1, I:22 55 eol
fromdos(1) and todos(1)
text format converter between Macintosh and Unix:
macutils V:0, I:0 298 eol
frommac(1) and tomac(1)

Table 11.1: List of text data conversion tools

11.1.1 Converting a text file with iconv

Tip
iconv(1) is provided as a part of the libc6 package and it is always available on practically all Unix-like systems
to convert the encoding of characters.

You can convert encodings of a text file with iconv(1) by the following.
$ iconv -f encoding1 -t encoding2 input.txt >output.txt

Encoding values are case insensitive and ignore ”-” and ”_” for matching. Supported encodings can be checked by the ”iconv
-l” command.
Debian Reference 198 / 231

encoding value usage

American Standard Code for Information Interchange, 7 bit code w/o
ASCII
accented characters
UTF-8 current multilingual standard for all modern OSs
old standard for western European languages, ASCII + accented
ISO-8859-1
characters
old standard for eastern European languages, ASCII + accented
ISO-8859-2
characters
old standard for western European languages, ISO-8859-1 with euro
ISO-8859-15
sign
code page 850, Microsoft DOS characters with graphics for western
CP850
European languages, ISO-8859-1 variant
CP932 code page 932, Microsoft Windows style Shift-JIS variant for Japanese
code page 936, Microsoft Windows style GB2312, GBK or GB18030
CP936
variant for Simplified Chinese
code page 949, Microsoft Windows style EUC-KR or Unified Hangul
CP949
Code variant for Korean
code page 950, Microsoft Windows style Big5 variant for Traditional
CP950
Chinese
code page 1251, Microsoft Windows style encoding for the Cyrillic
CP1251
alphabet
code page 1252, Microsoft Windows style ISO-8859-15 variant for
CP1252
western European languages
KOI8-R old Russian UNIX standard for the Cyrillic alphabet
ISO-2022-JP standard encoding for Japanese email which uses only 7 bit codes
old Japanese UNIX standard 8 bit code and completely different from
eucJP
Shift-JIS
Shift-JIS JIS X 0208 Appendix 1 standard for Japanese (see CP932)

Table 11.2: List of encoding values and their usage

Debian Reference 199 / 231

Note
Some encodings are only supported for the data conversion and are not used as locale values (Section 8.1).

For character sets which fit in single byte such as ASCII and ISO-8859 character sets, the character encoding means almost the
same thing as the character set.
For character sets with many characters such as JIS X 0213 for Japanese or Universal Character Set (UCS, Unicode, ISO-10646-1)
for practically all languages, there are many encoding schemes to fit them into the sequence of the byte data.

• EUC and ISO/IEC 2022 (also known as JIS X 0202) for Japanese
• UTF-8, UTF-16/UCS-2 and UTF-32/UCS-4 for Unicode

For these, there are clear differentiations between the character set and the character encoding.
The code page is used as the synonym to the character encoding tables for some vendor specific ones.

Note
Please note most encoding systems share the same code with ASCII for the 7 bit characters. But there are some
exceptions. If you are converting old Japanese C programs and URLs data from the casually-called shift-JIS
encoding format to UTF-8 format, use ”CP932” as the encoding name instead of ”shift-JIS” to get the expected
results: 0x5C → ”\” and 0x7E → ”~”. Otherwise, these are converted to wrong characters.

Tip
recode(1) may be used too and offers more than the combined functionality of iconv(1), fromdos(1), todos(1),
frommac(1), and tomac(1). For more, see ”info recode”.

11.1.2 Checking file to be UTF-8 with iconv

You can check if a text file is encoded in UTF-8 with iconv(1) by the following.
$ iconv -f utf8 -t utf8 input.txt >/dev/null || echo ”non-UTF-8 found”

Tip
Use ”--verbose” option in the above example to find the first non-UTF-8 character.

11.1.3 Converting file names with iconv

Here is an example script to convert encoding of file names from ones created under older OS to modern UTF-8 ones in a single
directory.
#!/bin/sh
ENCDN=iso-8859-1
for x in *;
do
mv ”$x” ”$(echo ”$x” | iconv -f $ENCDN -t utf-8)”
done

The ”$ENCDN” variable specifies the original encoding used for file names under older OS as in Table 11.2.
For more complicated case, please mount a filesystem (e.g. a partition on a disk drive) containing such file names with proper
encoding as the mount(8) option (see Section 8.1.3) and copy its entire contents to another filesystem mounted as UTF-8 with
”cp -a” command.
Debian Reference 200 / 231

11.1.4 EOL conversion

The text file format, specifically the end-of-line (EOL) code, is dependent on the platform.

platform EOL code control decimal hexadecimal

Debian (unix) LF ^J 10 0A
MSDOS and
CR-LF ^M^J 13 10 0D 0A
Windows
Apple’s Macintosh CR ^M 13 0D

Table 11.3: List of EOL styles for different platforms

The EOL format conversion programs, fromdos(1), todos(1), frommac(1), and tomac(1), are quite handy. recode(1) is
also useful.

Note
Some data on the Debian system, such as the wiki page data for the python-moinmoin package, use MSDOS
style CR-LF as the EOL code. So the above rule is just a general rule.

Note
Most editors (eg. vim, emacs, gedit, …) can handle files in MSDOS style EOL transparently.

Tip
The use of ”sed -e ’/\r$/!s/$/\r/’” instead of todos(1) is better when you want to unify the EOL style to
the MSDOS style from the mixed MSDOS and Unix style. (e.g., after merging 2 MSDOS style files with diff3(1).)
This is because todos adds CR to all lines.

11.1.5 TAB conversion

There are few popular specialized programs to convert the tab codes.

function bsdmainutils coreutils

expand tab to spaces ”col -x” expand
unexpand tab from spaces ”col -h” unexpand

Table 11.4: List of TAB conversion commands from bsdmainutils and coreutils packages

indent(1) from the indent package completely reformats whitespaces in the C program.
Editor programs such as vim and emacs can be used for TAB conversion, too. For example with vim, you can expand
TAB with ”:set expandtab” and ”:%retab” command sequence. You can revert this with ”:set noexpandtab” and
”:%retab!” command sequence.

11.1.6 Editors with auto-conversion

Intelligent modern editors such as the vim program are quite smart and copes well with any encoding systems and any file formats.
You should use these editors under the UTF-8 locale in the UTF-8 capable console for the best compatibility.
An old western European Unix text file, ”u-file.txt”, stored in the latin1 (iso-8859-1) encoding can be edited simply with
vim by the following.
Debian Reference 201 / 231

$ vim u-file.txt

This is possible since the auto detection mechanism of the file encoding in vim assumes the UTF-8 encoding first and, if it fails,
assumes it to be latin1.
An old Polish Unix text file, ”pu-file.txt”, stored in the latin2 (iso-8859-2) encoding can be edited with vim by the follow-
ing.
$ vim ’+e ++enc=latin2 pu-file.txt’

An old Japanese unix text file, ”ju-file.txt”, stored in the eucJP encoding can be edited with vim by the following.
$ vim ’+e ++enc=eucJP ju-file.txt’

An old Japanese MS-Windows text file, ”jw-file.txt”, stored in the so called shift-JIS encoding (more precisely: CP932)
can be edited with vim by the following.
$ vim ’+e ++enc=CP932 ++ff=dos jw-file.txt’

When a file is opened with ”++enc” and ”++ff” options, ”:w” in the Vim command line stores it in the original format and over-
write the original file. You can also specify the saving format and the file name in the Vim command line, e.g., ”:w ++enc=utf8
new.txt”.
Please refer to the mbyte.txt ”multi-byte text support” in vim on-line help and Table 11.2 for locale values used with ”++enc”.
The emacs family of programs can perform the equivalent functions.

11.1.7 Plain text extraction

The following reads a web page into a text file. This is very useful when copying configurations off the Web or applying basic
Unix text tools such as grep(1) on the web page.
$ w3m -dump http://www.remote-site.com/help-info.html >textfile

Similarly, you can extract plain text data from other formats using the following.

package popcon size keyword function

HTML to text converter with the ”w3m -dump”
w3m V:26, I:233 2367 html→text
command
html2text V:3, I:27 274 html→text advanced HTML to text converter (ISO 8859-1)
HTML to text converter with the ”lynx -dump”
lynx V:13, I:92 1949 html→text
command
HTML to text converter with the ”elinks -dump”
elinks V:5, I:26 1767 html→text
command
HTML to text converter with the ”links -dump”
links V:5, I:36 2286 html→text
command
HTML to text converter with the ”links2 -dump”
links2 V:1, I:13 5459 html→text
command
catdoc V:21, I:129 683 MSWord→text,TeX
convert MSWord files to plain text or TeX
antiword V:1, I:9 589 MSWord→text,ps
convert MSWord files to plain text or ps
pstotext V:0, I:2 126 ps/pdf→text extract text from PostScript and PDF files
unhtml V:0, I:0 43 html→text remove the markup tags from an HTML file
odt2txt V:1, I:10 60 odt→text converter from OpenDocument Text to text

Table 11.5: List of tools to extract plain text data

Debian Reference 202 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

Vim MACRO to convert source code to HTML with
vim-runtime V:18, I:427 32689 highlight
”:source $VIMRUNTIME/syntax/html.vim”
converter for the C program to latex and HTML (C
cxref V:0, I:0 1193 c→html
language)
src2tex V:0, I:0 622 highlight convert many source codes to TeX (C language)
convert many source codes to HTML, XHTML,
source-highlight
V:0, I:7 1991 highlight LaTeX, Texinfo, ANSI color escape sequences and
DocBook files with highlight (C++)
convert many source codes to HTML, XHTML, RTF,
highlight V:0, I:9 1083 highlight
LaTeX, TeX or XSL-FO files with highlight (C++)
grc V:0, I:4 208 text→color generic colouriser for everything (Python)
python-docutils ReStructured Text document formatter to XML
V:7, I:92 1771 text→any
(Python)
pandoc V:9, I:47 151714 text→any general markup converter (Haskell)
markdown text document formatter to (X)HTML
markdown V:0, I:10 57 text→html
(Perl)
txt2html V:0, I:3 259 text→html text to HTML converter (Perl)
AsciiDoc text document formatter to XML/HTML
asciidoc I:12 35 text→any
(Python)

Table 11.6: List of tools to highlight plain text data

11.1.8 Highlighting and formatting plain text data

You can highlight and format plain text data by the following.

11.2 XML data

The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language for documents containing structured information.
See introductory information at XML.COM.

• ”What is XML?”

• ”What Is XSLT?”
• ”What Is XSL-FO?”
• ”What Is XLink?”

11.2.1 Basic hints for XML

XML text looks somewhat like HTML. It enables us to manage multiple formats of output for a document. One easy XML system
is the docbook-xsl package, which is used here.
Each XML file starts with standard XML declaration as the following.
?xml version=”1.0” encoding=”UTF-8”?

The basic syntax for one XML element is marked up as the following.
name attribute=”value”content/name

XML element with empty content is marked up in the following short form.
Debian Reference 203 / 231

name attribute=”value”/

The ”attribute=”value”” in the above examples are optional.

The comment section in XML is marked up as the following.
!-- comment --

Other than adding markups, XML requires minor conversion to the content using predefined entities for following characters.

predefined entity character to be converted into

&quot; ” : quote
&apos; ’ : apostrophe
&lt; < : less-than
&gt; > : greater-than
&amp; & : ampersand

Table 11.7: List of predefined entities for XML

Caution
”<” or ”&” can not be used in attributes or elements.

Note
When SGML style user defined entities, e.g. ”&some-tag:”, are used, the first definition wins over others. The
entity definition is expressed in ”!ENTITY some-tag ”entity value””.

Note
As long as the XML markup are done consistently with certain set of the tag name (either some data as content or
attribute value), conversion to another XML is trivial task using Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations
(XSLT).

11.2.2 XML processing

There are many tools available to process XML files such as the Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL).
Basically, once you create well formed XML file, you can convert it to any format using Extensible Stylesheet Language Trans-
formations (XSLT).
The Extensible Stylesheet Language for Formatting Objects (XSL-FO) is supposed to be solution for formatting. The fop
package is new to the Debian main archive due to its dependence to the Java programing language. So the LaTeX code is usually
generated from XML using XSLT and the LaTeX system is used to create printable file such as DVI, PostScript, and PDF.
Since XML is subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), it can be processed by the extensive tools available
for SGML, such as Document Style Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL).

Tip
GNOME’s yelp is sometimes handy to read DocBook XML files directly since it renders decently on X.
Debian Reference 204 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

docbook-xml I:338 2134 xml XML document type definition (DTD) for DocBook
XSL stylesheets for processing DocBook XML to
docbook-xsl V:12, I:153 14870 xml/xslt
various output formats with XSLT
XSLT command line processor (XML→ XML,
xsltproc V:14, I:94 160 xslt
HTML, plain text, etc.)
xmlto V:1, I:20 130 xml/xslt XML-to-any converter with XSLT
fop V:1, I:19 291 xml/xsl-fo convert Docbook XML files to PDF
convert Docbook files to DVI, PostScript, PDF
dblatex V:3, I:14 4643 xml/xslt
documents with XSLT
dbtoepub V:0, I:0 37 xml/xslt DocBook XML to .epub converter

Table 11.8: List of XML tools

package popcon size keyword description

ISO/IEC 10179:1996 standard DSSSL processor
openjade V:2, I:35 1019 dsssl
(latest)
DSSSL stylesheets for processing DocBook XML to
docbook-dsssl V:1, I:19 2604 xml/dsssl
various output formats with DSSSL
utilities for DocBook files including conversion to
docbook-utils V:0, I:14 281 xml/dsssl other formats (HTML, RTF, PS, man, PDF) with
docbook2* commands with DSSSL
converter from SGML and XML using DSSSL
sgml2x V:0, I:0 90 SGML/dsssl
stylesheets

Table 11.9: List of DSSSL tools

package popcon size keyword description

man2html V:0, I:2 138 manpage→htmlconverter from manpage to HTML (CGI support)
doclifter V:0, I:0 451 troff→xml converter from troff to DocBook XML
texi2html V:0, I:7 1833 texi→html converter from Texinfo to HTML
info2www V:1, I:3 76 info→html converter from GNU info to HTML (CGI support)
document converter from Microsoft Word to HTML,
wv V:0, I:6 717 MSWord→any
LaTeX, etc.
unrtf V:0, I:3 148 rtf→html document converter from RTF to HTML, etc
converter from OpenOffice.org SXW documents to
ooo2dbk V:0, I:0 217 sxw→xml
DocBook XML
WordPerfect 5.0 and 5.1 files to TeX, LaTeX, troff,
wp2x V:0, I:0 202 WordPerfect→any
GML and HTML

Table 11.10: List of XML data extraction tools

Debian Reference 205 / 231

11.2.3 The XML data extraction

You can extract HTML or XML data from other formats using followings.

11.2.4 The XML data lint

For non-XML HTML files, you can convert them to XHTML which is an instance of well formed XML. XHTML can be processed
by XML tools.
Syntax of XML files and goodness of URLs found in them may be checked.

package popcon size function description

command line XML tool with xmllint(1) (syntax
libxml2-utils V:21, I:230 182 xml↔html↔xhtml
check, reformat, lint, …)
tidy V:1, I:12 84 xml↔html↔xhtml
HTML syntax checker and reformatter
weblint-perl V:0, I:1 32 lint syntax and minimal style checker for HTML
linklint V:0, I:0 344 link check fast link checker and web site maintenance tool

Table 11.11: List of XML pretty print tools

Once proper XML is generated, you can use XSLT technology to extract data based on the mark-up context etc.

11.3 Type setting

The Unix troff program originally developed by AT&T can be used for simple typesetting. It is usually used to create manpages.
TeX created by Donald Knuth is a very powerful type setting tool and is the de facto standard. LaTeX originally written by Leslie
Lamport enables a high-level access to the power of TeX.

package popcon size keyword description

texlive V:4, I:46 72 (La)TeX TeX system for typesetting, previewing and printing
groff V:3, I:55 11862 troff GNU troff text-formatting system

Table 11.12: List of type setting tools

11.3.1 roff typesetting

Traditionally, roff is the main Unix text processing system. See roff(7), groff(7), groff(1), grotty(1), troff(1),
groff_mdoc(7), groff_man(7), groff_ms(7), groff_me(7), groff_mm(7), and ”info groff”.
You can read or print a good tutorial and reference on ”-me” macro in ”/usr/share/doc/groff/” by installing the groff
package.

Tip
”groff -Tascii -me -” produces plain text output with ANSI escape code. If you wish to get manpage like
output with many ”^H” and ”_”, use ”GROFF_NO_SGR=1 groff -Tascii -me -” instead.

Tip
To remove ”^H” and ”_” from a text file generated by groff, filter it by ”col -b -x”.
Debian Reference 206 / 231

11.3.2 TeX/LaTeX

The TeX Live software distribution offers a complete TeX system. The texlive metapackage provides a decent selection of
the TeX Live packages which should suffice for the most common tasks.
There are many references available for TeX and LaTeX.

• The teTeX HOWTO: The Linux-teTeX Local Guide

• tex(1)
• latex(1)
• texdoc(1)
• texdoctk(1)
• ”The TeXbook”, by Donald E. Knuth, (Addison-Wesley)
• ”LaTeX - A Document Preparation System”, by Leslie Lamport, (Addison-Wesley)
• ”The LaTeX Companion”, by Goossens, Mittelbach, Samarin, (Addison-Wesley)

This is the most powerful typesetting environment. Many SGML processors use this as their back end text processor. Lyx
provided by the lyx package and GNU TeXmacs provided by the texmacs package offer nice WYSIWYG editing environment
for LaTeX while many use Emacs and Vim as the choice for the source editor.
There are many online resources available.

• The TEX Live Guide - TEX Live 2007 (”/usr/share/doc/texlive-doc-base/english/texlive-en/live.html”)

(texlive-doc-base package)
• A Simple Guide to Latex/Lyx
• Word Processing Using LaTeX
• Local User Guide to teTeX/LaTeX

When documents become bigger, sometimes TeX may cause errors. You must increase pool size in ”/etc/texmf/texmf.cnf”
(or more appropriately edit ”/etc/texmf/texmf.d/95NonPath” and run update-texmf(8)) to fix this.

Note
The TeX source of ”The TeXbook” is available at http://tug.ctan.org/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/tex/texbook.tex.
This file contains most of the required macros. I heard that you can process this document with tex(1) after
commenting lines 7 to 10 and adding ”\input manmac \proofmodefalse”. It’s strongly recommended to buy
this book (and all other books from Donald E. Knuth) instead of using the online version but the source is a great
example of TeX input!

11.3.3 Pretty print a manual page

You can print a manual page in PostScript nicely by one of the following commands.
$ man -Tps some_manpage | lpr

11.3.4 Creating a manual page

Although writing a manual page (manpage) in the plain troff format is possible, there are few helper packages to create it.
Debian Reference 207 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

docbook-to-man V:0, I:12 191 SGML→manpage converter from DocBook SGML into roff man macros
help2man V:0, I:9 491 text→manpage automatic manpage generator from --help
info2man V:0, I:0 135 info→manpage converter from GNU info to POD or man pages
txt2man V:0, I:1 114 text→manpage convert flat ASCII text to man page format

Table 11.13: List of packages to help creating the manpage

11.4 Printable data

Printable data is expressed in the PostScript format on the Debian system. Common Unix Printing System (CUPS) uses Ghostscript
as its rasterizer backend program for non-PostScript printers.

11.4.1 Ghostscript
The core of printable data manipulation is the Ghostscript PostScript (PS) interpreter which generates raster image.

package popcon size description

ghostscript V:228, I:547 234 The GPL Ghostscript PostScript/PDF interpreter
ghostscript-x V:10, I:61 230 GPL Ghostscript PostScript/PDF interpreter - X display support
libpoppler102 V:123, I:232 4274 PDF rendering library forked from the xpdf PDF viewer
libpoppler-glib8
V:252, I:483 445 PDF rendering library (GLib-based shared library)
poppler-data V:105, I:627 13089 CMaps for PDF rendering library (for CJK support: Adobe-*)

Table 11.14: List of Ghostscript PostScript interpreters

Tip
”gs -h” can display the configuration of Ghostscript.

11.4.2 Merge two PS or PDF files

You can merge two PostScript (PS) or Portable Document Format (PDF) files using gs(1) of Ghostscript.
$ gs -q -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pswrite -sOutputFile=bla.ps -f foo1.ps foo2.ps
$ gs -q -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -sOutputFile=bla.pdf -f foo1.pdf foo2.pdf

Note
The PDF, which is a widely used cross-platform printable data format, is essentially the compressed PS format with
few additional features and extensions.

Tip
For command line, psmerge(1) and other commands from the psutils package are useful for manipulating
PostScript documents. pdftk(1) from the pdftk package is useful for manipulating PDF documents, too.

11.4.3 Printable data utilities

The following packages for the printable data utilities caught my eyes.
Debian Reference 208 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

pdf→ps,text, PDF utilities: pdftops, pdfinfo, pdfimages,
poppler-utils V:216, I:384 689
… pdftotext, pdffonts
psutils V:6, I:94 219 ps→ps PostScript document conversion tools
poster V:0, I:4 58 ps→ps create large posters out of PostScript pages
text→ps, convert ASCII text to PostScript, HTML, RTF or
enscript V:1, I:18 2132
html, rtf Pretty-Print
a2ps V:1, I:13 3648 text→ps ’Anything to PostScript’ converter and pretty-printer
pdftk I:49 28 pdf→pdf PDF document conversion tool: pdftk
html2ps V:0, I:3 261 html→ps converter from HTML to PostScript
gnuhtml2latex V:0, I:1 27 html→latex converter from html to latex
convert documents from LaTeX to RTF which can be
latex2rtf V:0, I:6 480 latex→rtf
read by MS Word
converter from PostScript to EPS (Encapsulated
ps2eps V:3, I:59 99 ps→eps
PostScript)
Text to PostScript converter with Japanese encoding
e2ps V:0, I:0 109 text→ps
support
impose+ V:0, I:0 119 ps→ps PostScript utilities
pretty print many source codes (C, C++, Java, Pascal,
trueprint V:0, I:0 146 text→ps
Perl, Pike, Sh, and Verilog) to PostScript. (C language)
pdf2svg V:0, I:4 30 ps→svg converter from PDF to Scalable vector graphics format
pdftoipe V:0, I:0 71 ps→ipe converter from PDF to IPE’s XML format

Table 11.15: List of printable data utilities

11.4.4 Printing with CUPS

Both lp(1) and lpr(1) commands offered by Common Unix Printing System (CUPS) provides options for customized printing
the printable data.
You can print 3 copies of a file collated using one of the following commands.
$ lp -n 3 -o Collate=True filename

$ lpr -#3 -o Collate=True filename

You can further customize printer operation by using printer option such as ”-o number-up=2”, ”-o page-set=even”,
”-o page-set=odd”, ”-o scaling=200”, ”-o natural-scaling=200”, etc., documented at Command-Line Print-
ing and Options.

11.5 The mail data conversion

The following packages for the mail data conversion caught my eyes.

Tip
The Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) server may be used to move mails out from proprietary
mail systems if the mail client software can be configured to use IMAP4 server too.

11.5.1 Mail data basics

Mail (SMTP) data should be limited to series of 7 bit data. So binary data and 8 bit text data are encoded into 7 bit format with
the Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) and the selection of the charset (see Table 11.2).
Debian Reference 209 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

sharutils V:4, I:48 1421 mail shar(1), unshar(1), uuencode(1), uudecode(1)
encoding and decoding of MIME messages:
mpack V:1, I:16 107 MIME
mpack(1) and munpack(1)
unpacking MIME attachments of type
tnef V:1, I:9 110 ms-tnef
”application/ms-tnef” which is a Microsoft only format
encoder and decoder for the following formats:
uudeview V:0, I:4 109 mail uuencode, xxencode, BASE64, quoted printable, and
BinHex

Table 11.16: List of packages to help mail data conversion

The standard mail storage format is mbox formatted according to RFC2822 (updated RFC822). See mbox(5) (provided by the
mutt package).
For European languages, ”Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable” with the ISO-8859-1 charset is usu-
ally used for mail since there are not much 8 bit characters. If European text is encoded in UTF-8, ”Content-Transfer-Encoding:
quoted-printable” is likely to be used since it is mostly 7 bit data.
For Japanese, traditionally ”Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-2022-JP” is usually used for mail to keep
text in 7 bits. But older Microsoft systems may send mail data in Shift-JIS without proper declaration. If Japanese text is encoded
in UTF-8, Base64 is likely to be used since it contains many 8 bit data. The situation of other Asian languages is similar.

Note
If your non-Unix mail data is accessible by a non-Debian client software which can talk to the IMAP4 server, you
may be able to move them out by running your own IMAP4 server.

Note
If you use other mail storage formats, moving them to mbox format is the good first step. The versatile client
program such as mutt(1) may be handy for this.

You can split mailbox contents to each message using procmail(1) and formail(1).
Each mail message can be unpacked using munpack(1) from the mpack package (or other specialized tools) to obtain the MIME
encoded contents.

11.6 Graphic data tools

The following packages for the graphic data conversion, editing, and organization tools caught my eyes.

Tip
Search more image tools using regex ”~Gworks-with::image” in aptitude(8) (see Section 2.2.6).

Although GUI programs such as gimp(1) are very powerful, command line tools such as imagemagick(1) are quite useful for
automating image manipulation via scripts.
The de facto image file format of the digital camera is the Exchangeable Image File Format (EXIF) which is the JPEG image file
format with additional metadata tags. It can hold information such as date, time, and camera settings.
The Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) lossless data compression patent has been expired. Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) utilities
which use the LZW compression method are now freely available on the Debian system.
Debian Reference 210 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

gimp V:63, I:312 19729 image(bitmap) GNU Image Manipulation Program
imagemagick I:365 220 image(bitmap) image manipulation programs
image manipulation programs (fork of
graphicsmagick V:3, I:16 5242 image(bitmap)
imagemagick)
GTK-based X11 frontend for SANE (Scanner Access
xsane V:16, I:165 2346 image(bitmap)
Now Easy)
netpbm V:29, I:374 5056 image(bitmap) graphics conversion tools
convert MS Windows icons and cursors to and from
icoutils V:14, I:92 221 png↔ico(bitmap)
PNG formats (favicon.ico)
ps/pdf/SVG/
scribus V:2, I:22 31781 Scribus DTP editor
…
libreoffice-draw
V:133, I:433 14469 image(vector) LibreOffice office suite - drawing
inkscape V:38, I:178 89027 image(vector) SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) editor
dia V:4, I:29 3620 image(vector) diagram editor (Gtk)
Facility for Interactive Generation of figures under
xfig V:2, I:14 6334 image(vector)
X11
PostScript and PDF files to editable vector graphics
pstoedit V:3, I:82 988 ps/pdf→image(vector)
converter (SVG)
Windows metafile (vector graphic data) conversion
libwmf-bin V:8, I:185 114 Windows/image(vector)
tools
fig2sxd V:0, I:0 149 fig→sxd(vector)convert XFig files to OpenOffice.org Draw format
unpaper V:2, I:18 460 image→image post-processing tool for scanned pages for OCR
free OCR software based on the HP’s commercial
tesseract-ocr V:8, I:36 1507 image→text
OCR engine
tesseract-ocr-eng OCR engine data: tesseract-ocr language files for
V:6, I:36 4032 image→text
English text
gocr V:1, I:11 531 image→text free OCR software
ocrad V:0, I:4 303 image→text free OCR software
eog V:66, I:271 9953 image(Exif) Eye of GNOME graphics viewer program
gthumb V:5, I:20 5341 image(Exif) image viewer and browser (GNOME)
geeqie V:6, I:19 14736 image(Exif) image viewer using GTK
shotwell V:18, I:237 6454 image(Exif) digital photo organizer (GNOME)
application for retrieving media from digital cameras
gtkam V:0, I:5 1154 image(Exif)
(GTK)
gphoto2 V:1, I:11 955 image(Exif) The gphoto2 digital camera command-line client
gwenview V:28, I:97 10982 image(Exif) image viewer (KDE)
kamera I:96 854 image(Exif) digital camera support for KDE applications
digikam V:2, I:12 2647 image(Exif) digital photo management application for KDE
exiv2 V:3, I:38 317 image(Exif) EXIF/IPTC metadata manipulation tool
exiftran V:1, I:19 70 image(Exif) transform digital camera jpeg images
manipulate the non-image part of Exif compliant JPEG
jhead V:1, I:10 131 image(Exif)
(digital camera photo) files
command-line utility to show EXIF information in
exif V:1, I:15 339 image(Exif)
JPEG files
exiftags V:0, I:4 292 image(Exif) utility to read Exif tags from a digital camera JPEG file
exifprobe V:0, I:4 499 image(Exif) read metadata from digital pictures
dcraw V:2, I:17 535 image(Raw)→ppm decode raw digital camera images
findimagedupes V:0, I:1 77 image→fingerprint
find visually similar or duplicate images
ale V:0, I:0 839 image→image merge images to increase fidelity or create mosaics
imageindex V:0, I:2 145 image(Exif)→html
generate static HTML galleries from images
outguess V:0, I:2 231 jpeg,png universal Steganographic tool
librecad V:2, I:17 7893 DXF CAD data editor (KDE)
blend, TIFF,
blender V:3, I:36 87533 3D content editor for animation etc
VRML, …
ms3d, obj,
mm3d V:0, I:0 3778 OpenGL based 3D model editor
dxf, …
open-font-design-toolkit
I:0 10 ttf, ps, … metapackage for open font design
fontforge V:0, I:7 4191 ttf, ps, … font editor for PS, TrueType and OpenType fonts
xgridfit V:0, I:0 806 ttf program for gridfitting and hinting TrueType fonts
Debian Reference 211 / 231

Tip
Any digital camera or scanner with removable recording media works with Linux through USB storage readers
since it follows the Design rule for Camera Filesystem and uses FAT filesystem. See Section 10.1.7.

11.7 Miscellaneous data conversion

There are many other programs for converting data. Following packages caught my eyes using regex ”~Guse::converting”
in aptitude(8) (see Section 2.2.6).

package popcon size keyword description

converter for the foreign package into the Debian
alien V:2, I:29 163 rpm/tgz→deb
package
converter from ”Electric Book” (popular in Japan) to a
freepwing V:0, I:0 421 EB→EPWING
single JIS X 4081 format (a subset of the EPWING V1)
calibre V:8, I:34 55463 any→EPUB e-book converter and library management

Table 11.18: List of miscellaneous data conversion tools

You can also extract data from RPM format with the following.
$ rpm2cpio file.src.rpm | cpio --extract
Debian Reference 212 / 231

Chapter 12

Programming

I provide some pointers for people to learn programming on the Debian system enough to trace the packaged source code. Here
are notable packages and corresponding documentation packages for programming.
Online references are available by typing ”man name” after installing manpages and manpages-dev packages. Online
references for the GNU tools are available by typing ”info program_name” after installing the pertinent documentation
packages. You may need to include the contrib and non-free archives in addition to the main archive since some GFDL
documentations are not considered to be DFSG compliant.
Please consider to use version control system tools. See Section 10.5.

Warning
Do not use ”test” as the name of an executable test file. ”test” is a shell builtin.

Caution
You should install software programs directly compiled from source into ”/usr/local” or ”/opt” to avoid
collision with system programs.

Tip
Code examples of creating ”Song 99 Bottles of Beer” should give you good ideas of practically all the programming
languages.

12.1 The shell script

The shell script is a text file with the execution bit set and contains the commands in the following format.
#!/bin/sh
... command lines

The first line specifies the shell interpreter which read and execute this file contents.
Reading shell scripts is the best way to understand how a Unix-like system works. Here, I give some pointers and reminders for
shell programming. See ”Shell Mistakes” (http://www.greenend.org.uk/rjk/2001/04/shell.html) to learn from mistakes.
Unlike shell interactive mode (see Section 1.5 and Section 1.6), shell scripts frequently use parameters, conditionals, and loops.
Debian Reference 213 / 231

12.1.1 POSIX shell compatibility

Many system scripts may be interpreted by any one of POSIX shells (see Table 1.13).

• The default non-interactive POSIX shell ”/bin/sh” is a symlink pointing to /usr/bin/dash and used by many system
programs.
• The default interactive POSIX shell is /usr/bin/bash.

Avoid writing a shell script with bashisms or zshisms to make it portable among all POSIX shells. You can check it using
checkbashisms(1).

Good: POSIX Avoid: bashism

if [ ”$foo” = ”$bar” ] ; then … if [ ”$foo” == ”$bar” ] ; then …
diff -u file.c.orig file.c diff -u file.c{.orig,}
mkdir /foobar /foobaz mkdir /foo{bar,baz}
funcname() { …} function funcname() { …}
octal format: ”\377” hexadecimal format: ”\xff”

Table 12.1: List of typical bashisms

The ”echo” command must be used with following cares since its implementation differs among shell builtin and external
commands.

• Avoid using any command options except ”-n”.

• Avoid using escape sequences in the string since their handling varies.

Note
Although ”-n” option is not really POSIX syntax, it is generally accepted.

Tip
Use the ”printf” command instead of the ”echo” command if you need to embed escape sequences in the output
string.

12.1.2 Shell parameters

Special shell parameters are frequently used in the shell script.

shell parameter value

$0 name of the shell or shell script
$1 first (1st) shell argument
$9 ninth (9th) shell argument
$# number of positional parameters
”$*” ”$1 $2 $3 $4 …”
”$@” ”$1” ”$2” ”$3” ”$4” …
$? exit status of the most recent command
$$ PID of this shell script
$! PID of most recently started background job

Table 12.2: List of shell parameters

Basic parameter expansions to remember are as follows.

Here, the colon ”:” in all of these operators is actually optional.
Debian Reference 214 / 231

parameter expression form value if var is set value if var is not set
${var:-string} ”$var” ”string”
${var:+string} ”string” ”null”
${var:=string} ”$var” ”string” (and run ”var=string”)
echo ”string” to stderr (and exit with
${var:?string} ”$var”
error)

Table 12.3: List of shell parameter expansions

• with ”:” = operator test for exist and not null

• without ”:” = operator test for exist only

parameter substitution form result

${var%suffix} remove smallest suffix pattern
${var%%suffix} remove largest suffix pattern
${var#prefix} remove smallest prefix pattern
${var##prefix} remove largest prefix pattern

Table 12.4: List of key shell parameter substitutions

12.1.3 Shell conditionals

Each command returns an exit status which can be used for conditional expressions.

• Success: 0 (”True”)
• Error: non 0 (”False”)

Note
”0” in the shell conditional context means ”True”, while ”0” in the C conditional context means ”False”.

Note
”[” is the equivalent of the test command, which evaluates its arguments up to ”]” as a conditional expression.

Basic conditional idioms to remember are the following.

• ”command && if_success_run_this_command_too || true”

• ”command || if_not_success_run_this_command_too || true”
• A multi-line script snippet as the following

if [ conditional_expression ]; then
if_success_run_this_command
else
if_not_success_run_this_command
fi

Here trailing ”|| true” was needed to ensure this shell script does not exit at this line accidentally when shell is invoked with
”-e” flag.
Arithmetic integer comparison operators in the conditional expression are ”-eq”, ”-ne”, ”-lt”, ”-le”, ”-gt”, and ”-ge”.
Debian Reference 215 / 231

equation condition to return logical true

-e file file exists
-d file file exists and is a directory
-f file file exists and is a regular file
-w file file exists and is writable
-x file file exists and is executable
file1 -nt file2 file1 is newer than file2 (modification)
file1 -ot file2 file1 is older than file2 (modification)
file1 -ef file2 file1 and file2 are on the same device and the same inode number

Table 12.5: List of file comparison operators in the conditional expression

equation condition to return logical true

-z str the length of str is zero
-n str the length of str is non-zero
str1 = str2 str1 and str2 are equal
str1 != str2 str1 and str2 are not equal
str1 < str2 str1 sorts before str2 (locale dependent)
str1 > str2 str1 sorts after str2 (locale dependent)

Table 12.6: List of string comparison operators in the conditional expression

12.1.4 Shell loops

There are several loop idioms to use in POSIX shell.

• ”for x in foo1 foo2 …; do command ; done” loops by assigning items from the list ”foo1 foo2 …” to
variable ”x” and executing ”command”.
• ”while condition ; do command ; done” repeats ”command” while ”condition” is true.
• ”until condition ; do command ; done” repeats ”command” while ”condition” is not true.
• ”break” enables to exit from the loop.
• ”continue” enables to resume the next iteration of the loop.

Tip
The C-language like numeric iteration can be realized by using seq(1) as the ”foo1 foo2 …” generator.

Tip
See Section 9.4.9.

12.1.5 Shell environment variables

Some popular environment variables for the normal shell command prompt may not be available under the execution environment
of your script.

• For ”$USER”, use ”$(id -un)”

• For ”$UID”, use ”$(id -u)”
• For ”$HOME”, use ”$(getent passwd ”$(id -u)”|cut -d ”:” -f 6)” (this works also on Section 4.5.2)
Debian Reference 216 / 231

12.1.6 The shell command-line processing sequence

The shell processes a script roughly as the following sequence.

• The shell reads a line.

• The shell groups a part of the line as one token if it is within ”…” or ’…’.
• The shell splits other part of a line into tokens by the following.
– Whitespaces: space tab newline
– Metacharacters: | ; & ( )

• The shell checks the reserved word for each token to adjust its behavior if not within ”…” or ’…’.
– reserved word: if then elif else fi for in while unless do done case esac
• The shell expands alias if not within ”…” or ’…’.
• The shell expands tilde if not within ”…” or ’…’.

– ”~” → current user’s home directory

– ”~user” → user’s home directory
• The shell expands parameter to its value if not within ’…’.
– parameter: ”$PARAMETER” or ”${PARAMETER}”

• The shell expands command substitution if not within ’…’.

– ”$( command )” → the output of ”command”
– ” ̀ command  ̀” → the output of ”command”

• The shell expands pathname glob to matching file names if not within ”…” or ’…’.
– * → any characters
– ? → one character
– […] → any one of the characters in ”…”

• The shell looks up command from the following and execute it.
– function definition
– builtin command
– executable file in ”$PATH”

• The shell goes to the next line and repeats this process again from the top of this sequence.

Single quotes within double quotes have no effect.

Executing ”set -x” in the shell or invoking the shell with ”-x” option make the shell to print all of commands executed. This
is quite handy for debugging.
Debian Reference 217 / 231

package popcon size description

dash V:894, I:994 222 small and fast POSIX-compliant shell for sh
coreutils V:892, I:999 17372 GNU core utilities
grep V:820, I:999 1118 GNU grep, egrep and fgrep
sed V:814, I:999 912 GNU sed
mawk V:392, I:997 242 small and fast awk
debianutils V:921, I:999 213 miscellaneous utilities specific to Debian
bsdutils V:681, I:999 402 basic utilities from 4.4BSD-Lite
bsdextrautils V:228, I:305 389 extra utilities from 4.4BSD-Lite
moreutils V:11, I:36 237 additional Unix utilities

Table 12.7: List of packages containing small utility programs for shell scripts

12.1.7 Utility programs for shell script

In order to make your shell program as portable as possible across Debian systems, it is a good idea to limit utility programs to
ones provided by essential packages.

• ”aptitude search ~E” lists essential packages.

• ”dpkg -L package_name |grep ’/man/man.*/’” lists manpages for commands offered by package_name pack-
age.

Tip
Although moreutils may not exist outside of Debian, it offers interesting small programs. Most notable one is
sponge(8) which is quite useful when you wish to overwrite original file.

See Section 1.6 for examples.

12.2 Scripting in interpreted languages

package popcon size documentation

dash V:894, I:994 222 sh: small and fast POSIX-compliant shell for sh
bash V:789, I:999 6465 sh: ”info bash” provided by bash-doc
mawk V:392, I:997 242 AWK: small and fast awk
gawk V:340, I:425 2456 AWK: ”info gawk” provided by gawk-doc
Perl: perl(1) and html pages provided by perl-doc and
perl V:600, I:991 705
perl-doc-html
libterm-readline-gnu-perl
V:2, I:29 379 Perl extension for the GNU ReadLine/History Library: perlsh(1)
libreply-perl V:0, I:0 170 REPL for Perl: reply(1)
libdevel-repl-perl
V:0, I:0 237 REPL for Perl: re.pl(1)
python3 V:675, I:910 90 Python: python3(1) and html pages provided by python3-doc
tcl V:27, I:342 22 Tcl: tcl(3) and detail manual pages provided by tcl-doc
tk V:26, I:334 22 Tk: tk(3) and detail manual pages provided by tk-doc
ruby V:98, I:288 35 Ruby: ruby(1), erb(1), irb(1), rdoc(1), ri(1)

Table 12.8: List of interpreter related packages

When you wish to automate a task on Debian, you should script it with an interpreted language first. The guide line for the choice
of the interpreted language is:
Debian Reference 218 / 231

• Use dash, if the task is a simple one which combines CLI programs with a shell program.
• Use python3, if the task isn’t a simple one and you are writing it from scratch.
• Use perl, tcl, ruby, ... if there is an existing code using one of these languages on Debian which needs to be touched up to
do the task.

If the resulting code is too slow, you can rewrite only the critical portion for the execution speed in a compiled language and call
it from the interpreted language.

12.2.1 Debugging interpreted language codes

Most interpreters offer basic syntax check and code tracing functionalities.

• “dash -n script.sh”- Syntax check of a Shell script

• “dash -x script.sh”- Trace a Shell script
• “python -m py_compile script.py”- Syntax check of a Python script
• “python -mtrace --trace script.py”- Trace a Python script
• “perl -I ../libpath -c script.pl”- Syntax check of a Perl script
• “perl -d:Trace script.pl”- Trace a Perl script

For testing code for dash, try Section 9.1.4 which accommodates bash-like interactive environment.
For testing code for perl, try REPL environment for Perl which accommodates Python-like REPL (=READ + EVAL + PRINT
+ LOOP) environment for Perl.

12.2.2 GUI program with the shell script

The shell script can be improved to create an attractive GUI program. The trick is to use one of so-called dialog programs instead
of dull interaction using echo and read commands.

package popcon size description

x11-utils V:180, I:589 712 xmessage(1): display a message or query in a window (X)
whiptail V:238, I:996 70 displays user-friendly dialog boxes from shell scripts (newt)
dialog V:14, I:114 1222 displays user-friendly dialog boxes from shell scripts (ncurses)
zenity V:76, I:391 167 display graphical dialog boxes from shell scripts (GTK)
Shell Scripts Frontend Tool (wrapper for zenity, kdialog, and dialog
ssft V:0, I:0 75
with gettext)
gettext V:48, I:295 5843 ”/usr/bin/gettext.sh”: translate message

Table 12.9: List of dialog programs

Here is an example of GUI program to demonstrate how easy it is just with a shell script.
This script uses zenity to select a file (default /etc/motd) and display it.
GUI launcher for this script can be created following Section 9.4.10.
#!/bin/sh -e
# Copyright (C) 2021 Osamu Aoki <osamu@debian.org>, Public Domain
# vim:set sw=2 sts=2 et:
DATA_FILE=$(zenity --file-selection --filename=”/etc/motd” --title=”Select a file to check ←-
”) || \
( echo ”E: File selection error” >&2 ; exit 1 )
Debian Reference 219 / 231

# Check size of archive

if ( file -ib ”$DATA_FILE” | grep -qe ’^text/’ ) ; then
zenity --info --title=”Check file: $DATA_FILE” --width 640 --height 400 \
--text=”$(head -n 20 ”$DATA_FILE”)”
else
zenity --info --title=”Check file: $DATA_FILE” --width 640 --height 400 \
--text=”The data is MIME=$(file -ib ”$DATA_FILE”)”
fi

This kind of approach to GUI program with the shell script is useful only for simple choice cases. If you are to write any program
with complexities, please consider writing it on more capable platform.

12.2.3 Perl short script madness

In order to process data, sh needs to spawn sub-process running cut, grep, sed, etc., and is slow. On the other hand, perl
has internal capabilities to process data, and is fast. So many system maintenance scripts on Debian use perl.
Let’s think following one-liner AWK script snippet and its equivalents in Perl.
awk ’($2==”1957”) { print $3 }’ |

This is equivalent to any one of the following lines.

perl -ne ’@f=split; if ($f[1] eq ”1957”) { print ”$f[2]\n”}’ |

perl -ne ’if ((@f=split)[1] eq ”1957”) { print ”$f[2]\n”}’ |

perl -ne ’@f=split; print $f[2] if ( $f[1]==1957 )’ |

perl -lane ’print $F[2] if $F[1] eq ”1957”’ |

perl -lane ’print$F[2]if$F[1]eq+1957’ |

The last one is a riddle. It took advantage of following Perl features.

• The whitespace is optional.

• The automatic conversion exists from number to the string.
• Perl execution tricks via command line options: perlrun(1)
• Perl special variables: perlvar(1)

This flexibility is the strength of Perl. At the same time, this allows us to create cryptic and tangled codes. So be careful.
For more crazy Perl scripts, Perl Golf may be interesting.

12.3 Coding in compiled languages

Here, Section 12.3.3 and Section 12.3.4 are included to indicate how compiler-like program can be written in C language by
compiling higher level description into C language.
Debian Reference 220 / 231

package popcon size description

gcc V:152, I:584 45 GNU C compiler
libc6-dev V:248, I:601 13480 GNU C Library: Development Libraries and Header Files
g++ V:60, I:511 15 GNU C++ compiler
libstdc++-10-dev
V:29, I:166 17568 GNU Standard C++ Library v3 (development files)
cpp V:325, I:756 42 GNU C preprocessor
gettext V:48, I:295 5843 GNU Internationalization utilities
glade V:0, I:7 1730 GTK User Interface Builder
valac V:0, I:6 698 C# like language for the GObject system
flex V:8, I:86 1279 LEX-compatible fast lexical analyzer generator
bison V:9, I:95 3111 YACC-compatible parser generator
susv2 I:0 16 fetch ”The Single UNIX Specifications v2”
susv3 I:0 16 fetch ”The Single UNIX Specifications v3”
golang I:20 12 Go programming language compiler
rustc V:2, I:12 9018 Rust systems programming language
haskell-platform
I:5 12 Standard Haskell libraries and tools
gfortran V:10, I:90 16 GNU Fortran 95 compiler
122
fpc I:3 Free Pascal
122

Table 12.10: List of compiler related packages

12.3.1 C

You can set up proper environment to compile programs written in the C programming language by the following.
# apt-get install glibc-doc manpages-dev libc6-dev gcc build-essential

The libc6-dev package, i.e., GNU C Library, provides C standard library which is collection of header files and library routines
used by the C programming language.
See references for C as the following.

• ”info libc” (C library function reference)

• gcc(1) and ”info gcc”
• each_C_library_function_name(3)
• Kernighan & Ritchie, ”The C Programming Language”, 2nd edition (Prentice Hall)

12.3.2 Simple C program (gcc)

A simple example ”example.c” can compiled with a library ”libm” into an executable ”run_example” by the following.
$ cat > example.c << EOF
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <string.h>

int main(int argc, char **argv, char **envp){

double x;
char y[11];
x=sqrt(argc+7.5);
strncpy(y, argv[0], 10); /* prevent buffer overflow */
y[10] = ’\0’; /* fill to make sure string ends with ’\0’ */
Debian Reference 221 / 231

printf(”%5i, %5.3f, %10s, %10s\n”, argc, x, y, argv[1]);

return 0;
}
EOF
$ gcc -Wall -g -o run_example example.c -lm
$ ./run_example
1, 2.915, ./run_exam, (null)
$ ./run_example 1234567890qwerty
2, 3.082, ./run_exam, 1234567890qwerty

Here, ”-lm” is needed to link library ”/usr/lib/libm.so” from the libc6 package for sqrt(3). The actual library is in
”/lib/” with filename ”libm.so.6”, which is a symlink to ”libm-2.7.so”.
Look at the last parameter in the output text. There are more than 10 characters even though ”%10s” is specified.
The use of pointer memory operation functions without boundary checks, such as sprintf(3) and strcpy(3), is deprecated
to prevent buffer overflow exploits that leverage the above overrun effects. Instead, use snprintf(3) and strncpy(3).

12.3.3 Flex —a better Lex

Flex is a Lex-compatible fast lexical analyzer generator.

Tutorial for flex(1) can be found in ”info flex”.
You need to provide your own ”main()” and ”yywrap()”. Otherwise, your flex program should look like this to compile
without a library. This is because that ”yywrap” is a macro and ”%option main” turns on ”%option noyywrap” implic-
itly.
%option main
%%
.|\n ECHO ;
%%

Alternatively, you may compile with the ”-lfl” linker option at the end of your cc(1) command line (like AT&T-Lex with
”-ll”). No ”%option” is needed in this case.

12.3.4 Bison —a better Yacc

Several packages provide a Yacc-compatible lookahead LR parser or LALR parser generator in Debian.

package popcon size description

bison V:9, I:95 3111 GNU LALR parser generator
byacc V:0, I:5 160 Berkeley LALR parser generator
btyacc V:0, I:0 243 backtracking parser generator based on byacc

Table 12.11: List of Yacc-compatible LALR parser generators

Tutorial for bison(1) can be found in ”info bison”.

You need to provide your own ”main()” and ”yyerror()”. ”main()” calls ”yyparse()” which calls ”yylex()”, usually
created with Flex.
%%

%%
Debian Reference 222 / 231

12.4 Static code analysis tools

Lint like tools can help automatic static code analysis.

Indent like tools can help human code reviews by reformatting source codes consistently.
Ctags like tools can help human code reviews by generating an index (or tag) file of names found in source codes.

Tip
Configuring your favorite editor (emacs or vim) to use asynchronous lint engine plugins helps your code writing.
These plugins are getting very powerful by taking advantage of Language Server Protocol. Since they are moving
fast, using their upstream code instead of Debian package may be a good option.

package popcon size description

vim-ale I:0 2022 Asynchronous Lint Engine for Vim 8 and NeoVim
vim-syntastic I:3 1240 Syntax checking hacks for vim
elpa-flycheck V:0, I:1 792 modern on-the-fly syntax checking for Emacs
elpa-relint V:0, I:0 133 Emacs Lisp regexp mistake finder
cppcheck-gui V:0, I:1 6099 tool for static C/C++ code analysis (GUI)
shellcheck V:2, I:10 15452 lint tool for shell scripts
pyflakes3 V:1, I:15 23 passive checker of Python 3 programs
pylint V:3, I:16 1580 Python code static checker
perl V:600, I:991 705 interpreter with internal static code checker: B::Lint(3perl)
rubocop V:0, I:0 2390 Ruby static code analyzer
clang-tidy V:1, I:7 22 clang-based C++ linter tool
splint V:0, I:4 2320 tool for statically checking C programs for bugs
flawfinder V:0, I:0 181 tool to examine C/C++ source code and looks for security weaknesses
black V:1, I:5 506 uncompromising Python code formatter
perltidy V:0, I:5 2101 Perl script indenter and reformatter
indent V:0, I:11 425 C language source code formatting program
astyle V:0, I:3 761 Source code indenter for C, C++, Objective-C, C#, and Java
bcpp V:0, I:0 110 C(++) beautifier
xmlindent V:0, I:1 53 XML stream reformatter
global V:0, I:3 1896 Source code search and browse tools
exuberant-ctags
V:4, I:31 349 build tag file indexes of source code definitions

Table 12.12: List of tools for static code analysis

12.5 Debug

Debug is important part of programming activities. Knowing how to debug programs makes you a good Debian user who can
produce meaningful bug reports.

package popcon size documentation

gdb V:15, I:110 9799 ”info gdb” provided by gdb-doc
ddd V:0, I:10 4092 ”info ddd” provided by ddd-doc

Table 12.13: List of debug packages

Debian Reference 223 / 231

12.5.1 Basic gdb execution

Primary debugger on Debian is gdb(1) which enables you to inspect a program while it executes.
Let’s install gdb and related programs by the following.
# apt-get install gdb gdb-doc build-essential devscripts

Good tutorial of gdb can be found:

• “info gdb”
• “Debugging with GDB”in /usr/share/doc/gdb-doc/html/gdb/index.html
• “tutorial on the web”

Here is a simple example of using gdb(1) on a ”program” compiled with the ”-g” option to produce debugging information.
$ gdb program
(gdb) b 1 # set break point at line 1
(gdb) run args # run program with args
(gdb) next # next line
...
(gdb) step # step forward
...
(gdb) p parm # print parm
...
(gdb) p parm=12 # set value to 12
...
(gdb) quit

Tip
Many gdb(1) commands can be abbreviated. Tab expansion works as in the shell.

12.5.2 Debugging the Debian package

Since all installed binaries should be stripped on the Debian system by default, most debugging symbols are removed in the normal
package. In order to debug Debian packages with gdb(1), *-dbgsym packages need to be installed (e.g. coreutils-dbgsym
in the case of coreutils). The source packages generate *-dbgsym packages automatically along with normal binary pack-
ages and those debug packages are placed separately in debian-debug archive. Please refer to articles on Debian Wiki for more
information.
If a package to be debugged does not provide its *-dbgsym package, you need to install it after rebuilding it by the following.
$ mkdir /path/new ; cd /path/new
$ sudo apt-get update
$ sudo apt-get dist-upgrade
$ sudo apt-get install fakeroot devscripts build-essential
$ apt-get source package_name
$ cd package_name*
$ sudo apt-get build-dep ./

Fix bugs if needed.

Bump package version to one which does not collide with official Debian versions, e.g. one appended with ”+debug1” when
recompiling existing package version, or one appended with ”~pre1” when compiling unreleased package version by the fol-
lowing.
Debian Reference 224 / 231

$ dch -i

Compile and install packages with debug symbols by the following.

$ export DEB_BUILD_OPTIONS=”nostrip noopt”
$ debuild
$ cd ..
$ sudo debi package_name*.changes

You need to check build scripts of the package and ensure to use ”CFLAGS=-g -Wall” for compiling binaries.

12.5.3 Obtaining backtrace

When you encounter program crash, reporting bug report with cut-and-pasted backtrace information is a good idea.
The backtrace can be obtained by gdb(1) using one of the following approaches:

• Crash-in-GDB approach:

– Run the program from GDB.

– Crash the program.
– Type ”bt” at the GDB prompt.
• Crash-first approach:

– Update the “/etc/security/limits.conf”file to include the following:

* soft core unlimited

– Type ”ulimit -c unlimited” to the shell prompt.

– Run the program from this shell prompt.
– Crash the program to produce a core dump file.
– Load the core dump file to GDB as ”gdb gdb ./program_binary core” .
– Type ”bt” at the GDB prompt.

For infinite loop or frozen keyboard situation, you can force to crash the program by pressing Ctrl-\ or Ctrl-C or executing
“kill -ABRT PID”. (See Section 9.4.12)

Tip
Often, you see a backtrace where one or more of the top lines are in ”malloc()” or ”g_malloc()”. When this
happens, chances are your backtrace isn’t very useful. The easiest way to find some useful information is to set
the environment variable ”$MALLOC_CHECK_” to a value of 2 (malloc(3)). You can do this while running gdb by
doing the following.
$ MALLOC_CHECK_=2 gdb hello

12.5.4 Advanced gdb commands

12.5.5 Check dependency on libraries

Use ldd(1) to find out a program’s dependency on libraries by the followings.

Debian Reference 225 / 231

command description for command objectives

(gdb) thread apply all bt get a backtrace for all threads for multi-threaded program
(gdb) bt full get parameters came on the stack of function calls
get a backtrace and parameters as the combination of the preceding
(gdb) thread apply all bt full
options
(gdb) thread apply all bt full get a backtrace and parameters for top 10 calls to cut off irrelevant
10 output
(gdb) set logging on write log of gdb output to a file (the default is ”gdb.txt”)

Table 12.14: List of advanced gdb commands

$ ldd /bin/ls
librt.so.1 => /lib/librt.so.1 (0x4001e000)
libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x40030000)
libpthread.so.0 => /lib/libpthread.so.0 (0x40153000)
/lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000)

For ls(1) to work in a  ̀chroot ̀ed environment, the above libraries must be available in your  ̀chroot ̀ed environment.
See Section 9.4.6.

12.5.6 Dynamic call tracing tools

There are several dynamic call tracing tools available in Debian. See Section 9.4.

12.5.7 Debugging X Errors

If a GNOME program preview1 has received an X error, you should see a message as follows.
The program ’preview1’ received an X Window System error.

If this is the case, you can try running the program with ”--sync”, and break on the ”gdk_x_error” function in order to
obtain a backtrace.

12.5.8 Memory leak detection tools

There are several memory leak detection tools available in Debian.

package popcon size description

libc6-dev V:248, I:601 13480 mtrace(1): malloc debugging functionality in glibc
valgrind V:6, I:44 77249 memory debugger and profiler
electric-fence V:0, I:5 72 malloc(3) debugger
libdmalloc5 V:0, I:3 393 debug memory allocation library
library to detect buffer overruns and under-runs in C and C++
duma V:0, I:0 293
programs
leaktracer V:0, I:2 57 memory-leak tracer for C++ programs

Table 12.15: List of memory leak detection tools

Debian Reference 226 / 231

12.5.9 Disassemble binary

You can disassemble binary code with objdump(1) by the following.

$ objdump -m i386 -b binary -D /usr/lib/grub/x86_64-pc/stage1

Note
gdb(1) may be used to disassemble code interactively.

12.6 Build tools

package popcon size documentation

make V:141, I:591 1592 ”info make” provided by make-doc
autoconf V:28, I:270 2033 ”info autoconf” provided by autoconf-doc
automake V:27, I:268 1836 ”info automake” provided by automake1.10-doc
libtool V:22, I:254 1198 ”info libtool” provided by libtool-doc
cmake V:16, I:117 26395 cmake(1) cross-platform, open-source make system
ninja-build V:4, I:30 347 ninja(1) small build system closest in spirit to Make
meson V:2, I:18 3213 meson(1) high productivity build system on top of ninja
xutils-dev V:1, I:11 1466 imake(1), xmkmf(1), etc.

Table 12.16: List of build tool packages

12.6.1 Make

Make is a utility to maintain groups of programs. Upon execution of make(1), make read the rule file, ”Makefile”, and updates
a target if it depends on prerequisite files that have been modified since the target was last modified, or if the target does not exist.
The execution of these updates may occur concurrently.
The rule file syntax is the following.
target: [ prerequisites ... ]
[TAB] command1
[TAB] -command2 # ignore errors
[TAB] @command3 # suppress echoing

Here ”[TAB]” is a TAB code. Each line is interpreted by the shell after make variable substitution. Use ”\” at the end of a line
to continue the script. Use ”$$” to enter ”$” for environment values for a shell script.
Implicit rules for the target and prerequisites can be written, for example, by the following.
%.o: %.c header.h

Here, the target contains the character ”%” (exactly one of them). The ”%” can match any nonempty substring in the actual target
filenames. The prerequisites likewise use ”%” to show how their names relate to the actual target name.
Run ”make -p -f/dev/null” to see automatic internal rules.

12.6.2 Autotools

Autotools is a suite of programming tools designed to assist in making source code packages portable to many Unix-like systems.
Debian Reference 227 / 231

automatic variable value

$@ target
$< first prerequisite
$? all newer prerequisites
$^ all prerequisites
$* ”%” matched stem in the target pattern

Table 12.17: List of make automatic variables

variable expansion description

foo1 := bar one-time expansion
foo2 = bar recursive expansion
foo3 += bar append

Table 12.18: List of make variable expansions

• Autoconf is a tool to produce a shell script ”configure” from ”configure.ac”.

– ”configure” is used later to produce ”Makefile” from ”Makefile.in” template.
• Automake is a tool to produce ”Makefile.in” from ”Makefile.am”.
• Libtool is a shell script to address the software portability problem when compiling shared libraries from source code.

12.6.2.1 Compile and install a program

Warning
Do not overwrite system files with your compiled programs when installing them.

Debian does not touch files in ”/usr/local/” or ”/opt”. So if you compile a program from source, install it into ”/usr/local/”
so it does not interfere with Debian.
$ cd src
$ ./configure --prefix=/usr/local
$ make # this compiles program
$ sudo make install # this installs the files in the system

12.6.2.2 Uninstall program

If you have the original source and if it uses autoconf(1)/automake(1) and if you can remember how you configured it,
execute as follows to uninstall the program.
$ ./configure all-of-the-options-you-gave-it
$ sudo make uninstall

Alternatively, if you are absolutely sure that the install process puts files only under ”/usr/local/” and there is nothing
important there, you can erase all its contents by the following.
# find /usr/local -type f -print0 | xargs -0 rm -f

If you are not sure where files are installed, you should consider using checkinstall(8) from the checkinstall package,
which provides a clean path for the uninstall. It now supports to create a Debian package with ”-D” option.
Debian Reference 228 / 231

12.6.3 Meson

The software build system has been evolving:

• Autotools on the top of Make has been the de facto standard for the portable build infrastructure since 1990s. This is extremely
slow.

• CMake initially released in 2000 improved speed significantly but was still build on the top of inherently slow Make.
• Ninja initially released in 2012 is meant to replace Make for the further improved build speed but is also designed to have its
input files generated by a higher-level build system.
• Meson initially released in 2013 is the new popular and fast higher-level build system which uses Ninja as its backend.

See documents found at ”The Meson Build system” and ”The Ninja build system”.

12.7 Web

Basic interactive dynamic web pages can be made as follows.

• Queries are presented to the browser user using HTML forms.

• Filling and clicking on the form entries sends one of the following URL string with encoded parameters from the browser to
the web server.
– ”http://www.foo.dom/cgi-bin/program.pl?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3”
– ”http://www.foo.dom/cgi-bin/program.py?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3”
– ”http://www.foo.dom/program.php?VAR1=VAL1&VAR2=VAL2&VAR3=VAL3”
• ”%nn” in URL is replaced with a character with hexadecimal nn value.
• The environment variable is set as: ”QUERY_STRING=”VAR1=VAL1 VAR2=VAL2 VAR3=VAL3””.

• CGI program (any one of ”program.*”) on the web server executes itself with the environment variable ”$QUERY_STRING”.
• stdout of CGI program is sent to the web browser and is presented as an interactive dynamic web page.

For security reasons it is better not to hand craft new hacks for parsing CGI parameters. There are established modules for them
in Perl and Python. PHP comes with these functionalities. When client data storage is needed, HTTP cookies are used. When
client side data processing is needed, Javascript is frequently used.
For more, see the Common Gateway Interface, The Apache Software Foundation, and JavaScript.
Searching ”CGI tutorial” on Google by typing encoded URL http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&q=CGI+tutorial
directly to the browser address is a good way to see the CGI script in action on the Google server.

12.8 The source code translation

There are programs to convert source codes.

Debian Reference 229 / 231

package popcon size keyword description

perl V:600, I:991 705 AWK→PERL convert source codes from AWK to PERL: a2p(1)
convert source codes from FORTRAN 77 to C/C++:
f2c V:0, I:5 442 FORTRAN→C
f2c(1)
converter from NASM (Intel format) to the GNU
intel2gas V:0, I:0 178 intel→gas
Assembler (GAS)

Table 12.19: List of source code translation tools

12.9 Making Debian package

If you want to make a Debian package, read followings.

• Chapter 2 to understand the basic package system

• Section 2.7.13 to understand basic porting process
• Section 9.11.4 to understand basic chroot techniques

• debuild(1), and sbuild(1)

• Section 12.5.2 for recompiling for debugging
• Guide for Debian Maintainers (the debmake-doc package)

• Debian Developer’s Reference (the developers-reference package)

• Debian Policy Manual (the debian-policy package)

There are packages such as debmake, dh-make, dh-make-perl, etc., which help packaging.
Debian Reference 230 / 231

Appendix A

Appendix

Here are backgrounds of this document.

A.1 The Debian maze

The Linux system is a very powerful computing platform for a networked computer. However, learning how to use all its capa-
bilities is not easy. Setting up the LPR printer queue with a non-PostScript printer was a good example of stumble points. (There
are no issues anymore since newer installations use the new CUPS system.)
There is a complete, detailed map called the ”SOURCE CODE”. This is very accurate but very hard to understand. There are
also references called HOWTO and mini-HOWTO. They are easier to understand but tend to give too much detail and lose the
big picture. I sometimes have a problem finding the right section in a long HOWTO when I need a few commands to invoke.
I hope this ”Debian Reference (version 2.88)” (2021-11-14 06:09:41 UTC) provides a good starting direction for people in the
Debian maze.

A.2 Copyright history

The Debian Reference was initiated by me, Osamu Aoki <osamu at debian dot org>, as a personal system administration memo.
Many contents came from the knowledge I gained from the debian-user mailing list and other Debian resources.
Following a suggestion from Josip Rodin, who was very active with the Debian Documentation Project (DDP), ”Debian Reference
(version 1, 2001-2007)” was created as a part of DDP documents.
After 6 years, I realized that the original ”Debian Reference (version 1)” was outdated and started to rewrite many contents. New
”Debian Reference (version 2)” is released in 2008.
I have updated ”Debian Reference (version 2)” to address new topics (Systemd, Wayland, IMAP, PipeWire, Linux kernel 5.10)
and removed outdated topics (SysV init, CVS, Subversion, SSH protocol 1, Linux kernels before 2.5). References to Jessie 8
(2015-2020) release situation or older are mostly removed.
This ”Debian Reference (version 2.88)” (2021-11-14 06:09:41 UTC) covers mostly Bullseye (=stable) and Bookworm (=testing)
Debian releases.
The tutorial contents can trace its origin and its inspiration in followings.

• ”Linux User’s Guide” by Larry Greenfield (December 1996)

– obsoleted by ”Debian Tutorial”

• ”Debian Tutorial” by Havoc Pennington. (11 December, 1998)

Debian Reference 231 / 231

– partially written by Oliver Elphick, Ole Tetlie, James Treacy, Craig Sawyer, and Ivan E. Moore II
– obsoleted by ”Debian GNU/Linux: Guide to Installation and Usage”
• ”Debian GNU/Linux: Guide to Installation and Usage” by John Goerzen and Ossama Othman (1999)
– obsoleted by ”Debian Reference (version 1)”

The package and archive description can trace some of their origin and their inspiration in following.

• ”Debian FAQ” (March 2002 version, when this was maintained by Josip Rodin)

The other contents can trace some of their origin and their inspiration in following.

• ”Debian Reference (version 1)” by Osamu Aoki (2001–2007)

– obsoleted by the newer ”Debian Reference (version 2)” in 2008.

The previous ”Debian Reference (version 1)” was created with many contributors.

• the major contents contribution on network configuration topics by Thomas Hood

• significant contents contribution on X and VCS related topics by Brian Nelson
• the help on the build scripts and many content corrections by Jens Seidel

• extensive proofreading by David Sewell

• many contributions by the translators, contributors, and bug reporters

Many manual pages and info pages on the Debian system as well as upstream web pages and Wikipedia documents were used
as the primary references to write this document. To the extent Osamu Aoki considered within the fair use, many parts of them,
especially command definitions, were used as phrase pieces after careful editorial efforts to fit them into the style and the objective
of this document.
The gdb debugger description was expanded using Debian wiki contents on backtrace with consent by Ari Pollak, Loïc Minier,
and Dafydd Harries.
Contents of the current ”Debian Reference (version 2.88)” (2021-11-14 06:09:41 UTC) are mostly my own work except as
mentioned above. These has been updated by the contributors too.
The author, Osamu Aoki, thanks all those who helped make this document possible.

A.3 Document format

The source of the English original document is currently written in DocBook XML files. This Docbook XML source are converted
to HTML, epub, plain text, PostScript, and PDF. (Some formats may be skipped for distribution.)