neer

Basis of design, material properties, structural components and joints

Edited by

H.J. Blass
P. Aune
B.S. Choo
R.Gsrlacher
D.R. Grifiths
B.O.Hilson
P. Racher
G . Steck

First Edition, Centrum Hout, The Netherlands

Contents

Preface

AcknowIedgements
AII~/ZOI'S
National Representative Organisations . .

Contract im~zpleinentat~ . . . .. . ,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Basis of design and material properties

A1 European standardisation
A2 Limit state design and safety format
A3 Actions on structures . .

A4 Wood as a building material . . . . . . , , . , ,

A5 Timber in constmction. . . . . , . . , .

A6 Strength.grading . ..
.:

A7 -
Solid timber Strengtl~classes
A8 GIued laminated timber - Production and strength classes
A9 Laminated veneer lumber and other structural sections
A10 Wood-based panels - Plywood
A1 l Wood-based panels - Fibreboard, particle board and OSB
A12 Adhesives
A13 Behaviour of timber and wood-based materials in Are
A14 Detailing for durability
A15 Durability - Preservative treatment
AXG Environmental aspects of timber
A17 Serviceability limit states - Deforn~ations
A18 Serviceability limit states - Vibration of wooden floors
A19 Creep

B Structural components

Volume and stress distribution effects

Tension and conlpression
Bending
Shear and torsion
Notched beams and lloies in gluIail~beams
Columr~s
Buckling lengths
Tapered, curved and pitched cambered beams
Glued thin-webbed beams
Srressed skin panels
Mechanically jointed beams and colutnns
Trusses
Diaphrag~l~s and shear walls
Franles and arches

STEPEUROFORTECI-I - an iiiitiativc ur~der[he EU Come~tProgramme

Foreword

This publication is the first major output from the Structural Timber Education
Programme (STEP) work initiated by Eurofortech and supported by the
Comission of the European Communities under the Comett programme. It
represents a commendable effort by about 50 people from 14 European countries
to make Eurocode 5 operational and accepted by the users.
Eurocode 5 is a legal document aimed at the qualified engineer wit11 a basic
knowledge of timber and timber structures. It gives the requirements for design,
but not their background. It cannot stand alone. It has to be supported by textbooks
explaining the general philosophy of the Eurocodes, especially Eurocode 5, and
giving the background for its requirements and detailed design rules. The STEP
lectures are such a textbook for direct use by instructors at engineering schools and
a basis for writing national textbooks.
The STEP project is closely linked to Eurocode 5, the European code for the
design of timber structures (ENV 1995-1-1 and 1995-1-2). Work on Eurocode 5
began in 1973 when John Sunley - at that time at the UK Forest Products
Laboratory, later director of TMDA - initiated the drafting of a model code for
the design of timber structures in Working Commission W18 of CIB (The
international council for building research, studies and documentation). The
-
initiative of John Sunley was very timely; the result the CIB Structural Timber
Design Code - was published in 1983 and was immediately accepted as the basis
for the timber part when the Commission of the European Communities in 1985
initiated drafting a set of European design codes: the Eurocodes.
Eurocode 5 is the result of tremendous cooperative efforts involving people from
industry and most timber researchers in Europe (with substantia1contributions from
Australia, Canada and USA), The main forum for this cooperation has been C B
Wl8; most of the technical details have been discussed in this working group, and
the background has been reported in the proceedings from its meetings: so far 26
volumes, about 1OOOO pages.
Devoted and qualified authors are one reason for the successful outcome. Equally
bportant is the management of the project. In this respect STEP has been
extremely lucky. The management and reviewing committees headed by Hans J.
Blass have done an outstanding job.

Hans J~rgenLarsen,
Chairman, Eurocode 5 Drafting Committee

STEPiEUROF0RTECI.I - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

Preface

European harmonisation
The unification process in the European Union (EU)has led, and will continue to
lead, to changes which will impact on n b y aspects of life in the member
countries, including industrial practice. A key objective of the EU is the creation
of a stronger and more competitive industrial base. This is being achieved in a
number of ways including technological innovation, intensification of training, and
the standardisation of key practices and operations within industry. The
l~armonisationof component and product quality standards is an important elenlent
of this process. Such harmonisation facilitates not only for freer movement of
goods and services within the EU but also for enhanced col~esion and
competitiveness in the presentation of the products of EU industry in external
markets.
New standards require adjustments in training
Within tile industrial sectors of timber processing, manufacture and utilisation, new
European standards are being prepared. In the specific area of the utilisation of
timber for structural purposes a series of standards is being developed in support
of Eurocode 5. It is anticipated that the European stadards will eventually replace
the various equivalent national standards. The introduction of the new standards
will require adjustment both'in education and training institutions and on the part
of practising professionals in the architectural, engineering, building and
manufacturing sectors. A lead-in time is required to facilitate a smooth transition
for industry to the changed environment of a transnational harmonised market.
STEP/Euroforteeh, background
In its role as the transnational EEU network for training and education for the forest
and wood industries, EUROFORTECB has recognised the educational implications
of the changes being experienced by Europe's forest and wood sector industries.
During the past three years it has helped to create STEP, the Structural Timber
Education Programme and assisted a large team of European experts to prepare the
STEPfEUROFORTECN teaching materials relating to the use of timber in
structural applications. The two volumes of this cotnpendium of technical
inforlnation were made possible througl~the financial contributions of the European
Union and 14 participating countries. It will assist teachers, students and practising
professionals in applying and implenlenting new European standards for the
structural use of timber. This pool of information wilI both contribute to the
structural use of timber and increase technical expertise within the industry.
Thiber Engineering - STEP 1 is the first volulne of the STEP cornpendium and
will be complemented by the second volume, Timber Engineering - STEP 2. In
additiol~a supporting slide collection is available.
The purpose of the compendium is to assist engineers, lecturers and students to
implement Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures - Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings and Part 1-2: General rules - Supplementary rules for struchiral
fire design. Since the Eurocodes are not yet available in their final fonn at the time
of printing, minor discrepancies between Eurucode 1 and Eurocode 5 still exist and
are addressed in the relevant lectures. The chapters of the book contain timber
engineering lectures and were written by specialist lecturers and experienced civil
engineers, and correspond to tile best available knowledge in 1994. Lecturers using

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STEPlEUROF0RTECI-I at'i initiiltive under the EU Comctt Programme
Acknowledgements

Authors Timber Engineering - STEP 1

T.Alsmarker, Lund University, Division of Stmctural Engineering, P.O. Box 118,
5-221 00 Lund, Sweden

L. Andriarnitantsoa, Centre Experi~nenraldu Batiment et des Travaux Publics,

Departement Batiment, Domaine de St. Paul, F-78470 St. Remy les Chevreuse,
France

P. Aune, University of Trondlleim, The Norwegian Institute of Technology, Dept.

of Structural Engineering, Rich. BirkeIands vei la, N-7034 Trondl~eirn,Norway

H.J. Blass, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Timber

stnrctures, P.O.Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, Netherlands

H. Briininghoff, Gesamthochschule Wuppertal, Pauluskircfistrasse 7, D-42285

Wuppertal, Germany

A. Ceccotti, Universirh degli Studi di Firenze, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile,

Via di S. Marta 3, 1-50139 Firenze, Italy

B.S. Choo, University of Nottingham, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University

Park, Nottinghanl NG7 2RD, United Kingdom

F. Colling, Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Holzforschung e.V., Bayerstrasse 57-59, D-

80335 Miinchen, Gern~any

B. Edlund, Chaimers University of Technology, Dept. of Structural Engineering,

Sven Hultins gata 8, S-41296 Goteborg, Sweden

J. El~lbeck, Universitat KarIsrul~e, Lehrstuhl fiir Ingenieurholzbau und

Baukonstruktionen, Postfach 6980, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Gemlany

W. Ehrl.lardl, Universitat Karlsruhe, Letlrstuhl fir Ingenieurlmlzbau und

Baukonstruktionen, Postfach 6980, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany

E. Gel~ri,ETHZ, Professur fiir Holztechnologie, ETH Honggerberg, CH-8093

Ziirich, Switzerland

P. Glos, Universitat Miinchen, Institut f i r Holzforschung, Winzererstrasse 45, D-

80797 Miinchen, Germany

R, G~rlacher, Universitiit Karlsruhe, Lel~rstuhl Er Ingenieurholzbau und

Baukonstruktionen, Postfach 6980, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Gemany

D.R. Griffiths, University of Surrey, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Guifd ford,

Surrey GU2 SXN, United Kingdom

STEPIEUROFORTECE-I- m initiative under the EU Cornett Programme

 F. Rouger, Departement Structures, Centre Technique du Bois et de
I' Ameublement, 10, Avenue de Saint-Mand6, F-75012 Paris, France

G . Sagot, Consultant Industriel, 9, Rue de Ren6ville. F-75400 Fecamp, France

K.H. Solli, The Norwegian Institute of Wood Technology, P.O. Box 113,
Blindern, N-03 14 Oslo 3, Norway

G. Steck, Fachhocl-rschule Miinchen, Kartstrasse 6, D-80333 Miinchen, Germany

P.J. Steer, Consultant Structural Engineer, 28 Aslbourne Road, Derby DE3 3AD,
United Kingdom

S. Tfieiandersson, Lund University, Division of Structural Engineering, P.O. Box

1 IS, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden

T. Vihavainen, VTT Building Technology, Wood Technology, P. 0.Box 1806,

FIN-02044 VTT, Finland
. . . - .

H. Werner, Universitat Karlsruhe, Lehrstul-rl fiir Ingenieurl~ofzbau und

Baultonstruktionen, Postfacfi 6980, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany

L. Whale, Gang-Nail Systems Ltd., Christy Estate, Ivy Road, Aidersfiot, Hants
GU 12 4XG, United Kingdom

STEPIEUROFORTECII.- an initiative under d ~ eEU Comctt Programme

Nerherlcznds
NRO: Centrun1 Hout, Almere
Supporting organisations: Delft University of Technology, Delft; Stichting WESP,
Woerden; Stichting Opleidings- en Ontwikkelingsfonds voor de Timmerfabrieken,
Bussum; TNO Building and Construction Research, Rijswijk

Nowcry
NRO: Thte Norwegian Institute of Wood Technology (NTI), Oslo
Supporting organisations: University of Trondheim; The Norwegian Institute of
Wood Tecfinology, Osf o

Porfi4gal
NliO: Laborat6rio Nacional de Engenl~ariaCivil, Lisboa

Sweden
NRO: Triiinf'ormation, Stockl~olnl
Supporting organisations: Cllalmers University of Technology; Lund University;
Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Switzerland
NRO: Lignum Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft f i r das Holz, Ziirich
Supporting organisations: ETH, Ziirich; EPF, Lausanne; SIA Schweizerischer
Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein, Ziirich

United Kirzgdom
NRO : TRADA, High Wyconlbe, Buckinghanlsl~ire
Supporting organisations: Timber Research and Development Association; Gang-
Nail Systems Ltd.; Brighton University; University of Nottingham; University of
Surrey; Meyer International; SCOTFI; institute of Wood Science; MiTek Industries
Ltd .; Sin~psonStrongtie International Incorporated; James Donaldson & Son;
Donaldson Timber Engineering

Contract implementation
Centrum Hout, STEP/EuroforiechSecretariat, Westeinde 8, 1334 BK Alrnere, The
Netlterlands

Cornnlission of the European Comlunities

Taskforce, Human Resources, Education, Training and Youth, COMETT
Programme, Contract No 92/ 1/6960

Eurofortech, International Office, Roebuck Castle, Be1field, Dub1in 4, f reland

STEPIEUROFORTECN - an initiative under the ELI Co~~lert

I>rograrnme
The following loadslload combinations are possible, see Figure 4:

- Selfweight alone. Penaanent. Due to the low value of k,,,,,,,,

this load may
be decisive in theory, but rarely in practice.

I. Selfweight -t snow, short-term. This combination gives the greatest axial

force in the columns.

2. Selfweight + wind, short-term. This combination may be decisive For

anchoring against uplift.

3. Selfweight -t- snow c (wind, combination value), short-term. This

cornbination gives the greatest axial force in the columns combined with
bending in the columns.

4. Selfweight c wind + (snow, combination value), short-term. This

combination gives the greatest ~nornentit1 the columns.

STEPIEUROF0RTECI.i - an initintivc under thc EU Comeli Prograrnnic

Communication 94lC 62/01 - each of them referring to one of the essential
requirements listed.

Tecllttical speci$cntiorts wittzbz the scope of the Cu/tstr.uctiot~Prod~tcts

Directive
The CPD lays down that, in order to be placed on the market, the products shall be
fit for their intended use, that is, they shall have such characteristics that the
construction works, in which they will be incorporated, can satisfy the applicable
essential requirements. The CPD also establishes that the EU Member States shall
presume that the construction products are fit for their intended use if they bear the
CE marking.

The CE marking is not a quality mark; it demonstrates only that products meet the
legal requirements necessary for them to be placed on the market by co~nplying
with the applicable technical specifications, which can be of three types:

- national standards transposing harmonized standards, i. e., standards prepared by

the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) or by the European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), on the basis of
mandates given by CEC;

- European technical approvals;

- national technical specifications accepted by the CEC, where harmonized

standards do not exist.

The first two types of technical specification will be the normal methods used to
obtain the CE marking and further detaiis are given below.

The Members of CEN are the eighteen National Standardisation Bodies of EU and
EFTA Member States. In order to respond to the request included in the CPD, for
the existence of harmonized European standards, more than sixty CEN Technical
Committees are currently dealing with around 2000 work items (corresponding to
EN Standards or Parts of EN Standards to be drafted) in the area of building and
civil engineering. The standardisation work concerning timber and related products
will be summarized later in this lecture.

It is outside the scope of this lecture to give details about the procedures followed
to prepare and approve an EN Standard. It is, however, important to state that when
a CEN Member adopts an EN Standard, this will acquire the status of a national
standard and the i~ationalstandard(s) covering the same subject shall be withdrawn.
-
The European techrlical approval (ETA) is a favourable technical assessment of the
fitness for use of a construction product, based on the fulfilment of the essential
requirements of the construction work where the products are incorporated. The
ETAS are basically applicable to those products for which there is neither a
-
harmonized standard, nor a mandate from the CEC for the production of one
covering those products. So, this type of technical specification is reserved for -
innovative products and corresponds to an extension, to a European scale, of the
national Agrement Certificates currently issued in different countries.

European technical approvals are issued by approval bodies designated by the EU -

Member States which are presently associated to the "European Organization for
Technical Approvals" (EOTA), that coordinates these activities, and will ensure that
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STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiativc under tllc EU Cotnett Programme
 There are three Service Classes, denoted 1, 2 and 3. The classes 1 and 2 are
characterised by the moisture content of the surrounding air. In Service Class 1
the average equilibrium moisture content in most softwoods will not exceed
12%; in Service Class 2 it will not exceed 20%. There are no limits for Service
Class 3.

There are five Load-duration Classes. They are characterised by the order of
accumulated duration of the characteristic load, see Table 4, where also
examples of loading are given.

It is generally assumed that the relationship between the resistance (R) and the
strength paraineters V), the stiffness parameters (4 and the geornetricai data (a)
is known. If this is the case, design values should be used to determine the
design resistance:

The design value R, can also be determined directly from characteristic values
(R,) determined from tests:

For structures where the resistance depends on Inore than one material - e.g.
timber and steel or wood-based panels - it can be difficult to select tile right
value of k,",,,. It is of course always on the safe side to use the lowest value for
the materials used.

Geoructrical dain The geornetricitl design values correspond genenlly to the characteristic vaIues,
i.e, to the values specified in the design. In cases where the influence of
deviations are critical the geometrical design values arc defined by

where Act takes account of the possible deviations from the characteristic values.
Values of Aa are given in the appropriate clauses of EC5.

Load-duration Duration' Exarnples A,,,,, for

Class of loading Service Classcs
1&2 3
Permanent more than 10 years self weight 0,60 0,50
Long-term 6 months - 10 years storage 0,70 0.55
Medium-term 1 week - 6 months irnposcd load 0,80 O,G5
Short-tcnn less than one week snow" and wind 0,90 0,70
Instantaneous accidental load I , 10 0,90
a Thc Load-duration Classes are charncleriscd by the effect oP a constant load acting
for a ccriain period oC time. For variable action the appropriale class depends on the
erfecl of tlie typical variation of tile load in the life of the structure. The accumulated
duration of' the characteristic load is orten very sliort compwcd with the total loading
time.
b In areas with a heavy snow load for a prolonged period of time, par1 of the load
should be regarded as medium-term.

Table 3 Loctd-tlrtmdnrz Closs~sund k,,,,,! for solid rinrbcr attrl glr~lcim.

STEPIEUROFORTECM - un initiative undcr 1l1c EU Comctt Programme

"Greeni~ouses".Further, and with special relevance to this Iccture, is, obviously, tile
work of CENtTC 250 - "Structural Eurocodes", where ECS concerning ille design
of tiinber structures will be finalised, as will be described later.

Apart from the work on the EC5, the major interest for timber structures is focused
on the EN Standards that will be produced by CENJTC 38, CEN/TC 112 and
CEN/TC 124. Tlie programme of work of these three TCs was established taking
into account the need for supporting EN Standards for Eurocode 5. Briefly, the
activity of these Technical Comlnittees is now referred to.

CEN/TC 35 is the oldest, was created prior to the pubtication of the CPD and, in
former times, produced EN Standards concerning test methods for preservative
proclucts. The work was gredtly enlarged and accelerated recently and a coherent
set of new EN Standards concerning this subject is in the final phase of production
(see STEP lecture A 15).

CENITC 112 currently has a worlc programme that includes around 80 items
covering particleboarcis, oriented strand boards, fiblzboards, plywood, cernent-
bonded particleboards, together with general test rnethods and forl?ialdehyde
eiuissioti.

CENITC 124 was created in 1987 and t11e work programme involves around 40
items dealing with solid timber, glued laminated timber, connectors and test
nlethods, which are obviously closely related to Eurocode 5.

Finally, some words ribotit the work concerning EC5. CENITTC 250 - "Structural
Eurocodes" was created in 1990 and took over the previous work, that had been
started around 1977 under t11c auspices of the CEC, of' drafting a systein of
Eiiropean structural design codes: the Eurocodes. Sub-committee 5 of TC 250
(CENmC 2SOlSCS) is in charge OF EC5 and established a work programme that
anticipated the publication of three documents. Tlie first, for general application,
was published in 1993; it is referenced as ENV 1995-1-1 : 1993 -"Eurocode No.5 -
Design of timber stnictures. Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings". The
second, ENV 1995-1-2 - "Eurocode No.5 - Design of timber structures. Part 1-2:
Structural fire design" tias been finalized. Drafting of the third document, dealing
with bridges, has beer1 started. In coinrnot~with Eurocodes dealing with other
materials, Eurocode 5 will be published as an ENV, i.e., as a European Prestatidard.
This rneans that - as opposed to the status of an EN Standard - existing conflicting
nationat standards may be kept in force (in parallel with the ENV) until the filial
decision about the conversion of the ENV into a EN is reached. In order to
implement these ENVs, Member States are expected to publish National Application
Documents (NADs), namely to assign certain safety levels that are set out as
iildicative levels in the ENVs.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - i1n ir~iliativcunder thc EU Co~ilettProgrimme

 Action \lf~ '\'I K!
Imposed load in buildings 0.7- 1 ,O 0,5-0,9 0,3-0,8
Snow loads 0,6 02 0,O
Wind loads 096 0,s 0,o

MrttcriaI plopcrties The material properties correspond either to the rnean value or to the 5-percentile
determined by standardised tests ~lndel-reference conditions: duration of test 5
tninutes at 20 "C and relative humidity 65%. The lnean values are used for
serviceability limit stnte verifications. The 5-percentiles are used for all
properties (strength, stiffness and density) related to illtiinate limit states.

Gcornetriciil dilta The characteristic geometrical values, such as spans, dimensions of cr-oss-
sections, deviations from straigl~tness,usually correspond to the values specified
in the design or to nominal values.

Design values
Actions The design actions may be different for the different limit states and are found
as described below. Firstly, the possible load cases are identified, i.e. compatible
load arrangements, sets of deformations and imperfections. A load arrangement
identifies the position, magnitude and direction of an action.

Secondly, the actions are colnbined according to the following sy~nboiic

expsessio~~:

where y are partial factors (load factors) for Lhe action considered, tc&ing
account of: the possibility of i~nf'avourable deviations of the actions, the
possibility of inaccurate nod el ling of the actions and uncertainties in the
assessnient of effects of actions. Values of the load factors are given in Table 2.
Reduced partial factors may be applied for sit~gle-storeybuildings of inoderate
span that are only occupied occasionally (storage buildings, sheds, greenhouses,
and buildings and small silos for agricultural puq~oses),lighting masts, light
partition walls, and sheeting.

-
The representative values multiplied by the y-values y, G,, yQ Q, yQ ! l ~ Qk ~ -
are called design actions. The principle is thus that one variable action with its
characteristic value in turn is combined with the permanent actions and all other
variable actions with their colnbination value yf, Q,,

Finally, the effects (S) of actions - for example internal forces and moments,
stresses, strains and displacernents - are determined from the design values of the
actions, geometrical data and, where relevant, material properties (X):

As a simplification it is permitted instead of (7) to use the more adverse of tile

following combinations4.

'' Thc sinlptiftcd exprcssioris are on the irnsnfe sidc for Q,less than 30-507h oof Q,.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative undcr thc EU Cornclt Programme

Limit state codes
The Eurocodes are limit state codes, meaning that the requirements concerning
stmctural reliability are linked to clearly defined states beyond which the
structure no longer satisfies specified performance criteria. In the Eurocode
system only two types of limit state are considered: ultimate limit state and
serviceability Limit states.

Ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with other forms of
structural failure. Ultimate limit states include: loss of equilibrium; failure
through excessive deformations; transformation of the structure into a
mechanism; rupture; loss of stability.

Serviceability limit states include: deformations which affect the appearance or

the effective use of the structure; vibrations which cause discomfort to people or
damage to the structure; damage (including cracking) which is likely to have an
adverse effect on the durability of the structure.

-
Safety verification The partial coefficient method
In the Eurocodes the safety verification is based on the partial coefficient method
described below.

Figure 2 Statistical distributiotu (idealised)for action effects (S)and resistance (R).

Tile c~miulativeprobability is detroted P.

The main parameters are the actions, the material properties and the geometrical
data. Normally, these parameters are stochastic variables with distribution
functions as shown in principle in Figure 2 for the action effects (S) and the
corresponding resistance (R): e.g. bending stresses and bending strength or the
axial force in a centrally loaded column and the buckling Ioad. The distributions
have the mean values S,,, and R,,,, and they can be assigned characteristic
values S, and R, defined as fractiles in the distribution. For actions an upper
fractile is nomalty used; in some cases, a lower value may be appropriate, e.g.
for counteracting uplift. For resistance a lower fractile or the mean value is
normally used; in exceptional cases an upper resistance value may be
appropriate.

The purpose of the design is to get a low probability of failure3, i.e. a low
probability of getting action values higher than the resistances. This, in the
partial coefficient method, is achieved by using design values found by
multiplying the characteristic actions and dividing the characteristic strength
parameters respectively, by partial safety coefficients.

TItc prubability of failttre cat1 be esti~natedby statistical ntctlrods, attd in the future srtclt
rt~etlrodsrrtay be rcsed by dcsigrrers. Torlay, tlicy arc only rised for very special stricctrrrcs, c.g.
for bridges with very lorge sparrs or for rlte calibration of tlic safety cletrrerrrs (e.g. partial
coeflcients) of tlte sirrtplc ver#catiurr sysfenls rrscd in practice.

iSTEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme

Limit state codes
The Eurocodes are limit state codes, meaning that the requirements concerning
structural reliability are linked to cIearly defined states beyond which the
structure no longer satisfies specified performance criteria. In the Eurocode
system only two types of limit state are considered: ultimate limit state and
serviceability Limit states.

Ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with other forms of
structural failure, Ultimate limit states include: loss of equilibrium; failure
through excessive deformations; transformation of the structure into a
mechanism; rupture; loss of stability.

Serviceability limit states include: deformations whiclt affect the appearance or

the effective use of the structure; vibrations which cause discomfort to people or
damage to the structure; damage (including cracking) which is likely to have an
adverse effect on the durabiiity of the structure.

-
Safety verification The partial coefficient method
In the Eurocodes the safety verification is based on the partial coefficient method
described below.

Fig~trc2 Statistical distri6~aiotu(idealised) for action effects (S) arid resistance (R).
The cr&nialath~e probability is detroted P.

The main parameters are the actions, the material properties and the geometrical
data. NormaIly, these parameters are stochastic variables with distribution
functions as shown in principle in Figure 2 for the action effects (S)and the
corresponding resistance (R): e.g. bending stresses and bending strength or the
axial force in a centrally loaded column and the buckling load. The distributions
have the mean values S, and R,,,, and they can be assigned characteristic
values S, and R, defined as fractiles in the distribution. For actions an upper
fractile is normally used; in some cases, a lower value may be appropriate, e.g.
for counteracting uplift. For resistance a lower fractile or the mean value is
normally used; in exceptional cases an upper resistance value may be
appropriate.

The purpose of the design is to get a low probability of failure3, i.e. a low
probability of getting action values higher than the resistances. This, in the
partial coefficient method, is achieved by using design values found by
multiplying the characteristic actions and dividing the characteristic strength
parameters respectively, by partial safety coefficients.

.' Tffcprubalrilityof faillrrc carr be esti~tiatedby statistic01 f?f&I/tod~,

and in the fultrre sircli
ttrcthods may be rcscd by desigrrcrs. Torlay, rlicj~arc only used fur very special sfrrccr~rrcs,e.g.
!or. bridges lvirh \ler)*large sparrs or for rhe calibratiort of the safety elctnmts (e.8. partial
of the sirrtple veriJcafio~rsysren~sused in practice.
cocJJ?cictrts)

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ISTEP/EUROFORTECH an initiative under the EU Cornet1 Programme
 Action \I'o \If, 'lfz

Imposed load in buildings 0.7- 1,O 0,s-0,9 0,3-0,8

Snow loads 0,6 02 0,O
Wind loads 06 0,s 0,o

ivlnccriat p~.opcr[ies The material properties correspond either to the mean value or to the 5-percentile
determined by standardised tests tinder reference conditions: duration of test 5
rninutes at 20 "C and relative humidity 65%. Tile mean values are used for
serviceability limit state verifications. The 5-percentiles are used for all
properties (strength, stiffness and density) related to ultirnate limit states.

Gco~nctricaldata The ctlaracteristic geo~netrical values, such as spans, ditnellsions of cross-

sections, deviations from straightness, usually correspond to the values specified
in the design or to no~ninalvalues.

Design values
Actions The design actions may be different for the different limit states and are found
as described below. Firstly, the possible load cases are identified, i.e. compatible
load arrangements, sets of deforrnatiorls and imperfections. A load arrdngement
identifies the position, magr~itudeand direction of an actiot~.

Secondly, the actions we cornbined according to the following syrnbolic

expressiorl:
"+ " Yo,r Qt, i
CYG.IG~,~ "+ " ~ ~ ~ , i ' ~ i ~ , , , Q t i
where y are partial factors (load factors) ibr L11e action considered, taking
account of: the possibility of unhvourable deviations of the actions, tile
possibility of inaccurate modelling of the actions and uncertainties in the
assessnlent of effects of actions. Values of' the load factors are given in Table 2.
Reduced partial factors may be applied for single-storey buildings of inoderate
span that are only occupied occasionally (storage buildings, sheds, greenhouses,
and buildings and small silos for agricultural puq~oses),lighting masts, light
partition walls, and sheeting.

The representative values multip1ied by the y-values - y, G,, yQ Q,, yL, \yo Qt -
are called design actions. The principle is thus that one variable action with its
characteristic value in turn is combined with the permanent actions and all other
variable actions with their coinbination value ~hQ,.

Finally, the effects (S) of actions - for example internal forces and tuoments,
stresses, strains and displacements - are determined from the design values of the
actions, geometrical data and, where relevant, material properties (X):

As a simplification it is permitted instead of (7) to use the more adverse of the

J

following combinations .

'' Thc sin~plificdcxpressioris are on tlie i~nsnfcside for Q,icss than 30-50%1of Q,.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an iniliativc i~ndcrthc Ell Cornell Progriimmc

"Greenhouses". Further, and with special relevance to this lecture, is, obviously, the
work of CEN/TC 250 - "Stnictural Eurocodes", where EC5 concerning the design
of tiinber structures will be kiiialised, as will be described later.

Apart froin the work on the EC5, the major interest for timber structures is focused
on tlie EN Standards that will be produced by CEN/TC 38, CEN/TC 112 and
CEN/TC 124. Tile programme of work of these three TCs was established taltirig
into account the need for supporting EN Standards for Eurocode 5. Briefly, the
activity of these Technical Comlnittees is now referred to. -
CEN/TC 38 is the oldest, was created prior to the pubiication of the CPD and, in
for111er times, produced EN Standards concerning test methods for preservative
proclucts. The work was greatly enlarged and accelerated recently and a colierent -
set of new EN Standards concerning this subject is in the final phase of production
(see STEP lecture A15).
-
CENfrC 1 12 currently has a worlc programme that includes around 80 itenis
covering particleboards, oriented strand boards, fibreboards, plywood, cetnent-
bonded particleboards, together with general test {nethods arid fornialdehyde
e~nission.
-
CENRC I24 was created in 1987 and the work programme involves around 40
-
items dealing with solid timber, glued laminated timber, connectors m d test
mettiods, which are obviously closely related to Ei~rocode5.

Finally, some words about the work concerning EC5. CENtTC 250 - "Structural -
Eurocodes" was created in 1990 and took over tlie previous work, that had been
started around 1977 under the auspices of the CEC, of drafting a system of
Etiropeilti structural design codes: the Eurocodes. Sub-committee 5 of TC 250
(CENfTC 250/SC5) is in charge of EC5 and established a work programme that
anticipated the publication of three documents. The first, for general application,
was published in 1993; it is referenced as ENV 1995- 1-1: 1993 -"Eurocode No.5 -
Design of timber stnrctures. Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings". Tlie
second, ENV 1995-1-2 - "Eurocode No.5 - Design of timber structures. Part 1-2:
Structural fire design" has been finalized. Drafting of the third document, dealing
with bridges, has been started. In common with Eurocodes dealing with other
materiais, Eurocode 5 will be published as an ENV, is., as a European Prestandarcl.
This means that - as opposed to the status of an EN Standard - existing conflicting
national standards may be kept in force (in parallel with the ENV) until the final
decision about the conversion of' the ENV into a EN is reached. In order to
i~nplementthese ENVs, Mernber States are expected to publish National Application
Docunients (NADs), namely to itssigrl certain safety levels that are set out as
indicative levels in tlie ENVs.
There are three Service Classes, denoted 1, 2 and 3. The classes I and 2 are
cliaracterised by the moisture content of the surrounding air. In Service Class 1
the average equilibrium moisture content in most softwoods will not exceed
12%; in Service Class 2 it wilI not exceed 20%. There are no firnits for Service
Class 3 .

There are five Load-duration Classes. They are characterised by the order of
accumulated duration of the characteristic load, see Table 4, where also
examples of loading are given.

It is generally assumed that the relationship between the resistance ( R ) and the
strength parameters 0, tlie stiffness parameters (E) and the geolnetrical data (u)
is known. If this is the case, design values should be used to determine the
design resistance:

The design value R , can also be detcnnined directly froin characteristic values
(R,) determined from tests:

For structures where the resistance depends on Inore than one material - e.g.
timber and steel or wood-based panels - it can be difficult to select the right
value of k,,,,,,,. It is of course always on the safe side to use the lowest value for
the materials used.

The geometrical design values correspond generally to the characteristic values,

i.e. to the values specified in the design. In cases where the infIuence of
deviations are critical the geometrical design values are defined by

where Aa takes account of the possible deviations from the characteristic values.
Values of Aa are given in the appropriate clauses of EC5.

Load-duration Duration" Bxatnples k,,,,, for

Class of loading Service Classes
1 &2 3
Permnncnt more than 10 years self weight 0,60 0,50
Long-term -
6 months 10 ycars storage 0,70 0,55
Mediurn-term 1 week - 6 months irnposcd load 0,80 0,65
S hort-tenn less than one week snow" and wind 0,90 0,70
Instantaneous accidental load 1.10 0,90
a The Load-duration Classcs are charac~eriscdby tlie effect of a constant load acting
for a ccrtain pcriod of time, For variable action Ltic appropriate class depellds on the
effect of the typical variation of the load in the life of the structure. The accumulated
duration of the characteristic load is onen very sliort comparcd with the total loading
Lime.
b In areas with a heavy snow load for rt prolonged period or time, part of the load
should bc regarded as rncdium-term.

Table 4 Load-dtlmtion Classes arrd k,fl,,,tfbrsolid tittrber ar~dgltllnnr.

STEPIEUROFORTECM - an initialive under ll~cEU Cotnclt Programme

Communication 94/C 62/01 - each of them referring to one of the essential
requirements listed.

Tecllrlical specifications within tire scope of dle Corlstluction Prociucts

Directive
The CPD lays down that, in order to be placed on the market, the products shall be
fit for their intended use, that is, they shall have such characteristics that the
construction works, in which they will be incorporated, can satisfy the applicable
essential requirements. The CPD also establishes that the EU Member States shall
presume that the constnlction products are fit for their intended use if they bear the
CE marking.

The CE marking is not a quality mark; it demonstrates only that products meet the
legal requirements necessary for them to be pfaced on the market by complying
with the applicable technical specifications, which can be of three types:

- national standards transposing harmonized slandards, i. e., standards prepared by

the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) or by the European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), on the basis of
mandates given by CEC;

- European technical approvals;

- national technical specifications accepted by the CEC, where t~armonized

standards do not exist.

The first two types of technical specification will be the normal methods used to
obtain the CE marking and further details are given below.

The Members of CEN are the eighteen National Standardisation Bodies of EU and
EFTA Member States. In order to respond to the request included in the CPD, for
the existence of harmonized European standards, more than sixty CEN Technical
Committees are currently dealing with around 2000 work items (corresponding to
EN Standards or Parts of EN Standards to be drafted) in the area of building and
civil engineering. The standardisation work concerning timber and related products
will be summarized Iater in this lecture.

It is outside the scope of this lecture to give detaiIs about the procedures foIlowed
to prepare and approve an EN Standard. It is, however, important to state that when
a CEN Member adopts an EN Standard, this will acquire the status of a national
standard and the ilatio~lalstandard(s) covering the same subject shall be withdrawn.

The European technical approval (ETA) is a favourable technical assessment of the

fitness for use of a construction product, based on the fulfilment of the essential
requirements of the construction work where the products are incorporated. The
ETAS are basically applicable to those products for which there is neither a
harmonized standard, nor a mandate from the CEC for the production of one
covering those products. So, this type of technical specification is reserved for
innovative products and corresponds to an extension, to a European scale, of the
national Agrement Certificates currently issued in different countries.

European technical approvals are issued by approval bodies designated by the EU

Member States which are presently associated to the "European Organization for
Technical Approvals" (EOTA), that coordinates these activities, and will ensure that

STEPJEUROFORTECH- an initinlivc under the EU Cornctl Programme

The following loadstload cotnbir~ationsare possible, see Figure 4:

- Selfweight alone. Periuanent. Due to the Iow value of A,,,,,,,, this load [nay
be decisive in theory, but rarely in practice.

1. Selfweigllt t snow, short-term. This combination gives the greatest axial

force in the columns.

2. Selfweight + wind, short-term. This combination may be decisive for.

anchoring against uplift.

3. Selfweight + snow -I- (wind, combination value), short-term. This

combii~ationgives the greatest axial force in the columns combined with
bending in the columns.

4. Selfweight c wind + (snow, combination vnIue), short-term. Tltis

combination gives the greatest rnornent in the columns.

STEP1EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative under the EU Comelt Programme

 Actions on structures

STEP lcciurc A3 objectives

P. Racllcr To give an overview of the classification of the actions applied to structures. To
CUST Civil Engineering define the cl~aracteristicvalue for the n~oslcolnrnon actions applied to buildings.
Blnisc Pascal University T O present the design situations and the associated values for combined actions.

Summary
In accordance with ECI, tl.iis lecture deals with the evaluation of the actions used
in EC5 design calculations. Regardless of dynalnic effects, the representative values
of the actions on buildings depend on their variation wit11 dme. These values are
established for permanent, imposed, snow and wind actions. Then, the combined
value of actions is calculated for the various design situations. A typical example
of the calculation of the actions for a fralne complen~entsthe lecture.

Introduction
For the intended col~slructionwork, tile designer is first faced wit11 the conceptual
design of the structural system. This stage will consider the type of structure and
on construction material to be used. The structural design then starts with an
analysis of the actions that may be applied to the chosen structure. Account should
be taken of direct actions that are the applied external forces as well as tile indirect
actions that result from imposed deformations (e.g. settlement of supports or
dimensional change induced by moisture variations).

Regardless of the constnlction material, the design requires the evaluation of tile
actions that may act during the life of the structure. These depend on the strucrural
form, on the type of construction work and on the method of construction. At this
stage, it is necessary to consider tlie nature of the actions or action-effects, i.e.
either static or dynamic, to achieve an accurate slnrciural analysis. For example, the
quasi-static assu~nptionmay nor be acceptable in the Sotlowing cases:

- floors srtbjected lo human or machine-induced vibrations,

- flexible plale-like structures such as suspension-bridge decks tliat could flutter
wile11subjected to wind velocities above a critical value,
- structures loaded by ground ncceleration due to seismic action.

In these cases, a dynamic itnalysis model should be used to find the action-effects
of the force-time history, considering the stiffness, Lhe inass and the damping ratio
or structural members. However, the resonant component of tile action-effect is
small for most structures. Therefore the static calculations are made, and an
equivalent dytia~nicamplification factor applied to the static value of action.

This lecture, therefore, deals will1 the assessment of direct actions and their
combination for static analysis only. These calculations will also need to consider
the National Application Documents and current regulations applicable to the
colinlly where the structure is cotistructed.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - on initiative undcr thc EU Comett Programme

General concepts

Strifcturcrl c1as.siJcaiio~z.s
-
The design Eurocodes (EC2 to EC7) are based on a calibration of successf'ul
traditional design methods. Nevertheless, a mention should be made of the criteria
to which the reliability concept of ECI referred. Regarding human hazard and -
economic losses, the stmcturai safely and serviceability requirements consider the
working life and the design siliiations of the structures (C.E.B., 1980).

Class Working life (ycars) Example

I 1 to 5 Temporary structures
2 25 Replaccablc structul-al elements
3 50 Buildings and common structurcs
4 100 Bridges or other engineering works

The working life corresponds to tile period for which the structure is to be used for
its intended purpose. Table 1 gives a classification of the construction works. In -
addition, the design situations refer to events that may occur during tlte working life
of tlle structure. Therefore, the actions are evaluated for the relevant design
situations that are classified as: -
- persistet~t,sitiratio~r.srelated to the conditions of normal use,
trarz.sierri sitlrntiort.~related to temporary conditions, e.g. during execution,
- accidctltnl sitrrntiotts related to exceptional conditions like fire or impact,

Load clnss~ficcition
In addition to the previous classifications, differentiation of the actions has to be
-
considered according to the variation of their magnitude in space and with tirne. For
common design, the actions or action-effects are defined as:

- perrnnrletlt nctiotrs (G), e.g. self-weights of the construction works,

- vat-iabke ncrions ( Q ) , e.g. imposed actions, snow and wind actions.
-
Other actions like accidental ( A ) and seismic (S) actions are outside the scope of
this lecture (see STEP lectures A2, B17 and (217).

Figrrre I Tirrte-voriution of ihc total appliecl actiorrs on LI floor.

The permanent actions have negligible variation in magnitude with time, except
when changes to a construction are made (see Figure I). For the variable actions
(Hendrickson et al, 1987, Rackwitz, 1976), the variations are modelled as a
discontinuous process (i.e. snow or wind) or as a process resulting From a sustained
-
part, Q,.,and a transient part, Q7.(i.e. imposed load). For timber which is more

-
*STEP/EUROFORTECH :In initiative undcr thc EU Comctt Progrnmmc
-
time-dependent than other construction materials, the temporal variation of the
actions must be emphasised. According to EC5, the design criteria must lake into
account the load-duration effects. Therefore, the designer must classify the variable
actions in relation to the specified load-duration classes (see STEP lecture A2).

In terms of spatial variations, the actions are considered either as fixed or free. Free
actions could have any spatial distribution over the structure or part of it. Then, the
design is carried out using the worst load arrangements of the free actions.

Representative vnlues of nctiorzs

The basic value of an action is the chnracterisric vnltte, denoted G, or Qp Usually,
the permanent actions G, cotrespond to the nominal value. However, if the structure
is sensitive to variation in G or if the coefficient of variation (COW of G is greater
than 1096, two characteristic values are considered, n lower value Gk*i4and upper
value G,,,,. Assuming a Gaussian distribution for G, these vaIues are given by:
G,,, = G,,,,, ( 1 - 1,64 COV ) ; G,, = G,,,,,, ( 1 + 1,64 COV ) (1)

The characteristic variable actions Q, are related to a given return period of N

years, corresponding to a probability of exceedance p = 1/Nin a year. According
to ECI, the actions Q,are defined for N=S0 years or p=0,02. For other probabilities
of exceedance p, (with p, 5 0,2), the characteristic value QN is estimated as:
6
1 - COY - [ In(-h(1-p,))+ 0,577221
X
QN = Qfi
1 + 2,5923 COV (2)

where COV is the coefficent of variation of Q.

If permitted by National regulations, this relation may be appropriate to define the

characteristic value of a variable action:

- from values related to a return period Iess than 50 years (e.g. snow or wind),
- for structural design with an acceptable higher risk of exceedance (i.e.
temporary structures) or, conversely, with a greater safety @N<0,02).

In addition, the designer needs to consider other representative values for variable
actions given as:

- the combination value (!v0Q,),

- the frequenl value (yf,Q&, which is exceeded for 5 percent of the time,
- the quasi-permanent value (I~I~Q,),
which is related to the time average value.

In practice, the values Gk, Qh (I@,) and (\yrQk) are usually considered when
checlcing the ultimate limit states. For the serviceability Iimit states, these values are
used for the calculations of short-term effects only. The long-term effects (e.g. creep
deformations) are assessed considering the values G, and (y2Qk) on the loading side,
and the deformation factor k,,/ on the material side.

Permanent actions
Tlte permanent actions are due to the self-weight of structural members and the
weights of all components to be supported permanentIy by the members. These
dead loads comprise fixed partitions, insulation, cladding or finishes. The estimation

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme A313

 of the permanent actions requires knowledge of the structural configuration and the
constnlction materials. TIie values of the permanent actions are established using
the nominal dimensions of the components and the rnean weight density of the
constituent materials (in kNh-I). For many building products, the designer should
refer to the weights given by the manufacturer.

In order to si~nplifytlie calculations, the dead loads due lo framing mernbcrs and
lightweight partitions are conveniently defined as unifortnly distributed loacls over
tlie bttilding area. A reasonable estin~atemay be obtained by referring to similar
structures. The self-weight of the flooring (sheet and joist) or roofing (sheet, rafters
and purlins) lnelnbers ranges usually between 0,25 and 0,45 kN/rn2. For coitinlon
framing members, the overall weight could be estimated as g=(15+1)/100 kN/t>12
where 1 is the span of the inembers in metres.

Depending on the weight P of the partition per tti2 of will1 area, the partitions may
be taken into account as a uniform load equal to 0,75 P per r?lZ of floor area. This
estimate is used for partitions up to four rnctres in height if P is less than 1,0 kN/rtt2
and less tlian 40% of the iniposed actions.

Imposed actions
The imposed actions in buildings are due Lo occupancy. They correspond to loads
that niove by themselves (i.e. people, trucks) and to moveable loads ( i s . f~trniture,
light partitions, stored materials). Distinction is niade between the lortded areas
according to the intended use. In common buildings, three classes havc to be
considered: 1 - clwcllings, offices, shops . . ., 2- roofs and 3-produclion areas.

Cutcgory Type of use Ex:unpIe

A Residential activities Aprtrtmcnts, bedrooms in Ilotels
B Offices Classroo~ns,operating rooms in hospital
C Congregation areas Assembly ilalls, theatres, dining roorns
D Shopping Areas i n warehouses
E Storage Archives, storage area of goods

Table 2 Clrlssificatiorr c~Jfloora~.easin brtiklirr,~.~.

For production areas, the design is achieved with imposed actions on floors
depending on the specific use of the buildings. Otherwise, the values of the imposed
actions take into account the density of occupation and the degree of public access
to the area. Thus, the first class is subdivided into five categories (Table 2). Roofs
are categorized as not accessible except for maintenance or repair (Category H) or
as accessible. For accessible roofs, the design is inade wit11 the occupancy
corresponding to the floor classification.

Referring to this classification, tlie design of a floor or roof takes into account either
a uniformly distributed load q, or a concentrated load Q,as imposed action. The
free load Q, acts on a square area with a 50 mnr side. TIiis load is intended lo
ensure adequate design of secondary members. It may be also critical on small
spans. Table 3 gives tile minimum values of these imposed actions as specified in
ECI: Part 2-1 ECI. Reduction coefficients can be applied to these values depending on the floor
area and the nunlber of storeys.

A 314
According to the load-duration classes of EC5, a medium-term duration is usually
considered for the load q, on areas A to D. This loading is taken as long-term for
category E and ns short-lenn for categoly H. Lastly, tllc concentratecl action QLis
related to the sl~ort-tern1duration class.

Category Type of area q I ) (2, (IcN)

General 2 2
Floors, accessil~leroufis: A stairs 3 2
Balconies 4 2
General 3 2
Stairs,balconies 4 3
C General 5 4
areas with tables 3 4
areas with fixed seats 4 4
possibility ol' co~~centralions 5 7
D Shops 5 4
Department store 5 7
E General 5 7
slope: < 20'
Norr-accessible roofY: 13
z 40"

Table 3 I~rlposedloods on floors arrd r-oo/iit; brti1dir1g.c

Apart from tile previous gravity loads, account may also be taken of horizontal
imposed actions on partition walls and barriers. They are short-term actions applied
at the height of t l ~ ehand rails (0,S to 1,2 111). Table 4 defines the characteristic
values of the line action q,.

Category A B C,D Public events in C or D

Tablc 4 Horizontal imposed acrioris orr pnrririons nnd barriers.

Snow loads
The snow loads are based on mensurernents of snow depths on the ground and
snow density. Depending on the surrounding terrain and the local weatlter, the
specilic density of snow varies from 0,l (fresh snow) to 0,4 (old or wet snow).
From a statistical analysis 01' these records, the characteristic snow load on the
ground (s,) is defined for a return period of 50 years. As they depend on the
geognaphical location and the altitude of the site, the characleristic values s, are
given in the national loading codes. In addition, the designer should also consider
local effects tllat may modify the specified value s,. For example, significant
increase in the snow load on a member can result from snow turning into ice or
min falling on the snow. For structurnl calculations, the designer has to consider the
load arrangements on the roofs stich as:

- balanced distributions resulting from unifonn snow falls,

- and unbalanced loads due to drifting under windy conditions or snow sliding.

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I- :In iniiialivc under the EU Cornelt Progr:bmmc A 3/5

From the analysis of snow falls on the ground, the snow loading is generally treated
as a variable action of short-term duration (less than one week). Referring to the
horizontal pro.jection of the area, the characteristic value of the roof snow load is
-
calculated as:

The shape coefficient pi takes into account the roof exposure and geometry. Three
coefficients pi are defined in ECI, depending on the roof slope a (Figure 2).

0 15 30 GO
a ("1
Figrire 2 Strorv shcri~ccoeflcients orr roofi

Assuming that the snow could slide off the roof, Figure 3 describes the design
patterns S, and Sz for the snow load on pitched (a, b and c) and curved roofs (d). -

Figrire 3 Stzonv loncl CII-mngettterrtsorr roofs.

-
In addition, the designer should pay attention to the possible increase in the snow
load due to the shape and the location of the structure. For example, the design has
to take into account the additional loads due to filling of roof valleys or formation
of drifts against walls.
-
Wind actions
Wind actions fluctuate with time and these variable actions are related to the short-
-
term load duratiori class. The structural response could be considered as the

-
STEP/EUROFORTECl-I - an initiative undcr thc EU Comett Prograinme
coinbination of a quasi-static coinponent and a resonant component. This
component could be significant for flexible (e.g.buildings with a height lo width
ratio greater than 3) and elongated vertical structures. In these cases, detailed wind
analysis is required. However, the resonant component is of minor importance for
most structures, and wind actions are defined using the simplified method described
in this section. The wind actions are represented by static pressures on the surfaces
of the structure or by global pressure and friction wind forces (E.C.C.S., 1987).

Wind \rnrintions
The design calculations are based on the reference wind velocity vrF, and pressure
qref.Referring to a mean return period of 50 years, 1 1 , ~ is defined as the average
wind velocity over a ten minutes period at I0 nt above terrain category II (see Table
5). The geographical location is taken into account using the basic wind velocity
vr,./;, at sea level given in national wind maps. From this value, v , , ~and q,,, are
defined as:
"rcj = CDIR CTEMCALT " r c h ~ 1111s (4)

where C,,, is a factor related to tlie wind direction (e.g. C , , R ~ l ) ,

C,,,, is a reduction factor for temporary structure,
C,, is tlie altitude factor specified in the wind maps,
p is the air density taken as 1,25 kg/r,13.

As the wind pressure varies with height above the ground, the designer has to
consider the reference height z,, of the external building surfaces. Depending on the
shape of the building and the crosswind dimension b,,, Figure 4 specifies the
reference height for walls and roofs.

I. B 1. 4, 1 1. 4,. 1.
b,,,A< l //1<2
Ic/>,,,
(4 (11) (4

Figure LC De$tzitioa oJ rlra rcfcrance lreiglrf ,; .for btrildi/rgs: p1m1 ntrd cross\t7irtd
(a) rrlalls ( bf .flat ( c ) pirched ((d) c~trclvnril~ed( e ) roojk.
dir~re~r.siol~

The effect of height and ground roughness on the wind velocity is first considered
with the roughness coefficient cr(z,). With the classification and the values given
in Table 5, this coefficient is defined by the logarithmic wind profile as:
C, (~1,) = K, In f max( 2," zmin)1 zol (6)
where z,, is the roughness length,
z,, is the height of' the ground layer where the wind velocity is

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme A3/7

 constant,
K, is the terrain factor.

Category Terrain Kr , I ) Z~ (NI)

I - Rough open sea, lakes (fetch upwind >5km) 0,17 2 0,0 I

- Smooth flat country without obstncies
I1 - Farmland with hedges, occasional houses or 0.19 4 0,05
[arm structures
Ill - Suburban and industrial areas and forests 022 8 0,30
IV - Urban areas covered with buildings of 0,24 16 1,o
average height greater than 15n1

The resultant adjustli~entfor the environmental effects on the wind is then covered by
the exposure coefficient C,,.Considering the reference height z,,,and the site conditions
of the designed structure, the exposure coefficient is determined frorn:

where c, is the topography coefficient talcing into account local terrain variations such
as hills or escarpments (e.g. c,=l).

Pressuw coqficictzts
The pressure coefricients define the wind pressures acting normally to the surhces or
the buildings. The external (C,,,) and inlernal (C,,,) pressure coeff cients are defined as
positive ifthe wind pressureacts towards the surface. A negative valuedenotes suction
on the walls or uplift of the roofs. The effect of the wind direction 8 is taken into
account by twoseparatesets ofcoefficientsconsideiing the windward sideaseitherthe
gable (8= 90") or the long-side (8= 0 or 180"). The external pressure coefficient also
varies with the shape of the stntcture. In addition, wind runnel tests have sllown that
larger pressures occur at the edges and the corners of structures (Lusch, 1964). These
observations result in pressure distributions as shown in Figures 5 and 6.

According to EC1, tlie specified coeflicien~svary on the structure as specified in the

Following sections For commori shapes of' rectangular buildings. These values
cor~espondto the upper value for all wind directions + 45" from the normai to the side
under consideration. Figure 5 gives the coefficient C,,,for wall areas greater than I0 n z 2
and bnilding dimensions such as: cl/ir(B=O') or UIr(8=9O0)$1. These pressure
distributions relate to the aspect windward dirnensian c,,.,where el,= rnin (h1,,,2/ I ) . For
stnaller wall areas, higher values of the pressure coefficient have to be used. On tile
windward side, the coefficient C,,,.is reduced to +O,G l'or an elongated building area
(UAor cl/ft) 2 4.

a3
t0.X
It'
-6-
R=c)O'

Figrcrv 5 Presslira cme@cierrts.for vertical tttalls.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - :ti> initiative under the EU Coinett Progrnmmc

In addition to the wall pressures, the wind actions applied to roofs require special
attention as wind uplift may affect the design of the joinls. In the case of flat roofs,
Figure 6 defines tile pressure coefficient for the wind directions 8= 0 or9O".

Figure 6 Pressrtrc coqfficierrt.~

forflar roojk.

For windward sloping roof surfaces, the wind actions are pressures or suctions
depending on the pitch angle a. Both pressure and suction have to be considered when
a varies between 15 i\nd 30" (see Tables 6 and 7).

4 1 1 re 7 k\'itld nr-eczsotr nronopitcll (a,b,c) atld d~topilcfr

(d,e,.flroof.ffforrltc&fferet?t~ c t i r ~ c l
direcrio)rs8.

~ ~ F F
G G H H F G H I
5 -1,7 -1,2 -0,G -2,3 -1,3 -0,8 - 1 ,G -1,8 -0,6 -0,5

STEPtEUROFORTEC1-1- nn initiative under thc EU Comctt Programrnc A319

Table 7 E.t-terttalpre.ss~trecoeficienrs C, for rlnopitcl~roofi.

The presence of openings and the porosity of the external surfaces greatly affects the
internal wind pressure in buildings. Considering the influence ofthe wind direction, the
internal pressure coefficient C,,ivaries with tile opening ratio of the windward side. For
normal closed buildings with opening windows ordoors, the valueof C,,,.is taken either
as 0,8or-0,5 forall the internai surfaces, whicheverresults in the Inoresevere loadcase.

Desigtl \~iirrclnotiolts
For building design, the wind action effects are generally estimated using the wind
pressure distribution on the surfaces. It results from thecombination ofthe external (we.)
and internal (wi) pressures given by:

where ziis equal to the relerence height of the walls for closed buildings or the mean
height of the openings.

According to EC1, structures are designed for all wind directions taking into account
the characteristic value of tlie wind actions (kt!,). They correspond to the net pressure
distribution defined as:

For some structures, the wind forces resulting from pressure and friction effects [nay
need to be considered. The pressure force (F,,,)is the su~nmationof pressures on the
projected structural area normal to the wind. For structures which are sensitive lo
torsion, the resulting force F, is assumed to act with art eccentricity e=b,)lO. The
friction force (l;l,)has to be considered in the case of large surfaces swept by the wind
(e.g. free standing roofs).

Combination of actions
After the estimation of the actions, the design requires the structural analysis of the
actioneffects. This stageinvolves theselectionofreaIistic loadarrangements for which
the structure ar the structural cotnponents are to be designed. Then, the design valrres
result froin tlle following con~binationsof the actions. Firstly, at the ultimate limit
states, the colubiriation for persistent or transient situations is:

where yG>iis the partial factor for the permanent loads (see STEP lecture A?).
Q,,represents the dominant variable action.

Secondly, the cornbination at the serviceability limit states depends on the action effect
being checked considering both:

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - ;in initiative under thc EU Comctt Programme

the characteristic combination: c G~
i
; + q, + C
i ~1
Q ~ , ( 1 1)

and the quasi-permanent combination:

C i
Gk,i + C@?,jQkj
jt I

According to EC1, the £'' factors for buildings are given in Table 8 where Y ,-values
refer to accidental load combinations.

Actions 'IJ,, II*,

Imposed loads Cntegory A,B 0.7 0,s 0,3

C,D 0,7 0,7 0.6
E 1,o 0,9 0,a
H 0 0 0
Snow loads 0,6 0,2 0
Wind actions 0,6 0.5 0

Tobit 8 var'inblc noions otr brtiidiags.

Y1fac~or3for

For timber structures, the designer must pay special attention to finding out the critical
load cases as they depend on the material load-duration factors. At the ultimate limit
states, thecombination (10) is related to the use ofthe k,,, factor. For eachcombination
including variable actions, the appropriate k,,,, factor corresponds to the dominant
action Q,,,. At serviceability lin~itstates, thecombination (I 1 ) applies to thecalculation
of the instantaneous action effects in service. In addition, the combination (12) refers
to the calculation of the long-term action effects using the relevant factors k,,/ior the
materials and the service class of the structure (Racher and Rougcr, 1994). According
to EC 1 calculalions, the k,,,, factors related to ttic perinanent load-duration class have
to be used (see STEP lectures A 17 and C18).

Considering the different limit states, tile combination of the actions is calculated for
each critical load case. The designer's judgement could lead himliier to consider a few
worse-case load arrangements. These are commonly:

- (dead + in~posecl)for floor me~i~bers or (clead + s n o ~ vfor

) roof' members,
- + SIIO\Y SJ2 or.S?)(see Figure 3) for the structure.
(dead i- \c~it?ri

Unifor~lilydistributed loads usually control the design of members, while unbalanced

load cases car1 induce more critical effects for connections or in some framing systems
(i.e. lattice structures).

Example
In the example, the design values or the combined actions are calculated for the frame
shown in Figure 8. The building is 48 metres long and the frame spacing s, is 4,8 nt.
Referring to national snow and wind maps, the location of the projected building
provides the following cliaracteristics for:

- snow loads on tile ground: s, = 1,5 kN/rt12

- reference wind velocity: I,,,,= I J , , ~ , ~ = 24 t ~ / s .
- terrain classificalion: ground category I11 (industrial area).

According to the national regulations, the snow and wind actions are classified in the
short-term duration class. As the structure is located at an altitude greater than 500 111 a
combination of wind and snow sllall be considered. Tlie Y factors for snow are:

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 YJos=0,67, Y,,,=0,3 and YIZ,..= 0,l.

The preliminary choice of the designer results in the values of the characteristic -
permanent loads as:

- self-weight of the frame: ge,= 0,70 kN/n7

- roofing elements: gkz= 0,55 M/171z

Figtlre 8 Geotrtetry of rile fiutt~e(a) nrrd up/~lirrlgravity loucls (b): pernlnrrerrt (g,G),
((I, Q)and st~otv(S,. 3,) lurrds.
i~c~riuble -
Pertnnnent loczcis
The uniformly disti-ibuted load on the horizontal projection of the rafters, due to --
permanent actions is:
g, = ( gk,l'. S~ g,,2 1- = ( OJ 4. 4.8 * 055 ) = 3/43 W / I ~
cos a cos 13.5 '

The self-weight of the vertical members results in the load:

Gk = h g k , l = 4,5 0,7 = 3,15 kIV

Ilrtposed 1oad.v
Tfle design requires only consideration of the imposed loads corresponding to the
maintenance of the roof. As the slope of the roof a(a= 13,5") is less than 20°, tire
-
uniformly distributed and the concentrated imposed loads are:
q, = 4,8 , 0,75 1 cos(13,5) = 3,7 liN/m Q, = 1,5 IN -
These loads belong to the short-term duration class and they do not act simultaneously
with otlier variable actions.

S~ro\,vloads
Figure 2 For a slope LX less than 1 .So, the shape coefficients p of the snow are defined as:
P = = = 0,8

The design considers two characteristic snow loads on the horizontal projection of the
structure:
- the symmetrical snow load S,:S,,, = ( p s,) sF = 0.8 1,5 4,8 = 5,76 W/nt -
-
- the snow on halrthe frarne S,,: = ( 0,5 p sk ) sF = 2,88 kN/m
-
Wind cictiorts
The value of the reference wind pressure is:
qrcf=0.5 p v,> = 0.5 . 1,25 .242= 0.36 k ~ / ~ n ~

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiutivc uncicr thc EU Conict~Programme

 Considering the frame geometry, the reference heights for the walls (zlv=4,5 111) and the
roof (z,,.= 7,5 rn) areless than the groundlayer height z,,,,,,=8 rn.Therefore, llle roughness
and exposure coefficients are constant for all the external and internal surfaces.

Equation (6)

Equation (7)

If74

coeficieiru for 6 =Oa(n)a~rd8 =90°(11).

E.~'~enraCpr.e.~.srrtre

The distribution of the external pressure coefficients (Figure 9) is defined with the
aspect dimension e,,, that takes the value of t 5 m for all wind directions. For the roof,
these coeficicnts are calculated by iuterpolation between the values of same sign given
for 5" and 15".

Equations (8) and (9) The characteristic wind actions are obtained as:

The wind effects on the frame result fiom aconstanl internal pressure (C,,?+O,8 or-0,5)
combined with the external pressures for each wind direction. The design of the frame
considers three distributions resulting from the wind acling on the gable (lz,,,,) or on the
long side ( w 2 ,and HI^,^). Figure 10 shows lhe wind actions for the Srarnes in the middle
of tile building.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-t- nn initiative undcr the EU Comci( Prograrnmc

i r eI on rhe.fi.nnle(kN/ttt):
Distrihlrfiotrso f ~ h ~~~itidacriotls
e
w , , ,~(6) ~ I J atld
(ct) ~ , ~ (c)

Cot?tbitlntionof actions: ullincate limit stntes

Depending on the effect being checked, the design of the frame refers lo the load
combinations with one variable action:
C I : 1,35 ( g k + G,) C 2 : 1,35 (g, + G,) + 1,5 (q, or Qk)
C3: 1,35(g, + G,) + 1,5 S,,, C4: (gk + G,) 1. 1,5 n ~ ~ , ~

and the cornbinations of snow and wind actions:

C 6 : 1,35 (g, +
SI k or Sll,, 1
Gk) + 1,s [ -& fy5lJio,,y
+

2
where Y, and Y,,,,, are the combination factors associated with snow and wind.

With the prescribed k,,(,,factors, the combination C1 can be critical if the permanent
loads represent more than 70% of the total loads. In this example, the first two
combinationsas well as thecombinations ofsnow and wind do notcausccriticaleffects.
In practice, the design of the frame depends on the design ofthe moment-resisting joint
(2 or 4) which is achieved using load case C3. This case also gives the critical
cornbination forthe members in combined bending andcompression. Thecombination
C4 defines the worst reversal forces due to wind uplift: bending and tension in the
members, and tension in the hinges.

Preliminary design values of forces and moments are given in Table 9.

Section 1 2(column) 3
Combination C3 C4 C3 C4 C4 C3 C4
Wind actions \tJz,k 11~,,~ ) L ~ ~ , ~ tthk
N (m) 171 -22,1 156 -26 -25,3 134 -41,1
1' (kN) 138 -16,3 138 -25,8 -20, t 32,3 -9,9
h4 (kN.tt1) 0 0 -622 60,2 82 0 0

Tcrltle 9 Design vafric.~

of forces arrd ttiorrlents at tlre rclrimnte littrit states.

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - an initiativc undcr tlic EU Comett Programme

 qf actio17s:seiviceabi1it-y liritit states
Cor~tbirrntior~
As snow is the rnain variable action, the instantaneous effects of {he actions are
calcuIated froin the combinations:

Depending on Lhe shape and the span of the frame, the limitation for tile horizontal
detleclion of the column is checked using either the combination C7 or C8. Tile
combination C7 gives tile maxilnuln value of the vertical deflection in section3.

In addition, the calculalion of the long-ten11 effects such as creep deformations refers
to the quasi-permanent combinations:
c9 : (gk Gk) @?+J sI,k
+ + = (gk Gk)4. O,l s,,k
+

(gk + Gk) + @2,sSll,k @2,,9 Wi,k = ( ~ k

+
+ '9'

Tocalculatethe final deflections, it is therefore necessary to considertl~ecornbinations:

- (C7,Cg) for the vertical displacements,

- (C7,Cg) or (C8,ClO) whichever causes the greater horizontal displacements.

References
C.E.B. (1980). S1ruciuraI sarety. Bulletins d'information N"127 and 128, Brussels, Belgium.

E.C.C.S. (1987). Kecornmendations for calcuiating the cffects of wind on constructions. European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Technical commitlee 12,Rcporl N"52,Brusscls, Bclgium.

I-lendrickson, E.M., Ellingwood, B. ilnd Murphy. J. (1987). Limit stntc probabilitics for wood structural
membcrs. ASCE, J, of Slructur~lEngineering, USA, Vol. 1 13 N"1, p. 88-1 06.

Lusch (1964). Wind tunnct invcsligationson buildings withreclangulnrbnsc and with flat and duo-pitchcd
roofs. Rcpon of Bauforschung Ne41,Germany.

Rachcr, P. and Rougcr, F.(1994). Scnticcabilily limit states - A proposal for updating Eurocode 5 with
rcspcct to Eurocodc 1. in: CIB WI 8~-27"'Mecting,Sydney, Australia, July 1994.

Rackwitz, R, (1976). Pr;~cticalprobabilistic approach lo design. C.E.B., Bullelin d'inforrnation N' 112,
Brusscls. Belgium.

STEPIEUROFORTECN - on initiiitivc under the EU Comclt Programme

 Wood as a building material

STEP lecture A4 Objectives

P. I-ioffmcycr To provide the concept of wood as a cellular, anisotropic material. To present the
Technical University basic definitions of moisture content and density. To introduce shrinkage and
of Dentnark swelling and their implications in structural engineering. To present the necessaly
background for the understanding of ECS's modification factor, k,,,,,.

Summary
The concept of wood as a cellular composite material is presented. The microstruc-
ture of the wood cell wall is discussed with a view to explaining the anisotropic
nature of the physical and mechanical properties of wood. Important features of
macrostructure are included; keywords are growth rings, juvenile and reaction
wood, sapwood/heartwood, grain deviation, knots.

Density is the single most important physical characteristic of wood. The higl~
variability is discussed and the concept of characteristic density presented.

Water is always present in wood. The amount of water has a profound influence on
almost all wood properties. Moisture content and the fibre saturation point are
defined and the sorption isotherm presented. Anisotropic shrinkage and swelling are
introduced and their engineering implications discussed. Different types of
distortio~~scaused by drying ace presented. An overview of rnoisture strength
relationships and the influence of moisture level on the failure mechanisms of wood
and wood based inaterjlils is discussed.

Wood and wood based inaterials experience a significant loss of strength over a
period of time. For permanent loads, wood and wood based materials are assigned
strength values that are 60% or less of their short term strength. This duration of
load effect is discussed and its moisture dependency is described.

Introduction
Wood is a natural, organic cellular solid. It is a composite made out of a chemical
complex of cellulose, helnicellulose, lignin and extractives. Wood is highly
anisotropic due mainly to the elongated shapes of wood cells and the oriented
structure of the cell walls. In addition, anisotropy results from the differentiation of
cell sizes throughout a growth season and in part froin a preferred direction of
certain cell types (e.g. ray cells).

The minute structure of cell walls, the aggregation of cells to form clear wood and
the anomalies of structural timber represent three structural levels which all have
a profound influence on the properties of wood as an engineering material. For
instance, the ultrastructure level of the cell wall provides the explanation of why
slirinkage and swelling of wood is normally I0 to 20 times larger in the transverse
direction than in the longitudinal direction. The microstructure of clear wood holds
the key to understanding why wood is 20 to 40 rimes stiffer in the longitudinal
direction than in the transverse direction. The macrostructure of knots, fibre angle
etc. provides the explanation of why tensile strength along the grain may drop from
more than 100 N/ltrnz2 for clear wood to less than 10 NAlrrn' for structural timber
of low quality.

STEPlEUROFORTEC11 - an initiative undcr thc EU Comett Progrnmine A411

The structure of wood
Wood is obtained from two broad categories of plants known comrnercidly as
hardwoods (angiosperms, deciduous trees) and softwoods (gymnosperms, conifers)
-
(Figure I).

Figitre I Corirrrrerciul finrbe~.i.s (ongiospertns) orfronl ( b )

obtnirierffrotn (a)lrard~~~oods
sofr~voocls(gymrro.spemw)(Cottrfesyof W.A. C6tC). LeJr: octk (Qltet-clutaoBfir),
right: spruce (Picea abies).

The observation of wood without optical aids shows not only differences between
softwoods and hardwoods and differences between species, but also differences
within one specimen, for example sapwood and heartwood, earlywood and
Iatewood, the arrangement of pores and the appearance of reaction wood. All these
phenomena are the result of the development and growth of wood tisstte. Softwoods
and hardwoods differ in cell type (Figure 2).

SoJFnvood shows a relatively simple structure as it consists of 90 to 95% tixcheids,

which are long (2 to 5 nmr) and slender (10 to 50 prn) cells with flattened or
tapered, closed ends. The tracheids are arranged in radial files, and their longitudi-
nal extension is oriented in the direction of the stem axis. In evolving from
earlywood to latewood the cell walls become thicker, while the ceIl diarlieters
become smaller. At the end of the growth period tracheids with small cell Iumina
and small radial diameters are developed, whilst at the beginning of the subsequent
growth period tracheids with large cell lurnina and diameters are developed by the
tree (Figure I(b)). This difference in growth ]nay result in a ratio between latewoad
density and earlywood density as high as 3:1.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr thc EU Comctt Progmrnme

 Resin

Figure 2 Models of a softl-t)oociorrd a Irard~voociblock, sho~virlgthe inair1 plnires for

(~1riso1rop)f
(adaptedft-on1 Fc~tgrel~ i l dWcgcr,er; 1983).

The storage and the transport of assimilates take place within parenchyma cells
which in sofhvoods are predominantly arranged in radially running rays (Figure 2).
Resin canals are longitudinal and form radical cavities within the tissue of most
softwoods.

The tree sap stream from one cell to another is facilitared by small openings or
recesses in the fibre wall known as pits. A predominant type in softwoods is the
bordered pit. These not only let water move freely but they also act as valves to
prevent the spread of air into sap filled cells, in which case the water columns,
extending from the roots to the crown, would rupture and the tree would evenh~ally
die. Uilfortunately, pits perfom] tile same function during drying of timber.
Capillary forces are developed upon water retreat from the cell lumens tltrough the
pits, and the pit membranes ltlove effectively to seal off the pit openings. This not
only impedes the drying of wood; it also may impede greatly the susceptibility to
later i~npregnationtreatment. Such pit aspiration is the nuin reason why spruce, for
example, is nonnally very difficult to impregnate.

Hnrdrvood anatomy is Inore varied and coraplicated than that of softwood, but most
structural concepts are analogous. Hardwoods have a basic tissue for strength
containing librifor~nfibres and fibre tracheids. Within this strengthening tissue,
conducting vessels are distributed, often with large lunlina. These vessels are long
pipes ranging from a few centimctres up to Inany metres in length and consisting
of single elernents with open or perforated ends. Diffuse-porous and ring-porous
hardwoods can be distngoished by the arrangement of the diameter of the vessels
(Figure 3). Hardwood fibres have thicker cell wnlIs and smaller lumina than those
of the softwood twcheids. The differences in wall thickness and lumen diameters
between earlywood and latewood are not as extrelne as in softwoods.

The number of parenchyma cells in hardwoods is higher than in softwood.

Hardwoods often have very large rays and particularly in tropical hardwoods there
are high percentages of longitudinal parenchyma.

Some basic features of the wood cell waH are found to be co~nlnonamong many
different wood species. The basic skeleral substance of the wood cell wall is
cellulose which is aggregated into larger units of structure called elementary fibrils.
These, in turn, are aggregnted to form threadlike entities known as microfibrils. The
number of cellulose chains contained in each rnicrofibril has been estimated to be

STEPtEUROFORTECH - iui irlitiaiivc tinder the EU Co~ncilProgramme A413

in the range of 100 Lo 2000. The cellulose in a microfibril is embedded in a rnatrix
of hemiceiluloses and er~velopedby lignin. -

Light tiricrogrupli of rhc /firre f)jpes of pore pcitrenrs rtfgrowth irtcrerrretrrs it1
har~l\~loods as scctl in cross section. Key: A, riitg-porotrs (red onk); B, serrti-

The layered structure of the fibre cell wall is illustrated in Figure 4. Between the
individual cells there is a layer, the tltidrile lamella (ML), which glues the cells
together to forin the tissue. The middle lainella is rich in lignin and pectic
substances and virtually free of cellulose. In the pritt~aty\call ( P ) the cellulose
microfibrils are arranged in a rnndorn, irregular network. In normal wood tissue, the
s e c o ~ ~tvall ~ ~ ~ of three fairiy distinct layers S,, St and 3,. The outennost
~ l uconsists
layer, S,, is very thin (0, I to 0,2 pnr) and exhibits an average tt~icrofibrilangle (for
the layer as a whole) of about 50 to 70". The bulk of the secondary wall is ~nnde
up of the S, layer, which is typically several ~nicrometresthick. The microfibrils are
usually oriented to the fibre axis at a relatively small angle (5 to 22'). Within the
S, layer the microfibrils are arranged with a gentle slope but not in a strict order.

,.e 4 Schenicrric clffltegetter01 ~crallnrcllirecfrcre ofirortt~nl~vuod.fit~ers. Key: L,cell

ltrnretl; ML. tt~icdlelanlella; P, prinraiy ~ i ~ c r lurrcl
l ; S,, St utld S.,, 1ayer.s of tl~c
secoirdcity \i~all(udaprccl frarrt Pnr-han! urlcl G r q , 1984).

From an engineering viewpoint, the celI wail structure is an ingenious construction.

The dominant S2 layer OF allnost axially oriented bundles of rnicrofibrils very

STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under !he EU Comcit Progrnmrnc

effectively takes up tension forces. In compression the bundles of tnicrofibrils are
turned into Iong slender columns which are then prevented from buckling by the
inner and outer reinforcing layers of S, and S, microfibrils having a more gentle
slope.

Growth rings
For most softwoods and ring-porous hardwoods there is a relationship between the
width of growth rings and density, Softwoods tend to produce high density
Iatewood bands of a relatively constant thickness. Most of the variation in growth
ring width is caused by a variation in the thickness of the low density early wood
bands. For most softwoods, therefore, density decreases with increasing growth ring
width. This explains why ring width is included as a grading parameter in many
visual grading rules currently used in Europe. However, caution sl~ouldbe exercised
when using such refationships. The density level for a given ring width is dependent
on soil type, cli~nateconditions, sifvicultural practice etc. Therefore, for softwood
timber of mixed origin, ring width does not predict density with any real accuracy
(Figure 5).

300 &--+---1---t4___ill_i-~
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 \vr (nlm)

F ~ ~ I I5I - E De~uify,p , , (kg/~~t')

as afirttctiorr of groivrl~ring lvidtlr
MJ, (r~rirr).
Resuits froiir
. ,
1600 spccirrrens of nvo
. . sorl~plesof Swedislr grorolr nlrcl Dartislz grows sprtlcc.

Ring-porous hardwoods such as oak and ash are characterized by a high concentra-
tion of open vessels produced during spring. The width of these rings is relatively
constant and the variation in growth ring width is caused by a variation in the
thickness of the high density latewood bands of fibre tracheids. This is why density
increases with increasing ring width for most ring-porous hardwoods. There is no
such relationship for diffuse-porous hardwoods such as poplar itnd beech.

Sapwood and heartwood

The young outer part of a tree stem conducts the upward flow of sap from the root
to the crown. This part of the bole is known appropriately as sapwood. As the cells
grow old, they stop functioning physioiogically; this inner part of the bole is known
as heartwood.

In most species heartwood is darker in colour due to the inc~ustationwith organic

extractives. These chemicals provide heartwood with a better resistance to decay
and wood boring insects. NorrnalIy heartwood formation results in n significant
reduction in moisture content. This results in pit aspiration. In many hardwood
species the vessels become plugged. This causes a marked reduction of perrneabil-

STEP/EUROFORTECI-1 - Bn initiative under Lhc EU Comet1 Programme A415

ity. In some species (e.g. spruce, beech) the heartwood is not coloured, nevertheless
the extractives and physical alterations result in a difference between sapwood and
heartwood. -
For the purpose of wood preservation, sapwood is preferred, since the heartwood
of a species such as pine ( P i ~ ~ i,~j~lvestris)
rs is virtually impermeable. -
Juvenile and reaction wood
The wood of the first 5 to 20 growth rings (juvenile wood) of any stem cross-
section exhibits properties different from those of the outer part of the stem (mature
-
wood). This is particularly significant for softwoods. In juvenile wood, tracheids are
relatively short and thin-wailed with a gentle slope of the microfibrils of tile S2
layer. Juvenile wood therefore typically exhibits lower strength and stiffness and -
much greater longitudinal shrinkage than mature, normal wood. Heartwood often
holds all the juvenile wood, which possesses inferior quality with respect to
lnechanical properties. Therefore, in young, fast grown trees with a high proportion -
of juvenile wood, heartwood may be inferior to sapwood. Juvenile wood is not
normally considered a problem in terms of timber engineering. However, with the
increasi~~g proportion of fast grown, short rotation plantation trees being used in the
industry, the problems attached to juvenile wood will increase.

A tree reacts to exterior forces on the stem by forming reaction wood. Softwoods
develop compression wood in areas of high conlpression, whereas hardwoods
develop tension wood in high tensile regions. While the occurrence of tension wood
is of minor importance to timber engitleering, conlpression wood often creates
problems. Compression wood has the appearance of wider growth rings and a
I~igherlatewood proportion than normal wood. In addition, the contrast between
earlywood and latewood is less dislinct than in normal, mature wood (Figure 6).
The microfibrifs of the S2 layer are arranged with a 45' slope which results in
excessive longitudinal shrinkage, similar to juvenile wood.

Figlclz. 6 (bj rlurrrrcrl

Cortlprcssion woocl irr sprttce (Picea ubies). (a)cot~tpressiori~~loocl;
I~~OOC~.

Timber containing compression wood is liable to excessive distortion upon drying.

Compression wood is normally of higher density so there is no loss in mechanical
properties, however in a dry condition it tends to break in a brittle manner. Most
visual strength grading rules limit the amount of compression wood in high quality
grades.

Grain deviation
Some trees grow with a cell orientation forming a helix around the stem. This spiral
grain is common in certain timber species and rare in others. It is particularly

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comett Programme

pronounced in young trees. Timber sawn from these trees often exhibits grain
deviation which will severely impair its use. Limits to grain deviation are included
in most visual strength grading rules; typically a grain deviation of I in 10 is
accepted for high quality timber while 1 in 5 or more is accepted for low quality
timber.

Knots
IOlots are the parts of branches that are embedded in the main stem of the tree. Tlle
lateral branch is connected to the pith of the main stem (Figure 7). As the girth of
the trunk increases, successive growth rings form continuously over the stem and
branches and a cone of branch wood (the intergrown knots) develops within the
trunk. Such knots are termed tight knots because they are intergrown with
surrounding wood. At some points he limb may die or break off. Then subsequent
growth rings added to the main stem simply surround the dead limb stub and the
dead part of the stub becomes an encased knot. It is not intergrown and often has
bark entrapped and is called a loose knot.

Figure 7 Tire lateral (Irarrc conrrecrcd to the pith of fhc rtrairr stern.
growtlt rirq or lr fon~tscontir~rtortslj~
over the sret,~nnd

Figrtre 8 Figllre 9
A sofnctood board niny skatv k~tots Teltsior~fuilrirc of a sprttce board
i~rclrrsters scparcited by t11eofrerr cntcseri IJJ' fibre itrcliitntion aro~ntrl
clear it~oorlof tl~eir~~erjrodes. cr brrtt.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initinlive under the EU Cornclt Programme

Softwoods are characterized by having a dominant stem from which whorls of
lateral branches occur at regular intervals or nodes. Softwood boards therefore sl~ow
knots in clusters separated by the often clear wood of the internodes (Figure 8). -
Knots are, by far, the single most important defect affecting mechanical properties
(Figure 9). ICnots are termed according to their appearance at the surface of the
timber (Figure 10). -

Fig~trc10 K~lofs
o1.e terttred accordi,rg to tltcir appearance ut the srttfclce of tlic rittrber;
(a) spike krrot; (6)ticirralv face knot; ( c ) tlirorcgh k~ror;(d) orris ktjot;(c) \vide
face ktjot; Cfl knot cluster.

Density
Density is the most important physical characteristic of timber. Most mechanical
properties of timber are positively correlated to density as is the load carrying
capacity of joints. Limits to density are therefore incorporatecl directly in the
strength class requirements of prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength classes".

Density is defined as

where n i is the inass (kg) of timber and V its volume (nl3]. Density is moisture
dependent, because moisture adds to the mass and may cause the volume to swell.
Density p , at a moisture content, w (%), is expressed as

p,=--
111,
- rrro(l +oyolo)
= Po
1 +O,Olw
(2)
v, V,(l +oYOlP,~) 1 +0,01p ,o
where m,, V, and p, are the mass, volume and density at zero moisture content, p,
is termed oven-dry density or simply dry density. P,, is the coefficient of volumetric
swelling and has the units of percentage swelling per percentage increase of
moisture content.

As explained in detail later, swelling only occurs when water is penetrating the cell
wall layers. The moisture content corresponding to saturation of the cell wall is
tenned the fibre saturation point a,, This corresponds to a moisture conrent of about
28%. Above this no swelling occurs. Below fibre saturation, swelling may for
practical purposes be considered Iinear wit11 moisture content.

In wood science and engineering, dry density p, and density p,, at 12% moisture
content are most frequently used. Density values given in EC5 are defined with
mass and volume corresponding to an equilibrium at a temperature of 20 "C and
a relative humidity of 65%.

The values of p,? referred to in EC5 relate to the average density pl,,,,nt,r and the
characteristic density p , , , , defined as the population 5-percentile value. For a given

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the ELI Comcu Programme

strength grade of timber, density is assumed to show a r~ormaidistribution with a
coefticient of variation of 10%. Therefore:

In forestry, density is expressed as the ratio of oven-dry rnass to the green volu~ne.

This density (p,,), often terined basic density, is preferred by foresters, because it
gives direct information about how much wood (dry mass production) is present in
a given volume as it appears in the forest. An additionat advantage of using water-
swollen, or green volume, is that it can be determined by the simple technique of
water displace~nenteven for irregular shaped sarnptes. A further wood density
reIated term is specific gravity (G). Basic specific gravity is defined as:
Ino
Go,; !h= - - dry Inass
p ," plYV, mass of displaced water
where p,,. is the density of water.

The terms basic density and basic specific gravity contain the same information, and
they are different only in the fundamental sense that basic specific gravity is a
number (0 < G < 1,5) and basic density has the unit of kS/in3.

The densities p,, and P , are

~ related to basic density p, by

Po s (7)
P12 =
1-16.10-~p, ,
All the various expressions for density are used frequently in literature on timber
properties. Often no specific mention is made of which variant of density is being
used. Caution should therefore be exercised when using such information.

The density p, of the cell wall is about 1500 kg/~n?Tile density of wood, therefore,
is dependent on its porosity, defined as the volume fraction of ceIl lumina.
Structural timber typically shows dry density values in the range from 300 to 550
kgha3,which gives fractional void volu~nesin the dry condition from 0,80 down to
0.63.

The density of timber., even of a particular sample talcen from a single location,
varies within wide limits. prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength classes" defines
characteristic density values plZ,kfor softwood in the range from 290 kg/~n3for the
low strength class C14 to 420 fig/nz3 for the high quality strength class C40. For
visual grading, growth ring width was earlier shown to be of limited value (Figure
5). Therefore alternative methods for density assessment are needed. This topic is
covered in STEP iecture A6.

Wood and moisture

Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the mass of removable water (I?z,,.) to the
dry mass (m,) of the wood (Equation 8). The dry mass is obtained by oven drying
at 103 + 2 "C. Moisture content may be expressed as a fraction or in percentage

STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn inirialivc under thc EU Cornctt Programrnc

terms. Througliout this chapter, wood moisture content is expressed in percentage
terms.

For moisture contents in the range 6 to 28%, electric moisture meters are available,
which are easy and quick to use. The accuracy of the best meters is of the order
-c 2% which is quite sufficient for practical engineering applications. The two
principles currently in use are, firstly, a DC based measurement of the moisture
dependent resistivity between two electrodes hammered into the wood and secondly
an AC based assessment of the moisture dependent dielectric properties of wood in
an electric field created by two electrodes resting on the wood surface. Both types
of meter require calibration and the AC meters only measure the moisture content
in the top layer of the wood.

When wood is dried from a green condition, water is first lost from the cell lumens.
This water is not associated at the molecular level with wood and is termed free
water. The water held within the cell wall is termed bound water. as it is held to the
cell wall substance with hydrogen bonds and van der Wads forces. The removal of
water from the cell wall thus requires greater energy than reruoval of free water.

The moisture content, w,, when the cell wali is saturated with moisture, bur no free
water exists in the cell lumen, is termed the fibre saturation point (FSP). The FSP
for most species is in the range of 25 to 35%; for most practical purposes 28% is
a convenient average.

The fibre saturation point is of considerable engineering significance since below

this point there will be dramatic changes in most physical and ~nechanical
properties. Above the FSP most properties are approximately constanl.

Wood is hygroscopic and thus continually exchanges moisture with its surround-
ings. For any combination of temperature and humidity in the environment there
will be a corresponding moisture content of the wood where the inward diffusion
of moisture equals the outward movement. This moisture content is referred to as
the equilibrium moisture content w,. Wood, however, is rarely in a state of' moisture
equilibrium as the climatic conditions of the environment are constantly changing.
The levet of moisture content and even the magnitude and speed of moisture
fluctuations have a profound influence on almost all engineering properties of wood.

A sorption isotherm represents the relationship between moisture content o ,and

relative humidity yr at constant temperature T. At a specific relative humidity yr the
equilibrium moisture content w,, depends on whether equilibrium is reached as a
result of desorption or as a result of adsorption. The adsorption isotherm (A) is
always lower than the corresponding desorption isotherm (D). The AID ratio at
room temperature generally ranges between 0,8 and 0,9. Sorption hysteresis in
timber is beneficial from an engineering viewpoint. This is because wood exposed
to cyclic humidity conditions shows smaller changes in moisture content for given
humidity changes than would be the case if there were no hysteresis. Sorption
hysteresis reduces the effective slope dwlclyr of the actual sorption isotherm and the
dimensional changes associated with humidity changes.

Figure 1 1 shows sorption isotherms for spruce; these curves may also for practical
purposes be taken as representative of pine and fir. The equilibrium moisture
content of panel products like plywood and particIeboard are also adequately

STEPIEUROFORTECM - an iniliativc undcr the EU Comclt Programme

described by Figure 11. However, extensive chemical treatment or heat treatment
during production of panel products like fibreboards may significm~tlyreduce the
equilibrium n~oisturelevel of such products.

y' [%I
Figrrw 11 Sorpliori isothe~.r~u for sprrtce at 25 'C (Sfurrrnz 1964). Moistrtre corlterrf (a)
I ~ E ~ S Ire/atitre
~S hunriciit)~ fly). A: n~fsorptioil;D: c~esorpfioit;0: osciffatittg
sorj~tio)~.

Considerable time is required before timber wiil come to equilibrium with a

surrounding constant climate. For example, 50 x 100 H I I ) ? spruce timber at w = 20%
may need more than 4 weeks at 20 "C and yr = 54% before the centre will reach
the corresponding equilibrium moisture content of o = 10%. Therefore, the moisture
content of a component in a timber structure will approach the equilibrium moisture
content corresponding to the average temperature and relative humidity over a
period of weeks rather than being affected by short cycles of high or low f~umidity.

Shrinkage and swelling

Moisture has such an affinity to the wood celi wail substance that i t can force its
way into this virtually non-porous material. By so doing, it pushes the ~nicrofibrils
apart. The resultant swelling of the cell wall can for practical purposes be assu~ned
to be equivalent to tlre volr~rneof the adsorbed water. During sweiling the volume
of the cell lumens stays constant. This implies that the volumetric swelling of
timber equals the volume of rlle adsorbed water.

When moisture is removed from the cell wall, timber shrinks. Shrinkage and
swelling within the normal moisture range for timber structures are termed
movements.

The directional movements are first and foremost dependent on the microfibrillar
orientation ofthe dominant S, layer of the fibre cell wail. Since the microfibrils are
normally inclined at a low angle to the longitudinal direction (Figure 4), almost all
ntovements show in the transverse directions. The anisotropy between transverse
and longitudinal ~nosernentsis of the order 20: I . Juvenile wood and compression
wood exhibit microfibrillar angles much larger than normal wood, which result in
much larger longitudillal movements. In compression wood the helical angle is often

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Cotnett Programme A411 1

of the order 45" which results in equally large movements in the longitudinal and
transverse directions (Figure 12).

Anisotropy in timber's water relationships exists even within its transverse direction.
The tangential movelnents may, for practical purposes, be taken as twice the radial
movements. Therefore, although microfibrillar angle is of major importance, it is
quite apparent that other factors are also important. For most engineering purposes,
however, it is unnecessary to differentiate between the two transverse directions,
and transverse movement is often taken as the average value.

Figlrre 12 Lotlgitudirtal (L) orld tarlgctrticll (7') s1lrirzkage.s (%) j'rorrr greet1 ro over~-dty
cotzrli/ion irr rclariotr 10 nrerrrt jiDt.il angle (0). Species is Pirrtts jeffre~e?fi
(Maylotr, 1968).

Changes in dimensions tend to be linear with moisture in the range of 5 to 20%

moisture content. In this range movelnents may be calculated from

where h , and It, are the dinlensions (thicknesses) at moisture contents o,and o,
respectively. P is the coefficient of swelling (positive) or shrinkage (negative). Units
are %I%.

If no species-specific value of the coefficient of movernent is known, an approxi-

mation may be used. The coefficient of volumetric movelnent P,, can be considered
to be equal to the numeric value of the density rimes 10'" In other words, the
volurne of timber of a density equal to 400 I g / 1 1 1 ~s~vells0,4% for each 1% increase
in moisture content. This is based on the volumetric sweIling equaling the volurne
of water uptake. Tile coefficient of longitudinal movernent, Po, is usually negligible,
in which case the coefficient of transverse movement, P,, is equal to half the
coefficient of voiurnetric rnovemenr.

For most species, including spruce, pine, fir, larch, poplar and oak, engineering
values of Po and J,f can be taken as p, = 0,Ol and p, = 0,3,where flis given as
percentage movement for I % change of moisture content. For dense species like
beech (Fagus syh~atica)and eklii (Lol~hir-aalatn) a P,, = 0,3 should be used.

In plywood, the movements in the pane1 plane are of the same order as the
longitudinal movemcnts of timber. For other composite wood products, such as
particleboards and fibreboards, these movements are very dependent on the
particular panel type and production technique. In the transverse direction of panel
products, the reversible movemcnts are of the same order as those of timber.
However, many panel products, which have been subjected to high compression

STEP/EUROFORTECH- an initiative under rhc EU Co~ncttProgramme

stresses during production, will show additional, irreversible tllickness swelling or-
"spring back".

When wood is restrained from expanding (e.g. in bolred joints), the uptake of
moisture induces intetnal stresses. Due to the viscoelastic/plastic nature of wood
such stresses will eventually relax and irreversible di~nensionalchanges occur.
When wood returns to its original moisture content the dimensions have shrunk, and
the bolted joint may then be a loose fir and have lost some of its capacity. It is
therefore ilnportant in engineering design to retain access to sucll construction
details which may need tightening up.

In order to mini~nize the problems of dimensional ~nove~nents timber should

preferably be used at a moisture content corresponding to the relative humidity of
its envil.ontneni. Within buildings, timber of a moisture content higher than 20 to
22% should only be used as an exception and only in suc1.t cases where adequate
and quick drying of the structure is obtained witt~outrisks of biological degradation
or perlnanent set due to mechonosorptive creep.

In the case of large timber members, it is not always possible to neglecl longitudi-
nal movements. If, ils an example, the ~noisturecontent of the upper and lower part
of a glulam beam varies, it may result in significant vertical movements. A roof
beam laid in insulation may, during winter, experience the warm, dry climate of the
heated room in its lower part and the moist, cold climate of the unheated loft in its
upper part (Figure 13(n)). The deflection ri of the beam is catculated from

where I is (he span of the beam and the curvature K is

K = -(E,~-C,)/J~

and E,, and E, are t.he strains of the outermost upper and lower parts of the beam.

Similar examples of importance ta timber engineering are for example l u g e stressed

skin roof elements or roof trusses with the lowel- chord placed in insulation in a
relatively drier climate (Figure 13(b)).

STEPIEUROFORTECII - an initiative under the EU Cornclt Programme A411 3

Deflections may also occur in structures where the moisture distribution is
homogeneous but different from the original moisture content. An example of such
a case is given in Figure 14 which illustrates a three-hinged frame wit11 finger
jointed corners.

i t 1 Honroger~eoltsmoisntrz. cllrrtrge it] n ~/~rz.e-hirrgedfinttzc irti~lrjittger- joitrted

comers rvill cnrtse nlovemtetrts due to tile charzge of (Ire atlgle Oer~t~cetl fibres
arld the cross sectiarls of the 1argefitrgerjoir~r.r( f j ) (adupteclfrort~Larse~lutld
Xiherhalf, 1994).

A Iio~nogenousincrease in moisture content results in an increase of dimensions in

the transverse direction corresponding to the moisture induced strain E. The
longitudinal dimensions are assumed to stay constant. This results in a change of
the angle between fibre direction and the finger joint from a to a - A a where A a is
calculated from

The total change of angle in a two-finger-joint corner amounts to 4Aa. In a

symmetrical three-hinged frame with 2 joints in each corner the total vertical
movement of the top of the Frame is

In statically indeterminate structures, the above movements will give rise Eo

increased stresses.

Distortions
The anisotropy of transverse swelling may cause cross sections to distort upon
drying (Figure 15). The fact that tangential shrinkage is about twice the radial
shrinkage explains the tendency for the growth rings to straighten out.

The internal stresses developed by the anisotropic shrinkage may be released

primarily in the development of radial cracks. The tendency to cracking is more
pronounced the larger the cross section and the faster the drying rate.

The presence of compression wood, juvenile wood or even knots in only part of a
cross section may cause lengthwise distortions known as bow, spring and twist.
Twist may also result from sawing timber from a tree exhibiting spiral grain. Cup
is the result of the different movements in the tangential and radial directions
(Figure 16).

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an ini~iativcundcr thc EU Camctt Programme

Figrire 15 Distorriotrs oj'>lariorlsci.oss seclioizs aficr r h y i ~ ~critfioiiz
g, dijJcerent iocntiozi.~
i~ra log.

The degree of distortion is often given maximum limits in national strength grading
rules. The CEN standards for visual and machine strength grading contains
recommended limits to distortion (Table I). Such limits do not reflect an exact
relationship between distortion and strength but rather define limits beyond which
the handling and assembling of timber in structural co~nponents becomes
unacceptably complicated. There may be occasions when the structural design calls
for tighter limits than given in Table I and such Iimits (hen must be agreed with the
producer.

Type of distortion Grade fitting into strength clnss

CIS and below Higher classes
Bow 20 10
Spring 12 8
Twist 2 rrniiJ25 tr~niwidth 1 rrriiz/25 itrni width
CUP No restrictions

Moisture content and mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of wood are dependent on moisture content. An increase
in moisture produces lower strenglh and elasticity values. Tf~iseffect is partly
explained by the cell wall swelling, whereby less cell wall material per unit area is
available. More important, however, is that water, when penetrating the cell wail,
weakens the hydrogen bonds responsible for holding together the cell wall. Moisture
variations above fibre saturation point have no effect on n~echanicalpropel-ties,
since such variations are related to free water in the cell lumens.

STEPIEUROFORTECJI- an iniliativc under rl~cEU Corncir Programme A4115

The effect of moisture change varies for different mechanical properties. For
example, failure in compression parallel to grain is caused by fibre buckling where
moisture sensitive hydrogen bonds play an important role and is inore sensitive to
rnoisture than tension strength which atso includes rupture of covalent bonds when
tearing apart the cell wall microfibrils.

Values for the effect of moisture on the mechanical properties of clear wood
properties are given in Table 2. For practical purposes a linear relationship between
moisture content and properties may be assumed for 8% < w < 20%.

Property Change (%)

Coinpression strength pamllcl to the grain 5
Compression strength perpcndiculnr 10 tlie grain 5
Rending strength parallel to the grain 4
Te~lsionstrength parallel Lo Lhe grain 2,s
Tcnsion strength pcrpcndicular to tile grain 2
Shear strength parallel lo the grain 3
[nipact bending strength parallel to the grain 0s
Modulus of elasticity panIIeI to thc grain 13

Tcible 2 A ~ [ ~ ~ I J . ~ Ici~arrgc
' I ? I C (%)
~ I E of clear lltood pro[)erfie.s for cr orle percerrmge
cirur~gcof rr~oisttcrz.corlterll. Bc~sisis properties uf 13% uroistcrre coriterrl.

For some mechanical properties the influence of moisture is less significant for
timber rhan for clear wood (Hoffrneyer 1978; Madsen 1975; Madsen et al. 1980);
tensile strength of low quality timber is virtually independent of tnoisture content.
Figures 17 and 18 are based on results from an investigation (Hoffrneyer 1978) of
50 x 150 rlntt spruce (Picell ubie.~),where samples of equal strength distribution
were subjected to coinpression, tension or bending failure at each of three different
moisture content levels. All figures show strength against the percentile values.

Figtire 17 Strerlg/ll (Nhrrtr~')agairrsr perccritile for trlcrfched sctrt~plesof spruce (Picea

nbies) .strbjccietl to a: comprcssioti, 1): te/rsiotr arld c: be~rc/ir~gat rjloisrirre
corilcrtt levels 12%, 20% uad >2S%.

The influence of moisture content on compression strength is seen LO be indepen-

dent of timber quality, since the relative strength difFerences stay almost constant -
throughout the whole range of percentile values (Figure 17a). Tensile strength,
however, seems to be very inodestly influenced by moisture and no difFerence is
seen at the 5-percentile level. In fact, dry timber strength (a-12%) drops below
moist timber strength (w-20%) for the lower half of the timber quality ((Figure 17b).
-
Bending strength represents a mixture of the co~npressionand tension behaviour,
-
STEP/EUROFORTECf-I- an initiative undcr thc EU Comctt Progr:irnmc
 and at a timber quality level corresponding to the 5-percentile, bending strength is
only very- modestly influenced by moisture (Figure 17c).

Bending strength is rrorn~ailyhigher than both cornpression strength and tensile

strength, wi.~ichis partly explained statistically by the fact that the bending test
subjects only a small amouni of the individual specimens to high stresses.

The failure mode of timber subjected lo bending is moisture dependent. In bending

at low moisture content, failure is governed by areas of high tension, tvhereas at
high inoisture content failure is governed by areas of high compression. Tensile
failures are brittle whereas compression failures exhibit extensive yield resulting in
zones of compression creases.

Figure 1S Slrz.rlg/lr(N/~irrrr')ogaitrsfpe~.ccrlti/eI%) foi-i~1ntcheci.sc~17ip/es of slmrce (Picea

obits). The resrrlts sholvr~iit Fig1tt-e I7 Irave beeti r.enmitged to ill~rsrrntc[he
i r l t e r . a i o / i i of co~iipressioit-,reiisiorz- uiiri boidirtg .strerigrli nl eqrml
moislrrre cnriterlr I~I>L'/.S.

EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.5 Timber subjected to the moisture conditions of service class 1 of EC5 shows higher
co~npressionstrength than tensile strengtll for a given percentile (quality) (Figure
I8a). Such timber subjected to bending will always fail in a brittle manner and
Iinear strain distribution may be assuined ail the way to failure. Timber in service
class 3 condition behaves differently; here compression strength is lower tIinn
tensile strength for all quality levels (Figure 18c). Such timber will initiate bending
failure by developi~lgvisible compression creases in tile outermost compressed
zones. As the bending stress increase, the neutral axis moves towards the tension
side allowing the increased compression stresses to be carried over a larger cross
section. The strain distribution is no longer linear. Eventually the tensile stress
reaches the ultimate tensile strength and the bean1 fails. Timber in service class 2
conditions shows brittle failure for low quality beams arid ductile Failure, associated
with co~npressioncreases, for higher quality beams (Figure 18b).

When comparing tnechanicai properties, a standard reference moisture condition

consistent with an environment of 20 "C and 65% relative Ilumidity is to be used
for timber and wood based panels. For structural timber tested at a different
condition, the mechanical properties must be adjusted in accordance with prEN 384
"StructuraI timber - Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties
and density".

Duration of load
Timber experiences a significant loss of strength over a period of time. The strength
values to be used in design of timber members for long-term permanent loads are
app~.oximatelyonly 60% of the strenglh values found in a short-term iaborato~ytest.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative t~nderthe EU Con~ettProgramme A4/17

The background to this 0,60 modification factor dates back to the 1940's. when
duration of load experiments were carried out at the Forest Products Laboratory in
Madison, Wisconsin (Wood 1947, 1951). On the basis of rests on small clear
specimens subjected to bending for up to seven years, a stress-lifetime relationship
was established, which predicts the lO-years strength to be slightly less than 60%
of the short term strength. Tile relationship, termed the "Madison curve", is
illustrated in Figure 19 and is a plot of stress ratio against logarithmic time to
failure, where stress ratio (SR) is the actual long term load over estimated short
term failure load. Most countries have since ir~cludedthe resulting modification
factors in their timber design codes. The Madison curve was regarded as being valid
not only for bending, but for all strength properties, grades and species. The basis
for regarding results obtained on srnall clear specimens as also being valid for
stn~cturaltimber is rather tenuous considering that the failure mechanisms are quite
different taking account of, for example knots, inclined grain or fissures.

Figlire 19 Srrass ratio (a) as cr firrictioir cf logcrrilnric tirrte lo .foilrrre (holrrs)for srrrall
clear specbnerrs subjecfed to l~encli~ig (IVood 1951).

The first duration of load tests to include structural timber were initiated twenty
years ago in Canada, and suggested a much less severe modification of load factor
for timber than for clear wood (Madsen and Barrett, 1976). The Findings also
suggested a timber quality dependency for the duration of load effect similar to that
already found for the effect of moisture.

A large number of duration of load tests on structural timber have since been
carried out both in North America and in Europe. From these it may now be
concluded that, except for the eariy Canadian results, there is no general evidence
of a much less severe duration of load modification factor for timber than for clear
wood. In fact, some resufts (Gerhards, 1991, Soltis et al., 1989) suggest the
Madison curve to be non-conservative for timber in bending. Furthermore the
duration of load behaviour of timber in tension and compression is reported to
comply with the Madison curve (Glos, 1987; Lackner, 1990; Soltis et al., 1989).

Moisture content has a marked influence on the duration of load behaviour

(Hoffmeyer, 1987 and 1990; Fridley et al., 1991). For a given stress ratio, beams

STEPIEUROFORTECM - an initialivc under thc EU Cornctt Prograrnmc

at a liigiler ~noisturecontent wilI fail before beams at a lower moisture content.
However, the drier beams will have been subjected to higher loads because their
short term strength is higher.

Moisture variations are known greatly to increase creep in limber. This effect is
terrned rnechanosorptive because it is only apparent during simultaneous mechanical
stress and moisture sorption cycling. The mechanosorptive effect has been shown
also to shorten the time to failure of timber (Hoffmeyer, 1990; Fridley et a]., 1992).

Surf~lcetreated timber or glulam members of large volume experience relatively less

moisture variation than untreated timber or small volume timber. The evidence of
a mechanosorptive effect suggests that surface treated tilnber and large volume
glulam members should be allowed a more modest duration of load modification
factor.

An exanlple of the effect of moisture on duration of load behaviour is shown in

Figure 20, where results from Hoffmeyer ( I 990) have been updated to cover seven
years of load duration.

f;iS,rrc 20 Stress rntio (9'0) agaiirsi loguritlrt~tictinre rojiiil~tre(Iror4r~)for50 x 100 t111)r

beut~rsr.sp~-rrce (Picen L ~ ~ I ' C Ys~ibjecred
) CII o = 10%, o = 20%
to bel~~tilrg
ntrcl err w cycling bet wee^^ 10% nrrd 20%. +: varyitzg ~~~oistrtrc. A: 20%
co~~terif;
trroist~ireco~rre~rr; .r = 10% trroistrrre co~rte~rt. Y = otle ycrit: M = orre 1?7otrth.
M' = otrc ~t~eek (r.cprorirtccd @cr Hqfl;rs)ler; 1990).

400 beams of spruce were subjected to bending at either 10% nloisture content,
20% moisture content or a rnoisture content varying between the two levels in a 2
monthly cycle. Matched samples were used for both short-term tests and long-term
tests. AII specimens of a particular sample for long-term testing were subjected to
the same load and the specimens were ranked in order of ascending time to failure.
The results from short-term tests on a matching sample were ranked in order of
ascending failure load. The stress ratio, SR, of n particular specimen, was then
predicted as the ratio between the actual Ioad and the failure Ioad of the short-term
specimen of the same rank and moisture content. T11e results show the Madison
curve to describe tilnber at 10% moisture content conservatively, while timber at
20% moisture content is adequately modelled. A significant inechanosorptive effect
is displayed under the conditions of varying moisture. Tile latter beams are

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an ioitii~tiveur~dcrthe EU Cornett Progr;~rnlne AW19

 subjected to the same loads as the beams at constant high rnoisture. They are
therefore only at a high stress ratio during the high moisture half-cycle; during the
half-cycle of low moisture they are loaded to a lower stress ratio because the
corresponding short term strength increases as a result of drying. Nevertheless, the
mere change of moisture content results in a significant shortening of the lifetime.

The results indicate a lifetime at the 60% stress ratio level of '/2 year and 4 years
for the beains of varying moisture content and 20% moisture content respectively.
The Madison curve predicts a corresponding lifeti~neof five years. An extrapolation
of the test results for the beams of 10% n~oisturecontent predicts a lifetime of 30
years at SR = 60%.

The duration of load behaviour of panel products varies within a very wide range.
Structural ply wood is considered to behave like solid wood. Particleboard behaviour
is intirtiate1y linked to particle size and particle orientation, and for both particle-
board and fibreboard, glue quality is of the uttnost importance for the lone- 0 term

properties. While the best particleboard products may be assigned a O,4O duration
of load modification factor for pennanent loads, fibreboards may rzlte as low as
0,20.

Modification factors for moisture content and duration of load

EC5: Part 1 - 1: 3.1.7 111 timber design, the influence of moisture and duration of load is taken into
consideration by assigning timber structures to service classes and actions to load-
duration classes. EC5 then defines tnoditication Factors, k,,,,, for each combination
of the two classifications.

References
Rngel, D. and Wegener, G.(1984). Wood. Walter clc Oruytcr.

fidlcy, K.J.;Tnng, R.C.; Soltis, L.A. (1991). Moisture cf'fccts on load-durdtion bchaviour of lumber.
Part I. Effect of constant relative humidity. Wood and Fibcr Science 23(1):114-127.

Pridlcy, K.J.; Tdng, R.C.; Soltis, L.A. (1992). Moisture effects on load-duration behaviour of lumber.
Part 11. Effect of cyclic relative humidity. Wood and Fiber Science 24(1):89-98.

Gerlrards, C.C. (1991). Bending crccp and load duration of Douglas-fir 2 by 4s under constant lox~d.
Wood and Fibcr Science, 23(3), 1991, pp. 384409.

Glos, P.; Hcirncs!~off,B.; Kellckshot'cr,W. (1987). Load durdlion effcct in spruce lumber loaded in
tcnsion and comprcssion. ilolz als Roh- und Wcrkstofl', 45(5):243-249.

Hoffmcycr, P. (1978). Moisku-c Content-Strength Relationship for Spmcc Lumber Subjcc[ed to

Bending, Compression and Tension along the Grain. Proceedings of IUFRO Timber Engineering
Conference, Vancouver, B.C.. Canada.

FIoffmeyer, P. (1987). Duration of load cl'fects for spruce timber with spccial rcfercr~ccto moisture
content. Proceedings of CEC Seminar on Wood Technology, Munici~,Germany.

floffmcycr, P. (1990). .Failure of wood as influcnccd by moisture und duration of load. Doctoral
dissertation. College of Environmental Sci. and Forestry. S.U.N.Y., Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A.

Lackncr, R. (1990). Duration-of-load Effcct on Tensile Strength for Structural Softwood 45 x 145 nrrrt.
Norsk Treteknisk tnstitutt, Mcddelelse (rcpon) no. 76.

Larsen, H.J. and Riberholt, 1-1. (1994). Trrekonsrruktioner, beregning. SBI-Anvisning 135. Stntcns
Byggeforskningsinstilut, Denmark.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Corncrt Programme

Madsen, B. (1975). Moisturc Contcnt-Strength Relalionship for Lumbcr Subjected to Bending.
Struc:urat Rcscarch Scries Report No. I I. Dcpt. Struc. Eng., U.B.C., Vnncouvcr, Canadn.

Madsen, B.; Barrctt, J.D. (1976). Time-slrcngth rciationsliips for lumber. Struct. Rcs. Series. Report
No. 13. Univ. British Columbia, Vnncouvcr, Canadn.

Mndscn, B.;Jarrzen, W.; Zwnagstra, J. (1980). Moisture Effects in Lumber. Str~cturalRcseard~Series

Report No. 27. Dcpt. Slruct. EIIE.. U.B.C., Vnncouvcr, Canada.

Mnylan, R.A. (1968). Cnuse ol' high longitudinal shrinkage in wood. For. Prod. J. 16f4): 75-78.

Pnrham, R.A. nnd Grity. R.L. (1984). Formation and Srructure of Wood. In Ro\\tcil, R.M. (ed.). The
Chemistry o l Solid Wood. Advnnccs in Cllcmislry Series 207.

Soltis, L.A.; Nclson, W.; iiillis, J.L. (1989). EI'recl of lo:iding mode on durn:ion-of-lo;~d fdciors.
Proceedings, Second Pacific Timber Engineering Confcrence. Aucklnnd. Next1 Zealnnd.

Stnmm, A. (1964). Wood and cellulose science. The Ronald Press Comp:lny. N.Y., U.S.A.

Wood. L.W. (1947). Bchaviour of wood unclcrcontint~cd1o:lding. Eng. Ncws-Record 139(24):t 08-1 1 1.

Wood, L.W. (1951). Relation ot' strength of' wood to duration of stress. U.S.Fores~ Products
Laboratory, Report No. 1916.

-
STEPlEUROMRTECM an initiative under the EU Comett Programme
 Timber in construction

STEP Icclure A5 Objective

P. J. Steer To focus attention on the essential properties of tirriber which have to be considered
Consultani Structural in the design, detailing and construction of timber stmctures.
En,'olneer
Summary
The production of timber and otlter wood-based structural materials is described.
Two metl~odsto counteract the high variability of timber properties, namely grading
and reconstitutjon are outlined. The essential properties of timber in service are
summarised including the effects of moisture content, long-term loading, creep,
shrinkage and swelling and the bel~aviourin fire. General guidance for the design
of timber structures is given.

Introduction
Wood is a natural resource that is widely available throughout the world. Wit11
proper management, there is a potential for an endless supply of timber and other
wood-based materials. Due to the low energy required and the low pollution during
manufacture timber has a far less detrimental i~npaclon the environmenl than other
building materials. One example is the process of photosynthesis, in which trees
absorb carbon dioxide, store the carbon as wood and release oxygen. Growing trees
tl~ereforereduce the carbon dioxide in tile atmosphere.

Timber is a live material. Its properties are anisotropic, they change wit11 changes
in environmental conditions and load duration has also a significant effect upon
strength and deformation. The properties not only vary from species to species but
even within a particular species. Due to climatic differences and different forestry
practices, spruce from Northern Europe, for example, has different properties than
spruce from Souffzem Europe. To be able to design timber structures successfully,
the practising engineer needs to be aware of the particular properties of the timber
being specified.

Production of timber and wood-based materials

Historically (he size of trees in tile forest detern~inestile size of the timber that may
be produced. One lrundred years ago timber with cross-sections of 150 x 450 n r l i t
and lengths u p to 20 171 were commonly available. Today, in many countries, timber
over 75 x 225 ~ i l t l tand more than 5 nz long attracts a cost premium due LO scarcity.
However, if larger sizes are required, several timber members can be combined to
fonn a con~positemember, for example a glulam member.

Because timber is produced by nature, strength and stiffness properties are highly
variable. There are basically two ways to counteract variability and hence provide
il refiabie structural material. Timber can be graded and classified into different
quatities. These different qualities can then be used to satisfy different uses or
requirements. Reconstitution is also possible. Elere, trees are divided into s~naIler
parts which are then reformed, normally with the addition of glue.
Clcrssification o f ri~~iber-
Tin-tbercan be assigned to a particular strength class by grading procedures, either
machine strength grading or visual grading. Grading is based on established
relationships between measured parameters and the strength of the timber. In
machine strength grading procedures, the tnain grading parameter is the ~noduius
of elasticity (see STEP lecture AB). Visual strength grading is mainly based on Iinot
sizes and positions.

Classifying timber by strength classes simplifics the design process. Once a strength
class is selected, a number of timber species from different geographical sources
may be available to meet the designers' requirements. However, otlier factors can
have an influence on the choice of the material; for example, visual appearance,
durability of the timber in relation to the environment in service and whether it can
take the preservative treatment, facility for jointing and gluing and the ability to
receive decoration. Additionally all these facets must be related to material cost.
Standardised cross-section sizes are more economical to use because they can be
bought froln stock and preference should be given to their specification.

In certain circiimstances specification of species, grade and even the mill producing
the timber may be necessary to achieve the particular properties required. An
a~ialogyis the specification of a concrete requiring particular sands, aggregates and
cement together with a closely controlled waterlcernent ratio to satisfy a particular
end use.

Xecor~stitritcrl~t~oocl-Dcisccl
p~oclricts
The natural growth of wood causes a distinct inl~omogeneityof the material. Knots,
pitch pockets and other growth characteristics influence the strength and hence
cause a considerable variability within the members. By dividing large pieces of
wood into smaller units ilnd then rejoining thern, the defects are distributed within
the material and consequently the variability of the material properties decreases.
The larger load-bearing capacity of glued laminated timber compared to sawn
timber is not caused by a higher average capacity of glularn, but by the decreased
variation in strength proper-ties and hence higher characteristic strengths. Generally,
the strength variability of the wood-based materials rioted below decreases with
increasing amount of processing:

Pi.on'llct Coinponent pltrts

- pole timber - logs
- sawn timber - planks
- glued laminated timber - planks
- laminated veneer lumber veneers
- plywood - veneers
- parallel strand lumber - veneer strips
- oriented str'and board - flakes
- particleboard - chips
- fibreboard - fibres

Poles are the exception since they are hardly processed at all but nevertl~elessare
particularly strong because the wood fibres are not cut leading to the fact that the
continuous fibres guide the stresses smoothly around the knots.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an inilintivc unclcr the EU Comeit Programlnc

Properties of timber and wood-based materials
Wood as a. natural material has vely different properties in ciif'ferent directions.
Parallel to the grain, i.e. in die direction of the trunk of the tree, the strength of the
material is particularly high, whereas perpendicular to the grain the strength
properties are low. The tension strength of wood parallel to the grain is for example
about 40 limes greater than the tension strength perpendicular to the grain. It is
quite easy to split wood along the fibres using an axe, but it is mucll more difficult
to cleave a piece of wood perpendicular to the grain. These large differences of
strenglh and stiffness properties in different directions are overcome in most wood-
baed panels. Since the wood fibres in Inany panel types have randoin orientations,
the in-plane properties depend much less on the direction than in solid wood.

Timber is a hygroscopic n~aterial,Consequently the moisture content depends on

the surrounding climate and changes accordingly. If' timber dries below about 30%
moisture content, it shrinks perpendicular to the grain whereas the shrinkage along
the grain is sn~alIenough to be ignored. The sl~rinkagecan amount up to about 7%
of h e cross-sectional dimensions. Therefoorc, timber sllould be installed at a
~noisturecontent close to the equilibriu~nmoisture content likely to be achieved in
service. Hindered shrinkage defonnations in service can, for example in
cont~ections,cause tension perpendicular to the grain and hence potential failure.

Because of tile different shrinkage in radial and tangential directions, spIits can
occur if large cross-section timber dries too fast. In general, spIits do nor reduce the
strength of the timber members. They can be rainimised by kiln drying.

In timber frame construction drying shrinkage can affect other materials. Brickwork,
for example, tends to expand after consrruction so interfaces between timber and
masonry m ~ ~accommodate
sr the differential movements. Similar effects can occur
with plastic pipework installed in winter and expanding with the heating of the
building. For similar reasons, the installation of lifts in multi-storey timber frarned
buildings requires special consjdention.

Another result of inoisture content changes is the c11a11ge in mechanical properties.

Wit11 decreasing rnoisture content, the strength and ~nodulusof elasticity values
increase. Timber under load shows an increase of deformation with time. In a
constilnt cli~nnte,creep deformations only exceed the elastic deforlnations by about
50% in 20 years. If [he moisture contenr of the wood varies, however, the creep
deformations may exceed severai l~undredpercent of the initial deforn~ations.Creep
deformations are not only important because of possible excessive deformations but
also because they can lead ro a reduction in load-carrying capacity due to creep-
buckling effects.

Apart from the rnoisture content, the duration of the load significantly influences
the strength and defonnations of timber and timber structures. With increasing lond
duration, the strength of timber decreases. The designer therefore has to assign each
lond to a load duration class and subsequently rnodify the characteristic strength
properties based on the duration of the co~~lbinationof loads. The influence of load
duration on the deformations is taken into account by an increase in creep
deformations.

The thermal properties of timber are good; tlle low thennal conductivity means that
cold bridging is nor n problem to the building designer and Iow expansion across
and along the grain wilh temperature change is n particularly beneficial attribute in
fire conditions.

-
STEP/EUROFORTECl.l an iniiiativc under \llc EU Cornetr Programme A513
Fire doors made of wood are expected to be a barrier between a fire at close to
1000°C and an escape corridor that is at n temperature of 30°C. The general
perception of timber in a fire is poor, it can be ignited and will sustain and spread
fire due to the volatile gases it gives off when hot. However its combustion is a
predictable process and the spread of flame can be minimised by treating or
finishing the wood. In fire conditions the exposed timber surfaces of sections with
dimensions exceeding about 50 rn~trwill char and deplete at a constant rate. Within
the depleted section the strength and stiffness of the timber remain essentially
unchanged and hence the strength of a timber member after a period of fire can be
assessed from the residual cross-section. Consequently, large glulam cross-sections
show an excellent behaviour in fire whereas smaller sections, for example, trussed
rafter members, have to be protected. Because of the predictable behaviour of
timber in fire, steelwork is sometimes protected by a layer of sacrificial timber.
Steel fasteners in timber connections may also have to be protected to achieve an
adequate fire resistance of the structure.

Timber as a natural material is part of a natural growing-decaying cycle. Once trees

are felled they are prone to biological decay but the onset of decay and the rate of
decay can be controlled by the design and use of the wood. There are three
approaches to this problem:

- design the construction and the details to eliminate the high moisture
conditions likely to lead to decay and/or insect attack,
- select timbers that are naturally durable in the service environment or
- preservative-treat the timbers.

Examples of the good durability of timber can be seen in old buildings throughout
Europe. However the changes in use of timber nowadays means that much greater
care is necessaly in detailing the construction and in treating timber.

Design of timber structures

In several respects, timber as a structural material is similar to steel. Both materials
are available in similar shapes and even jointing of timber or steel members,
respectively, is often comparable. On the other hand, there are marked differences
between both materials leading to different design problems. Table 1 shows an
overview of similarities and differences regarding steel and timber.

Timber members are particularly capable of acting as tension, compression and

bending ~nembers.If tension perpendicular to the graii~occurs, however, timber is
prone to cleavage along the grain. Because o.f its high strength to weight ratio, it
is widely used as a structural material for roofs and pedestrian or bicycle bridges.
Compared to steel or concrete, the modulus of elasticity is low. This is often
counteracted by choosing a stiff structural form, for example I-beams instead of
rectangular cross-sections for bending members. Another example would be the use
of folded plate and shell structures as roofs.

Due to the ease of workability, timber members can be produced in many sizes and
shapes. However, designing timber structures often requires more effort than
designing comparable steel or concrete structures. This is caused by the orthotropic
properties of timber and by the requirements of mechanical fasteners used to
connect timber members. In the fabrication of trussed rafters using punched metal
plate fasteners, the design process is automated using Computer Aided Design thus
substantially reducing design costs and resulting in very competitive structures.

STEPiEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tire EU Cornctt Prognrnmc

Steel Timber
Similarilics
hollow sections poles
bars, angles sawn timber

sheets panels
welding gluing
hol~ing boiri~rg
Differences
isotropic anisotropic
manufactured grown, graded
uni fo1-111 varirtble, hetcrogerieous
affected by telnperature affected by moisture

Toblc 1 Sinliiari~ie~
and c l ~ ~ c ~ - ~bef~vee~z
r ~ c e , ssteel orlcl lintbere as str.rtctrrra1 itloteriuls.

Because timber is a sympathetic, warin material it is not only used as a struclural

material but also as internal finishing and is much appreciated by architects. The
texture and appearance of timber makes it very suitable for use in visually exposed
structures. Since timber and wood-based panels can be visually exposed it is
possible lo make econon~icsavings by utilising the same timber for both structural
and visual functions.

The combination of steel and timber often produces light and competitive structures
with timber as compression and steel as tension members. Because of the necessary
cross-sections for timber co~llpressionmembers, buckling is often only a minor
problem in design when compared with steel compression members. Alti~oughmost
timber is found in buildings having a simple rectangular form used, for example,
in floor joists, rafters and oll~erroof components or for walls in timber framed
housing, large structures can be built econolnically in other forms such as domes
and examples exist spanning over I00 metres.

Timber may also be used coinpositely with concrete. For instances in bridges the
concrete may provide a strong wearing surfwe and protecting the timber structure
below. The timber then provides the tensile reinforcement and may act as a
permanent formwork.

Concluding Summary
- Because timber is a natural material the essential properties vary
considerably. In order to use timber efficiently as a reliable structural
material, strength grading is necessary.

- It is a lightweight nlaterial with a high strength to weight ratio.

- The strength and stiffness properties of timber are highly dependant on the
angle between Ioad and grain. Timber is strong and stiff parallel to the grain
whereas it is prone lo cleavage along the grain if tension stresses
perpendicular to the grain occur. It ltas a low shear strength and shear
modulus.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comell Programme A515

- Timber strength and stiffness properties change with changing moisture
content. Especially creep deformations are increased by varying moisture
content. Shrinkage and swelling have to be considered during the detailing
-
of timber structures.

- AItllough timber is combustible and ignitable its performance in a fire can be -

calculated and it is very suitable for use in large sections without protection
and in specialist situations e.g. fire doors.

- Timber acts well compositely with both steel and concrete.

STEP/EUROFORTECH- nn initiative under the EU Cotriett Progr~rnn~e

 Strength grading

STEP I C C ~ L ~ SAG
C Objective
P. Glos To develop an understanding of the imporiance of strength grading in the process
Ludwig-h4;1simiIi;1ns- of converting wood, a natul-a1 raw material, into timber. for structural use.
Ut~ivcrsitBtMiincl~cn
Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
The lecture explains why siructurnI timber ]nust be strength graded, how the grading
process affects tlie characteristic values for strength and stiffness and hence why
strength grading is a prerequisite to making timber a reliable and cotnpetitive
slructural material.

Visual and machine strength grading are outlined and the European grading stand-
ards for visual and machine strength grading are explained.

Introduction
Wood is a nat~lral product of trees which exhibits great variations in qualily
according to species, genetics, growth and environmental co~~ditions. Wood proper-
ties valy not only from tree to tree but also within a tree, over the cross section and
along the stern axis (see STEP lecture Ad). The process of converting roundwood
into sawn timber interferes wit11 tile structure of the naturally grown wood. For
exanlple wood fibres rnay be cut due to sloping grain and distortions around knots.
This leads to considerably greater variations in the strength properties of sawn
tiniber than in roundwood. In general, the smaller the cross-section, tile greater the
variability.

Thus, the strength properties of ungraded rirnber of any one species may vary to
such a11 extent that the strongest piece is up to 10 times tile strength of the wealcest
piece (see Figure I ).

Since the use of structural timber is based on its characteristic strength value, i.e.
the lower 5-percentile of the population, the high strength of tlie majority of the
pieces cannot be utilised unless the timber is graded. This shows that for economic

S7'EP/EUROl;ORTECIi - an inilialive llndcr the EU Come11 Progr:tmmc AG/1

reasons timber has to be divided into classes of different quality on a piece by piece
basis. I-Iowever, strength can only be determined indirectly by parameters which can
be determined visually or by other non-destructive methods. Since, there exists only
-
a limited correlation between these parameters and the strength, the variability
widiin these classes cannot be reduced as much as would be liked. The lower the
predictive accuracy of the grading method, the greater the overlapping of clilsses -
will be, see Figure 2. This demonstrates the impact of the applied grading method
on the economic use of timber.

Figtire 2 Sclre~rtcof rcrrsilc srrertgrll dis~ribittiortof strrtcttiml ritr~bernssigrled to tifree

gracles a, b, c ctccor.diit~gm Dicbolcl atrd Clos (1994).

Moreover, it is a necessary prerequisite that timber is available in qualities and

quantities that are desired by users and that it meets all user requirements, the most
important being that timber qualifies as a reliable material with defined properties.

Traditiondly, strength grading was done by visuafly assessing timber, taking into
account strength reducing factors that could be actually seen, mainly h o t s and
a~lriualring width. Up to the beginning 20th century visual strength grading was
essentially based on tradition m d local experience. Detailed grading rules were
introduced for the first time in 1923 in the USA and, fro111 the 1930s onwards, suc-
cessively in various European countries. Due to the great variety in wood species,
timber qualities and different building traditions, for example different cross-
sectional dimensions, it is hardly surprising that the grading rules developed over
the last 50 years differ widely in the grading criteria as well as in the number of
grades and grade limits. All these grading rules, however, have in common the
general deficiency of visual grading methods: for practical reasons only visually
recognizable characteristics can be taken into consideration and only simple com-
bination rules are possible. Important strength determining cllaracteristics such as
density cannot be assessed satisfactorily.

The predictive accuracy of visual grading therefore has its limitations. Since the
grading decision depends on the judgement of the grader it can never be totally
objective.

To improve the accuracy of strength grading with the aim of achieving a better util-
ization of the available timber quaiities machine grading processes were developed
from the 1960s onwards in Australia, USA, UK and, later, in other countries.

STENEUROFORTECII - an initiative under the EU Comet1 Programme

The increasing importance of' quality assurance and the rising demand for high
quality timber have led to a growing interest in machine strcngch grading and iniii-
ated the development of new machines with greater predictive accuracy.

In tin~bergrading a general distinction must be inade between the so called

appearance grading and strength giading. In the former, wood is assessed according
to its appearance, i.e. decorative criteria, which is important wherever timber is
intended to remain visible. Appearance is the main consideration for non-structural
timber, such as boards for cladding, but may also be important for structural timber
where it is exposed in use. In strength grading, limber is mainly assessed according
to criteria which are relevant to its strength and stiffness. Frorn this, it follo\vs that
where stn~cturaltimber is exposed in use and the appearance is important, timber
may have lo be graded for both strength and appearance. However, this lecture will
deal oniy with the strength grading of sawn timber.

General requirements for strength grading

Strength grading is intended to ensure that the properties of timber are satisfactory
for use and in particular that the sirengtl~and stiffness properties are reliable.
Therefore grdding rules have to define grade limits for characteristics which are
sufficiently correlated to the strength and stiffness of timber. In traditional visuaI
strength grading the most important strength determining factors are rate of growth,
indicated by the annual ring width, and the strength reducing factors such as knots,
slope of grain, fissures, reaction wood, fungal and insect damage and mecl~anical
damage. In machine strength grading it is possible to determine other characteristics
sucll as bending modulus of elasticity, which are better correlated with strength
properties. In addition to grading rules for strength and stiffness, it is also
necessary to define grade limits for geometric properties, for example wane and
distortion such as bow, spring and twist which may also affect the structural use of
wood.

Since the wood moisture content influences distortion, fissures and wood
dimensions, the grade limits have to be related to a reference moisture content,
which is set at 20%. Moisttire content is also important in machine strength grading
when moisture-dependent properties of tile timber are being measured.

European grading rules require that a piece of timber be graded based on its most
unfavournble cross-section. The grade will at least be on the safe side if the tirnber
is cut into shorter Iengths later on. However, the grade may change if tile cross
sectional dimensions are reduced after grading, for exa~nplcby re-sawing or
planing. This reduction in size may affect the average density or the knot ratio of
the piece. The grading rules should therefore state the amount of dimensional
change that is permissible to avoid the need for re-grading.

Graded tirnber should be marked. This rnariting shall as a minimum give the
following information: grade, wood species or species combination, producer and
the standard to which the timber is graded.

The ininiinum requirements for visual grading standards have been laid down in EN
51 8 "Structural timber - Grading - Requirements for visual strength grading stan-
dards". Requiremenls for machine grading can be found in EN 519 "Stn~chiral
timber - Grading - Requirements for machine strength graded timber and grading
machines".

S'TEPfEUROFORTEClf - ;In initiative under tlle EU Coinetl Pl'ogrammc

Visual strength grading
T1.1ereare currently many different visual strength grading ruIes for timber in use
in Europe. They differ in the number of grades and grade Iimits and, also, in the
way grading cllaracteristics are measured. In particular, there is a wide range of
methods for determining knots.

Knots in sawn timber vary greatly in shape. They vary with sawing patterns and
tin~berdimensions and are diflicult to determine and classify. Strength is mainly
reduced by grain deviations around knots rather than by the actual .knots. This is
also evident from the Pact that, in general, failure starts from extreme fibre
deviations in the vicinity of knots and not from the knots themselves. Wood struc-
ture may be even more affected when several knots are situated close together in
a piece of timber. Thus knot ratio is usually calculated from the sutn of knots
within a defined section along the lertgtll of a piece of timber rather than merely
from the biggest knot. Edge knots and knots in tensile zones have a greater effect
on strengtli than centre knots or knots in compression zones. Therefore, the position
of knots within cross-sections of timber is often also taken into account in grading
rules.

Efforts to harmonize visual grading rules throughout Europe were not successful
because no single set of grading rules would cover the different species, timber
clirnensions and uses in an econorllically salisfactory manner.

Therefore, EN 5 18 merely gives the minimum requirements for visual strength gra-
ding of both softwoods and hardwoods and permits the use of all national standards
which li~lfilthese requirenienls. According to these limitations, the following char-
acteristics have to be taken into account:

- li~nitatiorisfor strength reducing characteristics: knots, slope of grain, density

or rate of growth, fissures
- linlitations for geometrical characteristics: wane, distortion (bow, spring,
twist)
- limitations for biological characleristics: fiingal and insect damage
- other characteristics: reaction wood, ~nechanicaldamage.

In order to determine these cliaracteristics, all four faces of each piece of timber
rnust be examined. Economic restraints, however, do not allow for a slow,
deliberate examination. For example, in a sawtnill a piece of timber is graded in
two to four seconds. This clearly shows that visilaI grading rules should be as
sitnple as possible and under tliese conditions only a rough estimate can be made
of these characteristics. Since the reliability of the grading process has to be
guaranteed, the grader will tlteref'ore generally introduce a f~rrthersafety margin to
the required grade timits, thus further reducing the efficiency of visual grading.

In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of visual strength grading are as

follows:

- it is simple, easily understood and does not require great technical slcill
- it does not require expensive equipment
- it is labour intensive and rather inefficient in that wood structure and density
which influence strength (see Figure 3) are not sufficiently taken into con-

STEPIEUROFORTECI-1 - an ini[iative i~ndcrthc EU Comctt Progra~ntne

 sideration.
- it laclcs ob~ectivitywhich rnakes it even more izrefficient
- it is an effective method, if correctly applied.

Figure 3 Effect of blof ratio A and ricnsity oti terrsile str-etrgtl~j;.,,of sr~~~ictrrml
tintbar
accolzlirrg to Glos (1963).

Machine strength grading

The above disadvantages of visual strength grading can be overcome by machine
strength grading. Most of the grading machines in use to-day are the so-called
bending machines which determine average bending modulus of elasticity over short
lengths (Fewell, 1982).

Timber is fed continuously through the grading machine. The machine bends each
piece as a plank (i,e. about the wealier axis) between two supports which are some
0-5 Lo 1,2 m apart and either measures the applied load required lo give a fixed
deflection or measures the deflection under a particular load. From these values it
calculates local modulus of elasticity taking into account rhe cross-sectional
di~nensionsand natural bow of the piece of timber which is either measured or
eliminated by deflecting the piece in both directions.

Since ilte introduction of machine strength grading about 30 years ago research
work has been conducted to furlher improve the grading process. Numerous investi-
gations have dealt with the determination of modulus of elasticity by methods other
than bending, such as vibration, inicrownves and ultnsound. The latter have the
advantage of not mecltnnically stressing the timber and hence avoiding damage.
Furthemlore, the maxirnum thickness of tilnber need not be limited to about SO mnt
as in bending machines. Recent research has shown that predictive accuracy of
machine grading can be further inlproved by tecl~nicalnlodifications of the machine
and by a combination of severai grading parameters.

For example, the cornbination of lnodulus of elasticity (E) and knots has a better
correlation with strength than E by itself (Table 1). The incorporation of density
into the grading process can also contribute to the grading results, as tiis can be
used to produce grades with higher characterislic density and also to reject timber
with significant portions of reaction wood. The presence of knots may be
determined by optical scanning across the four surfaces or by radiation, while
density may be determined by weighing or radiation (see Figure 4).

STEP/EUROFORTECI-1 - an inilialive under the EU CornctL Programme A615

Grading paratncter Correlation with
f;, fro f;..,,

Slope of grain 02 0,2 0,i

Density 0,s 0,s 0,G
Ring widtii 0,4 0,s 0,s
Knots + ring width 0,5 0,G 0,5
Knots + density 0,7 - 0,8 0,7 - 0.8 0,7 - 0.8
Modulus of clasticily E 0.7 - 0,8 0,7 - 0,8 0.7 - 0,8
E + density 0,7 - 0,8 0,7 - 0,8 0,7 - 0,8
E + knots > 0,8 > 0.8 > 0,s

Table / Correlntiotr coefficierrts betwcetr possible gracfittg clrarnc~eristicsarrd srrcr~gtll

properties accorrlirrg to Glos (1993). Species: Errropearr sprtlce.

In radiation, for example by tnicrowaves or gamma rays, part of the irradiation is

being absorbed. The greater the Inass that is being irradiated, i.e. the higher the den-
sity, thickness and moisture content of the piece of timber, the higher the absorption
will be. Knots can be determined by radiation since knot density, on the average,
is 2,5 times higher than that of normal timber.

In optical scanning the four timber surfaces are monitored by video cameras. Knots
are detected via shades of grey and may be differentiated from other effects not
related to strength such as dirt or stain by analysing the surrounding texture. Values
for knot ratio may be determined via image analysis.

NaturaIly, the higher efficiency of machine strength grading is more costly. The
grading machines currently available vary greatly in performance and price. When
comparing different machines or machine grading and visual grading the cost,
efficiency and speed have to be taken into account.

Fignrc 4 Scilenre of a Eliropearr gracfirg ntaclrirre wit11 rrrrrltiple setrsing &vices for
rtteaslrritrg defo1t11atioti(a), load (b), mdiafiott absorptiorr (c), b o ~ v(d),
m.
tfiicktress (e) nrtd rtroistlrre corrtetlt

One important difference between visual and machine grading is that with visual
grading, it is possible to check at any time the correctness of the grade assignment

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tile EU Comett Programme

even with timber which is in use. In contrast, in machine grading this check is not
possible by visual measures.

For this reason there has to be frequent and regular control of the reliability of
machine grading. In various parts of the world two distinct control methods have
been developed, the so called olrrpi~tconrr-ollerlsysrem and the ninct7irze c*oratr-olied
s)rstenr.

The output controlled system was developed in North America. Control is based on
the frequent destructive strength testing of samples of the machine graded timber.
This system is relatively costly but permits a modificatjon of machine settings in
order to optimize yield. To be economical, this method requires great quantities of
titnber of the same size and grade. These conditions rareIy exist in Europe, where
a great variety of sizes, species and grades in smalier quantities are typical. For
these conditions the machine controlled system was developed. With this system
mills generally do not have to test the graded timber but rather rely on the strict
assessment and control of the tnachines as well as on considerable research efforts
in determining the machine settings which remain consrant for a11 machines of the
same type.

EN 519 outlines the requirements for the machine strength grading operation and
for grading machines. Both output controlIed systems and machine controlled
systems are allowed. The acceptance of grading machines and machine settings
requires a ~horoughexperimental and theoretical examination of the machine's
principle of operation, performance and reliability, involving hundreds of strength
tests to establish the effects of a11 variables that may affect the machine's
performance, such as timber sizes, tolerances, surface finish, moisture content, tetn-
perature, throughpt~tspeed, timber orientation, etc. Independent test data must be
provided to verify that tlie machine graded timber has characteristic strength and
stiffness properties that meet tlie specifications of the grade.

Machine proof-grading
In some countries, such as Australia, machine proof-gnding has been adopted
instead of machine strength grading. In the former, a piece of timber is loaded on
edge to a level corresponding to the design load of the desired grade liines a
predetermined safety factor. If the titnber sustains this proof load without failure,
excessive deformation or other signs of damage it will be allocated to the desired
grade.

Cornpared to rnachine strength grading this method is straightforward and, in par-

ticular, requires little a priori data about the timber source to be graded. However,
it: per~nitsa yes/no decision only, i.e. the grading into one specific grade. It is also
wasteful, as with low proof loads, timber is not efficiently being utilized whereas,
with high proof loads, a certain percentage of the timber will be damaged and
discarded. Therefore, proofgrading is not considered adequate for the European
market.

Concluding summary
- Structural timber must be strength graded in order to ensure that its strength
and stiffness properties are reliable and satisfactory for use.

- Strength grading can be based on a visual assessment of the tirnber (visual

strength grading) or on the non-destructive measurement of one or more
properties (machine strength grading).

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiulivc under lllc EU Co~nctlProgrnnlme A617

- Machine grading is Inore expensive but has greater predictive accuracy. I1
results in higher yields of higher grades and in the allocation of timber to
higher strength classes.

- Current research shows that grading methods can be further improved.

Strength grading must be developed further in order to ensure that timber
remains an economic and coinpetitive structural material.

- Requirements for strength grading are set our in EN 518 (visual strength
grading) and EN 5 19 (machine strength grading). Both standards leave room
for future technical developments.

References
Dicbold, R, and Glos, P. (1994). lrnprovcd tirnbcr trlilization through novel machine strcngth grading.
flolz als Roh- und Wcrkstorf 52: 222.

Fcwell, A.R. (1982). Macl~incstress grading of timber in the United Kingdom. Iiolz als Roh- urtd
Wcrkstoff 40: 455-459.

Glos, P. (1983). Technical and econon~icalpossibilities of titnber strcngth grading in small and
incdium sized compsnics. In: SAH-l3ulletin 198311. Zurich: Schweitcriscl~cArbci~sgemeinsclaftfiur
Holzforschung.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr tllc EU Cornelt Programme

 Solid timber - Strength classes

STEP lcck~reA7 Objective

P. GIOS To describe the system of strength classes standardised in EN 338 wIlic11 simplifies
Ludt~tig-h~lusimili3ns- and improves both supply and use of stix~ct-uraltimber.
Univcrsitiit Miinchen
Prerequisite
A 6 Strength grading

Summary
The lecture describes the advantages of n strength class system which aims at
reducing the number of species/grade/source choices in order to simplify timber
specification for the designer of timber structures and reduce restrictions on the
supplier of structural timber, for example, reduce his need to stock a large range of
species. It describes the strength classes established in EN 338 "Structural timber -
Strength classes" and explains how gradelspecies combinations are assigned to these
strength classes and how characterislic design values other than those included in
EN 338 can be determined.

f ntroduction
EC5 in common with the other Eurocodes provides no data on strengtll and stiffness
properties for structural materials. It ~nerelystates he rules appropriate to the
determination of these values to achieve compatibility with the safety format and
the design rules of ECS.

The following requirernenls apply for structural timber:

- It shall be visuaIly or machine strength graded.

- Visual grading shall be carried out according to standards which fulfil tlle
tninirnum requiren~ents of EN 518 "Structural timber - Grading -
Reqt~ire~nentsfor visual strength grading standards".

- Machine strength grading inust meet requirements given in EN 519

"Structural timber - Grading - Requirements for machine strength graded
Lirnber and grading machines" (see STEP lecture AG).

- Characteristic values for strength, stiffness and density shall be deter~nined

according to EN 384 "Structural cirnber - Determination of characteristic
values of mechanical properties and density".

Any timber, regardless of origin can therefore be used for timber structures
designed according to EC5 rules provided it has been strength graded according to
the rules of EN 5 I8 or EN 519, t l ~ echaracteristic values for strength, stiffness and
density Raving been determined according to EN 384 and this has been certified in
an "attestation of conformity". However, as yet, there are no directives as to tile
procedure.

In individual cases this procedure of assigning characteristic values to separate

grades will always be possible. However, i t inay be impractical and confusing

STEP/EUROFORTECtl - an illiriativc ~lnciertlic EU Comctt Progrnmlnc A71 1

where marly timbers of different qualities, different sources and graded to different
rules, are available. This is usually the case with structural timber. In a typical tirn-
ber importing country such as the UK over 100 different species/ source/grade com-
binations are offered (Fewell, 1991). There will be a growing tendency towards a
more varied timber supply in nil EU and EFTA countries due in particular to the
fact that about half the sawn timber used in these countries is being imported.
Furthermore it is to be expected that timber presently used in single grades onIy
will be assigned to a larger number of grades due to growing market demands and
the use of improved grading methods.

Greater cornpetition in the supply of timber will reduce costs. However the increas-
ing numbers of grades and characteristic values will cause confusion and limited
specifications may lead to problems in supply.

To avoid these problems it was decided to introduce a strength class system as a

result of the success of similar systems in the UK and Australia.

A strength class system comprises a limited number of classes each with its own
set of strengtl~properties, to which species/grade cornbinations of similar strength
ate allocated. This makes the entire process of timber specification ~nuchrnore
simple.

In principle, a strength class sysrern rnay create econotnic losses for grades which
have just failed to meet the specifications of one class and have to be allocated to
the next lower one. This problem, however, only occurs in visual grading, whereas
in machine grading, timber can be directly graded to a strength class by appropriate
n~achinesetting. Economic losses for visual grades may be minimized by adjusting
strength class boundaries to the characteristic values of the most econoinically
important grades.

The introduction of strength classes is advailtageous boll1 to the timber user and the
timber supplier. The designer does not need to acquaint himself with a multitude
of different grades and related characteristic vaIues, no matter in which European
country his project will be built. instead, he can simply choose the strength class
suitable for his project from a concise tabla, similar to those used for other struc-
tural materials. The litnber producer has the advantage that he can achieve higher
prices for his timber since the better the grading process applied, the higher the
strength classes to which his tiinber is allocated. Grading tnachines can be used to
grade the tirnber directly into strength classes and also into classes which could not
be achieved by visual grdding. The timber supplier has the advantage that he can
select the most econornic source for a specific grade.

The EN 338 strength class system

The strength class system established in EN 338 "Structural timber - Strength clas-
ses" is shown in Tables l and 2. It consists of 9 classes for coniferous species and
poplar (Table 1) and G classes for deciduous species (Table 2). It ranges from the
weakest grade of softwood, C14, to the highest grade of hardwood, D 70, currently
used in Europe.

EN 338 gives characteristic strength and stiffness properties and density values for
each strength class and provides rules for the allocation of timber, i.e. combinations
of specieslsourcelstrength grade, to the classes.

STEP1EUROFORTECI-l - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme

f;lLk 14 16 18 22 24 27 30 35 40
-6.e.a 8 10 11 13 14 16 18 21 24

f;.wl,e 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4
f;:cu 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 25 26
f;;wr.~ 4,3 4.6 4,B 5,l 5,3 5,G 5,7 6,O 6,3
L.L 1,7 1,8 2,O 2,4 2,5 2,s 3,O 3,4 3,s
in kN/tirnrZ

Table I Strer~grhclasses am! clmmc(eri.rfic vulrtcs riccurdirrg to EN 338.

Conifcrorcs species arid Poplar:

Table 2 and charuc~eri,sticvcibes nccorrli~igfo EN 335. Dccidiro~cs.

Strr~igtltC~CISSL's
.specie.s.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - ;in ir~iriativcunder thc EU Comett Programmc

The estilblishment of slrength classes and related strength and stiffness profiles is
possible because, independently, nearly all softwoods and l~ardwoodscommercially
available exbibit u similar relationsllip between strength und stiffness properties.

Experimerital data sl~owsthat all important characteristic strength and stiffness

properties can be calculated frotn either bending strength, modulus of elasticity (E)
or density (see Figures I to 3). However, further research is required to establish
tlie effect of timber quality on these relationsl~ipsand to decide whether accuracy
could be ilnproved by modifying these relationships for different strength classes.

Deciduous species have a different anatomical structure from coniferous species.

They generally have higher densities but not correspondingly higher strength and
stiffness properties. This is why EN 338 provides separate strength classes for
coniferous and deciduous species. Poplar, increasingly used for structural purposes,
sliows a density/strength relationship closer to that of coniferous species and was
therefore assigned to coniferous strengtl~classes.

i r e 1 terrsiorr, corrrpression arid sfiectr stretigth artil beiidirrg

Relutio~ulripbett~~eetr
srrz'rrgth.

Fire 2 Relrrtiot~.shipbetn~eeacnrrrpre.vsion perllet~diciticirmid terrsinir pelpc,tidicrllnr

strcrrgt/i NIICIderrsity.

S'I'EPEUROFORTECI-I - iln initiative under the EU Conicit Prograrnmc

i r e3 Relntiotrslrip Oettveerl lower 5 - p e r r o ~ t i l c ntodjcl~ts of elc~sticity parnliel,
nrod1111csof ekasricir.y perpenrlicitlar- arid sl~ear/nod~(lusm ~ drnod~rl~rs of
e/asficify pnrnlfe!.

Due to the relationships between strength, stiffness and density shown in Figures
1 to 3 a species/source/grade combination can be assigned to a specific strength
class based on the characteristic values of bending strength, modul~isof elasticity
and density.

According to EN 338 a timber population can thus be assigned to a strength class

provided

- the timber has been visually or machine strength graded according to the
specifications of EN 5 18 or EN 5 19.

- the characteristic strength, stiffness and density values have been determined
according to EN 384 "Determination of characteristic values of mechanical
properties and density".

- the characteristic values of bending strength, modulus of elasticity and

density of the population are equal to or greater than rhe corresponding
values of the related strength class.

The European Standard CENlTC 124.215 "Structural Limber Strength classes - -

Assignment of visual grades and species" lisls visual strength grades and species
of timber, and specifies the strength classes from EN 338 to which they are
assigned.

The grades and species included are those which have been used for a long time
andfor for which satisfactory test data exist (see Table 3).

Timber graded by machine to EN 519 may be graded directly into tile strength
classes and marked accordingly and is therefore not referenced in this Standard.

STEP/EUROFORTECW - on initiative under the EU Comclt Programme

Strengtl~ Grading rule publishing Gradc Species Source
Class country
(Grading standard) Commerciai name
C24 Austria G.BH Spruce, Pine, Fir, Larch CNE Europe
ON OR^^ B 4100-2)
Francc CF22 Whitewood, Douglas fir France
(NFB 52001-4)
Germany SIO Spruce, Pine, Fir, Larch CNE Europe
(DIN 4074-1)
Nordic Countries T?, Redwood, Whitewood NNE Europe
(INSTA 142)
The Netlterlands B Spruce + fir NC Europe
(NEN 5466)
UK SS Redwood, Whitewood CNE Europe
(BS 4978) SS Douglas fir, Larch, USA -+
Hem-fir, S-P-F Canada
SS Southern pine USA -
SS Parana pine Brazil
SS Pitch pine Caribbean
USA -t Canada J +P Douglas fir, Larch, Hem-fir,USA + -
(NGRDL+NLGA) Scl S-P-F Canada

Table 3 S~reng~lr
class C I?, cr.ssigtrment of visrtal grucles nttd s/~eciesnccordit~gto
CEN/l'C 124.2 15.
-
CNE Ei~rc~pe:Centrcil, Nor111 d Eastertr Eliropr
NNE Elirwpe: Northe~-n& North eusrent Ertrupe
NC Er~upe:Norti~euru ~ Cetztral
d Eatr*opc. -
For combinations of species and visual grades which meet the requirements of EN
518 but are not listed in this standard, the assignment to strengtli classes can be -
made according to EN 338 using characteristic values determined in accordance
with EN 384.
-
Determination of characteristic values
A characteristic strength value is defined in EC5 as a population lower 5-percentile
value which rnust be evaluated experimentally. The results depend, inter alia, on the
-
following (see also Figure 4):

- The definition of the population including the difficulty encountered when

linking one sub-population (the sample) to other sub-populations (the timber
lilcely to be obtained from one source and used in one structure),

- the sampling plan. Due to its limited size no sample represents its population
exactly, and the smaller the sample, the less accurate the model,

- the testing methods including systematic differences between different test

standards,

- the data analysis including the statistical lnodels used,

- the adjustment to standard reference conditions, such as moisture content,

inember size, rest configuration.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiativc under the EU Comeit Programme

Figure 4 Dete17llinatiorrof characteristic strcngfli ~~alries.
Po;ct~riulirlfl~ietlcing
factors.

EN 384 specifies the methods that must be used when determining characteristic
values in order to ensure comparabiIity when assigning different combinations of
grades and species to strength classes. Important points are:

- The population shall be defined in terms of species, source and

manufacturing process. The population definition shail also include the stress
grade, except where the information on the total range of strength is required
to determine relations between the mechanical properties used in deriving
settings for grading machines.

- San~plesshdl be selected from the population. Any known or suspected

differences in the mechanical properties of the population distribution due to
growth regions, sawmills, tree size, method of conversion etc. must be
represented within the number of samples selected, by a similar proportion
to their frequency in the reference population. This requirement sllall be the
major influence in determining the number and size of samples.

- Testing shall be carried out in accordance with EN 408 "Timber structures -

Structural timber and glued laminated timber - Determination of some
physical and mechanical properties".

- Sample lower 5-percentiles are determined for strength properties by ranking,

and for density from a normal distribution.

- Characteristic values are determined as the weighted means of the sample

lower 5-percentiles for strength properties and density, and ns the weighted
mean of the sample means for modulus of elasticity.

- The characteristic strength values are adjusted for small andlor few samples
and for extreme between-sample variability. Few samples and a small sample
size are taken into account by a reduction factor ks (see Figure 5). To cover
between-sample variability the characteristic value must not be greater than
1,2 times the lower 5-percentile value of the lowest sample (f,, I1,2 min f,,).

STEPfEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr thc EU Comctt Programme A717

liigltrr 5 ( 1 . 3 ) ~ticlfile rirrmber of pieces in
T11e effects of tlie rt~lnrber.of sr~t~rples
snlaiiest snn~ple(40. ..250) on tltc ,factor k,.

- The reference conditions are as set our in EC5, for example 20C/65% r.h. for
all properties, and 150 ttrtrt depthlwidth for bendingftension properties respec-
tively.

Concluding summary
- The European Con~monMarket will lead to a more varied timber supply in
most EU and EFTA countries, with a correspondingly Larger number of
grades and characteristic values. To keep the specification process of timber
simpIe and to avoid confusion, n strength class system is being introduced,
to which species/ grade combinations of sirnilar strength and stiffness nlay
be allocated.

- A strength class system has been established in EN 338. It consists of 9

classes for coniferous species and poplar and 6 classes for deciduous species.
It provides characteristic strength and stiffness properties and density values
for each strength class and gives rules for the allocation of timber to these
classes.

- Characteristic values of individual speciesfgrade cornbinations shall be deter-

mined according to specific rules, defined in EN 384.
<
References
Fewell, A.R.. Glas, P. (1988). T i ~ cdetermination of cltaracleristic slrength values lor stress grades of
slruclural timber. Part I , In: Ptoc. of' the C[B WIS Meeting, Parksville, Canada, Paper 11-6-2.

Fewcll, A.R. (1991). CEN Stnndard (or strength classes and the determination or characteristic values.
In: Proc. of' the 1991 Int. Timber Eng. Conf., London, UK, 1.122-1.128.
 Glued laminated timber -
Production and strength classes
STEP lecture A S Objectives
F. Coiling To describe the production of glued laminated timber and to discuss its
Deuiscl~eGescllschafi advantages in construction. To explain the strength determining factors and the
I'iir Holzfbrschung background of tile European regulations.

Prerequisites
A7 Solid timber - Strength classes
A1 2 Adhesives

Summary
The prodrlction of glued lalnjnated timber is described and the performance and
minimum production requirements are discussed. The resulting advantages
compared to solid timber are demonstrated. The factors influencing the strength
and stiffness properties of glulam beanls and tl-re background to the regulations
in CEN-standards are explained.

Typical Production Process

The production process may vary slightly between different countries. A typical
sequence of operations for the production of glued laminated timber (glulam) is
shown in Figure 1 .

Prepat-atioi~of the planks (oreci A )

Planks with a maxirnurn thickness of approximately 50 mr11 and lengths ranging
from about 1,5 to 5,O m are taken from an outdoor stockyard and kiln dried (1).
One reason for this is that the adhesives used require the moisture content of the
wood Lo be 15% maximu~n(see STEP lecture A12). After drying the planks are
pre-planed (2) and strength graded (3). The vnoisture content is controlled, the
ends of the planks are cut off in preparation for finger jointing (4) and the
planks stock piled (5).

STEP/EUROFORTECN - an initiative ~ ~ n dthc

e r EU Cornell Progra~nnlc A811
Firrger jointing (area B)
The planks are joined lengthwise by Ineans of finger joints to produce a
continuous lamination. A typical finger joint is shown in Figure 2 with the
notation given in prEN 385 "Finger jointed structural timber".

Figlire 2 Finget joint (1 = firrgcr l o l g t l ~ p, = pitch, 6, = rip ividth, I, = rip go!)).

The joint profile is cut into the end-grain and the adhesive is applied (6). The
planks are then pressed together for at least two seconds (7) such that the
resulting friction between the fingers keeps the planks together during handling.
The continuous section is then cut into laminations of the required lengths (8)
and stored (9) for a minimum of eight hours to ensure the curing of the glue
before the further handling of the laminations.

Gluir~g(area CJ
The laminations are planed (10) to remove the remaining rough surface and the
unevenness at the finger joints and the glue is applied (I 1) usually by running it
beneath a glue curtain. For horizontal glulan~,the laminations are placed on edge
one beside the other - giving the final cross-section lying on its side - and
pressed together. The gluefine pressure generally is between 0,4 and 1,2 Nhlrtr?.
Higher values are necessary for curved members or hardwood laminations. The
jigs and pressing devices allow the production of straight (12.1) and curved
(12.2) beams. The gluelines are kept under pressure in a controtled climate at a
temperature of 20°Cand a relative humidity of 65% for at least six hours before
the clamps are released and the beams are stacked (13) ready for finishing.
Figure 3 shows the layout of a pitched cambered beam with the correspor~ding
lamination lengths and its final form.

Finislzing {area D)
Tfie beams are planed on their sides (14) in order to remove residual adhesive
squeezed out of the joints and to ensure smooth surfaces. Finally the beams are
finished (15). These operations include various treatments and preparation work
which benefit from being carried out under controlied conditions (e.g. drilling of
holes for connections, the application of coatings). Son~etimesthe glulam is
wrapped to protect it against damage and dirt.

Preparatiort of the aclliesives (area E )

Unless resin and hardener are pumped directly from storage tanks and mixed
automatically during application, a separate room for the preparation of the
adhesives (mixing of resin and hardener) is required. There should also be
suitable resin and hardener storage facilities and an area with access to adhesive
cleaning equipment.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an inilialive under the. EU Comctt Programme

Performance and production requirements
11.1prEN 386 "Glued laminated timber - performance requirements and minimum
production requireinenls" procedures are specified in order to obtain reliable and
durable bonding, so that the glue lines in the laminated timber maintain their
integrity throughout the intended life of the structure. The most important
requirements are described below.

Cenet.nl Requii-ements
prEN 386 specifies the fo'ollowing requirements for the components of glued
laminated members:
- The rittlbel- shall be strength graded (see STEP lecture AG) to conform
with prEN 518 "Structural timber - grading -
requirements for visual
-
strength grading standards" or prEN 519 "Strucmral timber grading -
requirements for machine strength graded timber and grading machines".
- The odlzesives (see STEP lecture AI2) s11alI meet the requirements for
adhesive type 1 or 11, as appropriate, listed in prEN 301 "Adhesives,
phenolic and aminoplastic, for load-bearing timber structures: classification
and performance requirements".
- The characteristic bending strength of the end joints obtained from
flatwise bending tests according to prEN 408 "Timber structures Solid-
timber and glued laminated timber - Determination of some physical and
lnechanical properties for structural purposes" shall meet the following
requirement:
fnt.j.k 'Z fmj.k.r (I)
where Jl,,,.kr is a required characteristic bending strength. prEN 1194
"Timber stnictures - glued laminated timber - strength classes and
determination of characteristic values" specifies

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comctt Progm~nrnc A813

 where j;,,,,,is (he characteristic bending strength of a glulam beam with a
given strength class (see Table 2). The factor 1,3 is valid for
homogeneous, and the factor 1,4 for combined, glulam.
- The requirements for ghlc litfe iiftcgril)~are based on the resting of the
glue line in a full cross-sectional specimen, cut from a manufactured
member. Depending on the service class, delaminatiorl tests (according io
prEN 391 "Glued laminated timber - delamination test of glue lines") or
block shear tests (according to prEN 392 "Glued laminated timber - glue
line shear test") must be performed.

Munrtfcrctrving reqriirentents
Minimum require~nents for the production of glued Iaminated members for
structural use are given in prEN 386, especially those concerning production
conditioris (equipment, climate in production halls), the treatment, sizes and
species of timber, the adhesives, and the manufactur.ing process itself
(positioning of the laminations, tolerance limits, cramping). Examples of
manufacturing requirements are the lengthways grooving of wide laminations to
reduce cupping effects or the layout of wide cross-sections with layers consisting
of two boards arranged parallet to each other.

Qtrality corztrol
Quality control is of particular importance in glulain production due to the nature
of its manufacture and end use. Since the quality of the glue lines cannot be
appraised in the produced members, special attention lias to be give11 to quality
control during production. Generally, quality controi consists of an internal part
carried out by the producer and an external part by an independent third party.
Quality control includes daily bending tests of finger joints and either
delamination tests or block shear tests to check glue line integrity. Furthennore,
records have to be kept giving the details of every production run including the
date and the number of members produced, their species, timber quality,
dimensions, moisture content of the timber, time for start of adhesive
application, lime for s h r t and end of the cramping process, cramping pressure,
type of resin and hardener, amount of adhesive per m h n d calibration of the
moisture meter as well as the temperature and relative humidity of the different
production halls. Quality coi~trolalso relates to the training of the personnel and
the strength grading of the timber.

Large finger joints

If large finger joints are used to join entire glulam members (as, for example, in
the case of frames), special performance and minimurn production requirements
have to be fulfilled. These requirements are given in prEN 387 "Glued laminated
timber - Production requirements for large finger joints. Performance
requirements and minimum production requirements". Tl-rere may be additional
nationaI requirements.

Advantages of glued laminated timber in use

Glued laminated timber is an highly engineered building material, extending in
many cases the traditional use of timber. The main reason for this is that the
production process with integral quality control as described above, provides a
number of advantages compared with solid timber. The most important are
described below.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - rtrl initiative under t l ~ cEU Comclt Programme

Beall? sizes
Due to the production of continuous laminations, unlimited beam sections and
lengths are theoretically possible. Giula~nbeams with depths of 2,O m or lengths
of 30 to 40 lrt are not exceptional. Limitations however, are imposed by the open
time of the glue, the sizes of planing machines and production halls or for
architectural reasons. During the transportation of glularn beains if the
dimensions exceed IG t i ? in length, 2,5 111 in widti1 or 3,5 rti in height,
supplementary actions such as the application of blinker-signal equipment, police
escorts or exceptional permissions ]nay be necessary. Also the routes have to be
cl~eckedcarefully in order to avoid sharp bends and low bridges.

Beall? shapes
The possibility of curving the single Laminations before gluing allows the
production of exciting beam shapes (see also STEP lecture B8). This also ailows
beams to be precambered to accoinmodate dead load deflection. The production
of curved beams requires the adaption of jigs and pressing devices for every new
beam geometry; thus the production time is higher in comparison with straight
beams. The resulting cost difference depends on the number of similar members
and is often negligible. Tapered ~nemberscan be produced by simply varying the
length of single laminations or by sawing two tapered members from a straight
element.

Higher stretlgth and srrfl7ess

Because of the production process, knots are spread more evenly within the
volume of the beam leading to a more homogerreous material. The influence of
single potential failure areas due to lcnots is reduced, resulting in a lower
variability and, in lower quality timber, a higher mean strengtll. A more detailed
description of strength influencing factors is given below.

Cor~rbiitedg1111a172
The use of iaminations makes it possible to match the lamination quality to tile
level of stress. In the case of a bending member for instance, Iaminations of a
higher strength class are positioned in the outer highly stressed regions, whereas
in the inner zones laminations of a lower quality mily be used. This aIlows a
inore economical use of the available wood material.

Dry tr~oocl
The planks are Iciln dried to a rnoislure content of about 12% since the
equilibrium moisture content of wood used indoors amounts to 9 to 12%
approximately and hence the danger of damage caused by deformations (such as
distortion) occurring during the drying process in the consmction is almost
excluded.

Di~~ze~rsionnl
accur-acSy
The drying of the laminations and the production process aIso allow the
production of glulaln beams with accurate dimensions. Since small tolerances are
inlportant for the use, and combination, of prefabricated members of different
materials, the dimensional accuracy can detennine the use of glufam even if
sawn timber would have been sufficient in terms of strength and stiffness. With
regard to the increased use of CAD and computer controlled finishing machines,
dimensional accuracy is getting more important, If glularn is used in outer walls,
wind tightness can be achieved more easily than if using sawn timber with
moisture contents above the equilibrium moisture content,

-
STEP/EUROFORTECI-1 an initiative under the EU Cri~ncltProgramme A8/5
Strength determining factors
Glulam is mainly used for bending members. Therefore the main emphasis in
this section is put on the factors influencing the bending strength of glued
lamiriated timber. Other strength properties are discussed in the next section.

Systematic studies (CoHing, 1990a; Colling, 1990b) show that the strength of
glulam beams is determined by the strength of the timber and the strength of the
finger joints. A lamination consisting of planks connected with finger joints
behaves to a certain extent like a series system. Depending on the strength ratio
of the timber and the finger joints, respectively, failure will be initiated by either
the failure of the timber or of the finger joint. To increase the strength of glulam
beams, a balanced strength increase of both planks atld finger joints is necessary.

The studies lead to the following conclusions:

- n more rigorous visual strength grading procedure is not likely

significantly to increase the strength of glued laminated timber. Stricter
visual strength grading decreases knot sizes and consequently leads to an
increase of plank strength without affecting finger joint strength.

- Machine strength grading based on wood density andfor rnodulus of

elasticity contributes to a strength increase of both planlcs ~ r l dfinger joints
resulting in increased glulanl strength values.

- Production related parameters such as sharpness of cutting tools, pressure

applied or climate in the production hdls afso influence finger joint
strength. Quality control of finger joints to produce reliable strength values
is, therefore, essential.

Background to the regulations in CEN

prEN 1194 "Timber structures - Glued laminated timber - Strength cIasses and
determination of characteristic values" (September 1993) provides equations for
the calculation of the mechanical properties of glued Iatninated timber depending
on lamination properties. The equations given in this version of prEN I194 are
shown in Table 1 for some of the more important properties.

Property equation according to prEN 1 194

Bending strength (N/rrrrri2) .f,tL,..~ = 12 4- f;o,,,il
Tension strength (N/rtlmz)
pami/cl to graiir f;,utrc.r = 9 + 0575 f,,,,.,,~
pcrpendiciilar ro gruin f,.vc~.~.k = 7 l5 A.!XI,I,~
Compression strength (N/~II~I?)
par~illefto grnirl f;.~.g.il = (195 - 0,01fr.o,~.r)fc.arr
Density (kg/?n3) Pk.a = 0*95P,.alarn

Table I Sor~iet~lecllatiicalproperties of glired [aminatrd tirt~ber'.

The equations are valid for homogeneous cross-sections. For combined glulam
the equations apply to the properties of the individual parts of the cross-section.
As EC5 takes into account the decrease in strength of a material with increasing
dimensions (see STEP lecture B1) the equations of Table 1 are related to
members having a depth or width of 600 r?lrrt for bending and tension paralieI to
grain, and to a reference volume of 0,01 n13 for tension perpendicular to grain.

STEPJEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Cornet1 Programme

The bending strength of glulaln beans is related to the tensile strength of the
laminations by an empirical relationship, which is based on tests and analytical
investigations. For standard lamination qualities this relationship indicates that
the characteristic glulan~ bending strength is 40 to 90% higher than the
characteristic tensile strength of the laminations. This may be explained by
several effects (Colling and Falk, 1993). The most important are:

- a difference exists in the tension performance of single laminations as

measured by standard test methods and their actual performance in a
glulam beam. The test method in prEN 408 for determining the tensile
strength provides no lateral restraint to the tension member. Contrary to
the situation in a glulam member, off-centre defects such as edge knots
consequently induce bending stresses thus reducing the tensile capacity.

- In glulam beams defects like lcnots are reinforced by adjacent laminations.

The reinforcement provides alternative stress paths around the defect.

Also in the case of rcrrrsion and co~?~pl-essio~t

parallel lo grain, the characteristic
strength values of glulam beams are higher than those of the individual
laminations. This may again be explained by load sharing effects as described
above. The characteristic tensile strength has been assumed to amount to 75% of
the characteristic bending strength. For compression see also STEP lecture B6.

In the case of curved and cambered beams, radial stresses occur (see STEP
lecture B8). Due to smaller cracks in glula~nbeams, the characteristic tetzsile
strcrtgth perpenrlicl~lcrr to the grain is higher than for the laminations acting
alone. The same applies to cor~~prcssiort perperzrliclrfrr to the grain where the
cllaracteristic values for glulam are higher due to the smaller variation in density
compared with the single laminations.

The gluing of an increasing number of laminations leads to a more homogeneous

material with low variation of rlerzsity. Therefore, the characteristic density of
glued laminated timber is close to the mean value of the density of the single
laminations.

Strength classes
In prEN 1194 (September 1993) five strength classes for glularn are defined (see
Table 2). Tl~elamination qualities needed Lo comply with the required properties
may be determined on the basis of the above mentioned equations (see Table 1).

Strengt1.r cfass GL 20 GL 24 GL 28 GL 32 GL 36
XU.~,~ (N/NtnrZ) 20 24 28 32 36

( N h t ~ t ? ~ ~ ) 10 000 1 1 000 12 000 13 500 14 500

E ~ , ~ , ~ . , (N/JTIITI') 8 000 8 800 9 600 10 800 I I GOO

Table 2 Stretlgth c1a.sse.sfor gliicd lnrtli~~~ted

tirlzl~er.

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an inilialive under rhc EU Cornell Programme

For homogeneous glulain the design calculations may be carried out by the
rnethods described in EC5.

In the case of combined glulam, however, the stress analysis may to be carried
out using the transformed section method and strength checks shalf be made at
a11 relevant points of the cross-section. This means that the different lamination
qualities (characteristic strength and stiffness values) have to be taken into
account.

The design of composite cross-sections therefore requires additional calculations.

Table 3 shows the layup of timbers in accordance with prEN 338 "Structural
timber - Strength classes" for homogeneous and combined glulam for the
standard gluiam classes. For those beams the design calculations may be carried
out as for tzornogeneous cross-sections.

If other beam lay-ups are used, they rnust be checked to show that Lhe behaviour
of the colnposite beams is at least equivalent to an l~oniogeneousbeam wit11 a
target strength class based on Table 2. In the case of shear stresses and stresses
perpendicular to the grain - which are normally critical in the core of the beam -
the applied stress should be checked against the strength of the inner lamination
material.

Strength class CL 20 GL 24 GL 28 GL 32 CL 36
Homageneous glulam crll icrtnrincrtioas C IS C 22 C 27 C 35 C 40
combined glulam ' outer. la~tiirmiiat~sC 22 C 24 C 30 C 35 C 40
itrrrer ictr~tir~a~iorrs
C 16 C 18 C 22 C 27 C 35
' The rctjuirc~nentsfor thc outer laminations apply to the extreme 116 of tllc dcpth
on both sides

Table 3 E.t.att~plesc$ heat^^ lay-rcps.

Concluding summary
- Glued laminated timber is a highly engineered building material, providing
many advantages over solid timber.

- Special attention must be given to the strength grading of the laminations,

the quality of finger joints, glue line integrity and quality control.

- Machine strength grading based on wood density and modulus of elasticity

is the key to high strength glulam.

References
Coiling, F. (I990a).TragAhigkcit von Bicgctdgem nus Brettscliiclitholz in Abhiingigkcil von clcn
festigkcitsrelcvanten EinfluBgroBen. Dissertation, Universitfit Karlsnlhc, Germany.
Colling, F. (1990b). Bcnding strength of glulam l~cams- n statistical modcl. Ln: Proc, of the
1UFRO S5.02 Mccting, St. fohn, Conada.

Colling, F, rind Falk. R. (1993). An investigation of laminating cfrects in glucd laminated timber.
In: Proc, of' the CIB-W 18 Meeting, Athens, USA.

STEPIEUROFORTECM - :in initiativo under t t ~ cEU Conlctt Programme

 Laminated veneer lumber and other
structural sections
STEP lecture A9 Objectives
A. ~nntn-Maunus To introduce new high strength wood-based materials not lnentioned in EC5, to
Tcci~nicafRcsenrch Ccntrc describe their use and how they can be designed by following tlte EC5 principles.
of Finlilnd (VTT)
Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
The leclure begins with a brief description of the fabrication technoiogy of the
reconstituted wood ~naterials.IL presents tlie material properties for one type of
laminated veneer lutnber including characteristic values as given by the rnanufac-
turer and accepted for European use. Examples are given of itow the material is
used today in load carrying structures.

The advantage of using reconstituted wood products is that larger dimensions are
available and higher cl~aracteristicstrength values can be achieved than the strength
of the raw material used. The dimensions of these products which are, after
fabrication, quite dry are more accurate and moisture related distortion of the shape
(twisting, warping) is not a problem.

Introduction
The strength of timber is determilled more by the weakest cross-sections having
defects than by the clear straight grain wood itself, which normally has two Lo four
times higher strength than commercial sawn timber. Large defects can be avoided
when logs are first cut into thin sections and then glued to a reconstituted product.
Especially the tensile strength is increased. Because the co~npressionstrength
depends strongly on lnoisture content, the bending failure in service class 2 may
take place also on the compression side.

Glued laminated timber has a higher strength than its raw material. Still more
benefit of the redistribution of large defects into several stnall ones is obtained in
tlie fabrication of plywood, in which logs are peeled to veneers with thicknesses of
1 to 5 nlm. PIywood veneers are glued usually in right angles to each other.

Laminated velleer lumber (LVL) is a product close to plywood, except that (most)
veneers are panllel and larger dimensions are available. The idea of LVL came
from the 19GOs and the production has expanded in the 1980s. Today, LVL is
produced comn~ercially in the USA by seven companies, in Finland, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand. The biggest LVL producer in the US markets LVL
under the trade mark Micro=Lam LVL. In Finland the product is called Kei-to-
LVL. The 1993 production of LVL in 440000 11t3 in America, 51000 m%n Europe
and 40000 !n3 in other parts of the world and sliowed a rising trend.

Parallel strand lumber (Parallam) is a bcarn-like product made of long wood

strands, which was developed in Canada in the 1970's and 1980's. It is now
fabricated also in the USA. Anotlier new American structural wood product is
Intrailam, which is rnade from large parallel cliips.

STEPIEUROFORECI-I - an inilialive under the EU Cornet! Programme A91 1

Fabrication
LVL is mantlfacLured in America from Southern Yellow Pine (Micr.o=Lam) and in
Europe From Norway spruce (Kerto). Logs are debarked and heated in hot water
for 24 hours. They are rotary peeled into veneers which are clipped into sheets
about 2 N I wide. The veneers, having a typical thickness of 3 to 4 nlnr, are graded
accordirlg to the density. After drying, pllenol formaldehyde adhesive is applied to
veneers which are then laid with the grain running parallel Lo form a continuous
rnat of' the desired thickness. Veneers are scarf-jointed except the tniddie veneers
which are butt-jointed. These joints are staggered vertically in order to lninimise
the effect of joint on the strength of LVL. The ~nsttis hot pressed at a temperature
of about 150 "C. After hot pressing, each finished sheet of LVL is cross-cut and
rip-sawn to desired dirne~lsions.Lengths exceeding 20 /rz can be pr.oduced. During
fabrication the q~~ality control includes regular testing of' the quality of the glue
bond and the bending streng~h.

ICerZo-LVL is produced as a s~nndardproduct when all veneers are parallel (Kerto-

S) and also as Kerto-Q in which about every fifth veneer is in the perpendicular
direction. Standard di~nensionsof cross-section are given in Table 1.

Figttre I LVL is proditced ns a corlti?tl~o~ls

potrel with r~et~clidthqf 1800 rrur[.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initirrtivc under ttlc EU Cornetc Programrnc

 Widths Thicknesses in ~nrn
in ltrtlr
27 33 39 45 51 63 75'
200 X X X X X X X
260 x x x x x x
300 x x x x x
360 x x x x
400 x x x
450 x x
SO0 X X
GOO x
900 x
' ICerto-S only
Tahle 1 sf an do^-d rlin~crlsior~s
of KCJTO-LVL.Tlrickrie.s.~e.sof Micro=Lnnz LVL cor71-
pr?'sssfi.0111 19 to 89 n~rn.

Parallarn is made from Douglas fir and Southen1 yellow pine. As in the manufac-
ture of LVL, Jogs are peeled into veneers. The sheets of veneer are then clipped
into strands up to 2400 wulr, in length and 2-3 nun in thickness. Tile adhesive is
applied to the oriented strands which are fed into a rotary belt press and cured
under pressure by microwave heating. The process is motiitored by programmable
logic controllers. Parallam emerges f r o ~ nthe process as a continuous billet that can
be factory-cut and trjmined to standard sizes up to 20 171 in length. Maximum depth
of beam is 480 rltriy and width 285 11im.Square cross-sections up to 180 x 1 SO 11zit1
are co~nmonlyproduced for columns.

Intrallam is made froin large chips up to 300 111min length and 30 mm in width.
After drying, a polyurethane adhesive is applied and the chips are organised to a
direction parallel lo tile panel length. Tile fabricated product is a large panel (2,44
x l0,6 nt), whicll is cut to llte required dimensions.

Examples of use
LVL is being used as beams. plates, ~ne~nbers of tlusses and shells. This is done in
new buildings as well as in renovation for bealms, joists, truss chords, vehicle deck-
ing, concrete formwork, scaffold planking and prefabricated housing. The largest
structure made of LVL in Europe is Oulu-don~ewith a diameter of 115 117 (Figure
2). In dome structures, high strength to weiglit ratio, straiglttness and sn~all
Fabrication tolerances are important features.

The uses of Intrallall~are similar to those of LVL.

Parallam is used for beams, headers and columns. In tesidential building construc-
lion in America it is often used in beams when a material wit11 higher slrengtl~is
needed. It is suitable also for hall structures and the appearance of material is
considered warm and suitable for interior architecture. Both LVL and Parallam are
competing with steel in large span structures. The advantages of the wood-based
alternatives are good architectural appearance, longer resistance in case of fire and
the easy tecl~niquesfor fastening of the secondary structure.

Bean and post structures can be built in LVL and in Parallam. An example of a
three-storey scl~oolbuilding is illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. A specific feature of
this building is that it is built in an area where seismic loads are effective. LVL
panels with screwed joints have been used in shear wall stl-uctures in order to

STEPfEUROI=ORTECI-1- :In iniiiati\ic unclcr tlic EU Comctl Programme A913

achieve the racking strength and energy dissi~~alion needed. Wood-based panels
connected by rnecharlicaf fasteners to wood frame for111 a structure with high
resisiance to eatthqtrakes. Iiigh shear strengll.1 can be achieved by cross-veneered -
panels.

Fig1tr.c 3 AIBsmdt Centr.e,for Teclrnolagy attd Ec+unott~ics,

Get-tiraay: tllr'ee storey LVL-
frame.

STEP/EUROFORTECt~l- an initiotivc under the EU Comcli Programme

i r e4 All~stndt Cer1tr.e for Tcclrrrology arirf Ecotmriric.~,GL'I.IIUIIIS: ~(rr~l~(/il(tkc~
LVL
rcsistnrlr slrenr 11ja1lsrtlucle oj'C I - O . Y . Y - I ~ L ' ~ Ipatrels.
~L'~C~/

Material properties
Durability of LVL, Parallam and 11~tmll;imis companble to nilt~iraltimber. Thcsc
products can be impregnated in order to ilnprove durability in moist co~lditions.
Also ihe charring rate in fire is close to glued isminoted timber. For LVL uscd as
panel, the values for plywood call be used.

The moisture content after fabrication is about 10% arid in scrvicc normally 2%
less than the moisture content of solid wood. Moisture expansion coefliciellts o l
LVL as change of dimension (%) per one per cent change of moisture content iWC
given i n Table 2.
 Direction Kerto-S Kerto-Q
Length
Width
0,OI
0.32
0,O 1
0,03
-
Thickness 0,24 0.24

Characteristic values are given in Table 3 for Kerto-S-LVL based on information

supplied by the tnanufacturer. These vali~eshave bee11 accepted for use in Sweden.
A colnpilation of the ~.esearchresults made in different countries with Kerto-LVL
-
is tnade by Koponen and Kanerva ( 1 992).

EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7 The lnodification factors for service ctass and load duration k,,,,, and deforrnation
-
E C ~ Part
: 1-1: 4.1 factors k,,,? given in EC5 for plywood are aIso valid for LVL and Parallarn. The
ECS: Prjrt 1-1: 3.3.2(4) factor I,, used in glulam design is riot necessaly for LVL because of the smaller
statistical variation in strength. Quality control tests of Kerlo-LVL show thc -
coefficient of variation for bending strength to be less than 10%. Thus a depth
factor with an exponent of 0,07would be appropr.iale based on Weibull's theory.

However, by using the same partial safety coefficient as for other wood materials,
y,,, = 1,3, extra safety is already included and further reduction is not necessary.

Strength and stiffness properties in Nht1~1~

Bending edgewise .LA 51
Bending flirtwise 48
Tension parallel to the grain .6,,1.i 42
Tension perpendicular to the grain f,,~., 0,6
Compression parallel to the grain X:JB.~ 42
Compression perpendicular the grain .[!:J,I.~

- parallel to the glue line 9

- perpendicular to the glue line 6
Shear edgewise
Shear flatwise
Rolling shear
5 % ~nodulus01' elasticity
5 % shear n~odulus
Mean modulus of elasticity .4,,a,c6rt, 14000
Mean shear niodulus G,r.,t,,,,~ 960
Density in kg/ii$
Characteristic Density P1: 500
Average density P,,,,,,,, 520

Design of members and joints

The design of structiires made of LVL and Parallam follow the general rules of
EC5. Bending strength of LVL and Parallam is about the same. In compression and
shear Parallarn is stronger. The bending strength of Intrallarn is cotnparable wit11
glulam. Cornparison of strength and stiffness of sawn timber (C24), glula~n(GL32)

-
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I an iniliativc under thc EU Conictt Programme
and LVL is illustrated in Figure 6. The Figure shows that the stiffness of LVL is
somewhat higher but the strength is about twice the strength of average strength
graded sawn limber. The bending capacity of the same materials is illustrated in
Figure 7 where cross-sections with equivalent bending capacity are shown.

Dowel-type fasteners are used with LVL, and the EC5 design equations are as
good for LVL as for sawn timber with tile same density. Dowel joints are used also
in frame structure with rigid joints as illustrated in Figure 5. Punched metal plate
fastener joints are also used and the design principles are the same as for solid
wood. Special types of punched ~netalplates have been developed for LVL (see
also STEP lecture E6).

Pigrtrz. 7 TItree cr-o,r,c.-,sectiorrs)vidr si17rilnr berldi~rgcapacity: snrtltl tirrzber (C24f,

(GL32)U I I CLVL.
glrtla~~l ~

Summary
Engineered wood products LVL and Parallam have higher strength and stiffness
than traditional wooden products. They ilre also thoroughly tested because they
have entered the market during modern legislation. "Fl~eseindustrial products are
well suited for use where high strength and diniensional stability is needed.

Reference
Koponcn, S., Kanerva, P.(1992). Summary of European ICcrtn-LVL tests with rnccl~anicalfasteners.
Report 29. Helsinki University of Technology. Laboratory or S~rucluralEngineering and building
Physics. Espoo, Finland.

STEP/EUROFORTECI-l - an initiative under thc EU Cornett Pragriimmc A917

 Wood-based panels - Plywood

STEP lccturc A I0 Objective

C. Sicck To explain the critical properties, particularly the st~ucturalbeliaviour, of plywood
Fachhnchschule Miincllcn as an exanlple of layered boards.

Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building ~nalerial
A 12 Adhesives

Summary
The production of plywood is described and the technical terminology is explained.
The essential physical properties of plywood are suminarised. In Inore detail the
structural properties and their dependencies on the lay-up are shown. Some
exainples of characteristic values of mechanical properties for established products
are given.

Introduction
Wood in thin layers, known as plies or veneers, has been used since ancient times
for example by the Egyptians and Rolnans to fillish wooden surfaces. Since the
beginning of the 20th centuty, plywood has been industrially produced. Plywood
as a building material consists of an odd number of layers (at least three) which we
bonded using various types of adhesives (STEP lecture A12). The suitability of
plywood for the aircraft industry initiated intensive research into veneer bonding
and the s11-ucluraIproperties of plywood. Initially only natural adhesives were
available but today plywood as a constructional material is produced using synthetic
adhesives. Plies can be inanuiactured by rotary peeling, slicing or sawing. Plies for
the structural plywoods used in building components are produced by the rotary
peeling of steamed logs (see Figure 1). This procedure resembles the unwinding of
the log to obtain a wooden ribbon of about 2 111111to 4 1rl111 thickness. Tile next step
is to C L I the
~ I-ibbon inlo sheets. After kiln drying and gluing, the veneers are laid
up with an angle of 90" between the grain direction of adjacent layers and bonded
under pressure. Figure 2 sliows the layered con~positionof a plywood cross section.
Adjacent veneers provide stability in the panel by reducing the possibility of
perpendicular to the grain movements due to swelling and shrinkage. The edge of
the panel is protected in all directions since at least one veneer will have the grain
rilnning parallef to the panel edge. Plywood is structurally suited for use as a panel
material in various components, for example as [he web or flange of beams, in
diaphmgtns, as wall panels or as gussets in spaced columns and trusses.

STEP/EUROFORTECI.i - an inilintivc undcr the EU Comett Progrnmmc AIO/I

 Figurr 2 Cortlpo.si~iutrof balurlctld 5 layers plylllood cross section, 4 = cj2; cis = dl.
--, :grai!~clirection offace veneer'

Physical properties
Deruiv
One of the most important physical properties of wood based materials is the
density. Depending on the percentage of adhesive and the compression of the
bonding, the density of plywood is generally higher than the density of the wood
from which it was made. As with solid timber, the elastic properties and strength
of plywood are correlated with density. Density values are given in Table 2.

Muisttrre content
Like solid wood, the veneers are hygroscopic, and therefore the moistirre content
of plywood depends on the climatic condilions of the surrounding air (see Table 1).
The moisture content of plywood is less than of solid timber due to the glue lines.

Sur.~.oundingair with temperature

of 20°C and relative t~umidityof 30% 65% 85%
Equilibrium nloisture content of ply\vood -5% -10% -15%
Equilibrium moisture content of softwood -G% - 12% -17%
Table 1 Eqrtilibrirlnr nloi.vfrtra cot~ferif.

Swelli~lgA~~~ri,lkage
Changes in plywood moisture content below fibre saturation point cause changes
in the geometrical properties of plywood panels. Because of the grain directions of
adjacent layers, the deformations in the plane of the panel are small (about 0,02%
per 1% change in moisture content). Perpendicular to the panel plane, in the case
of rotary peeled veneers, a radial swelIing/shrinlcage similar to that of the solid
wood species call be expected.

CIBep
The increase in deformation of plywood with time, due to rlle combined effect of
EC5: Part 1-1: Table 4.1 creep and moisture, is talcen into account by the factor k,,,/.Plywood panels are
slightly more prone to creep than solid timber due to the glue lines.

Durability
The natural durability of wood based panels depends less on the species of wood
than solid timber. Additional factors which may affect the durability of plywood are

- thickness of veneers
- composition (use of different materials within the board)
- properties and quantity of adhesives.
Ilnproved durability can be obtained by using selected wood species for the veneers,
special lay-ups or by chemical protection. For the choice of specific wood species
of suitable durability see EN 350-2 "Durability of wood and wood products.
Natural durability of wood - Part 2: Guide to the natural durability and treatability
of selected wood species of irnpofiance in Europe". The application of hazard classes
of biological attack to wood based panels is given in EN 335-3 "Durability of wood
and wood-based products. Definition of hazard classes of biological attack - Part
3: Application to wood-based panels".

Structural properties
The structural properties of plywood are affected by the folIowing parameters
- geometrical factors (number and thickness of veneers; composition)
- material factors (wood species; moisture content)
- load factors (type of stresses; direction of stress related to grain direction of face
veneer; duration of load).
JI
In the case of bending, it is important to differentiate between 1

- bending perpendicular to the plane of the panel (see Figure 3)

- in-plane bending (see Figure 3).

It is also intportant to note the difference in properties related to the orientation of

the board. The stress distribution in all cases is based on a linear stress-strain
reIation for the lay ups of the veneers and will be explained using an example for
a 5-layered plywood panel.

Betldirzg perpendicular to the picrite

Bending perpendicular to the plane causes deflection of the panel perpendicular to
the plane. The theoretical bending stiffness of a plywood panel with five veneers
of thickness d is given by
El = C $ I, (1)

Figrrre 3 Retrdit~gperpetiriicrclar to the plane. (n) pnrullel to the grab1 yf fnce rrer~ecr,
(6) pcrpettrlictclnr to the grairl of fme Ijeneer.

STEPfEUROFORTECH - iln initinlive under the EU Comclt Programme A 1013

In an approximate calculation for the bending stiffness El may be assumed as
= 0 for the layers, i. e. ignoring the contribution of veneers stressed
E90,,l,n,,,
perpendicular to their grain.
-
With E(,,,,,,,, = E,, and b = 1 gives for o,, parallel to grain of face veneer
(Figure 3a) -
and for cr, perpendicular to grain of face veneer (Figure 3b)
-

The resuiting equations for the moduli of elasticity of the panel are as follows:

If, however Eq(,,,,,,,,, is taker1 as 1 /30 E,,,,,,, , as wou Id be typical for softwood
veneers, the i~nprovemenisin ~nocluliare:

EfI = 0,80 E,, for o;,, 11 grain of face veneer

EL = 0,24 E,, for ci,,, I grain of face veneer.

For calculation of deflections the bending stiffness El of plywood panels is needed

where E means the inodulus of elasticity, defined as above and I tlie second A

tnolnent of total cross section. The weighting for different stiffness of the veneers
is then attained.

When bending perpendicular to the plane is carried out, then planar shear ("rolling
-
shear") occurs in the plane of the plies of a plywood pnnel (see Figure 5b).

In-pla~tebending
-
As a cainmon case of in-plane bending the load carrying bel~aviourof I- and box-
beam webs is well known. Usually the piywood panel of the web has the grain of:
face veneer running parallel Lo the beam axis. -
For the plywood panel in the above example, in-piane bending results in the
following. Firstly, ignoring the contribution of' veneers stressed perpendicular to
heir grain, gives

dl,
Ell = 3-Et, for o,,, 11 grain of face veneer (8)
12

1 = 2
dh
El" Igrain of face veneer
for a,,,
12

STBPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme

Figrim 4 nrrd ( b ) pelpel~rlicrllarto the grain of face
Irr-plarre bcrrdirrg (nj p~~,ullel
Irctleer.

The resulting equations for the moduli of elasticity of the panel are as follows:

"
E =
d h 3 E,, 13-
= 0,GO E(,
4 5 5 1 h 3

IF E,),,,,,,,,,,, = E,,,, j30 is introduced, Illen it leads to

E, = 0,Gl E(,
E, = 0,41 E,,,

( a ) potlei s h w r strrss (b) pln~rat.s\lenr tress

shorvrr).

In the case of in-plane bending, panel shear occurs perpendicular to the plane of the
panel (see Figure 5a). The panel shear strength is much higher khan planar shear
strengtl~.

-
STEP/EUROFORTECI+I an initiative undcr the EU Comett Programme A1015
 Tensiorz aizd cot~ipr-essioiz
For tension and compression in plane of pIywood panels (see Figure 6) the elastic
deformation may be calculated by using the summation of the IongitudinaI -
stiffnesses

Figure 6 Itr-plat~eterisiuri atid cortrpressior~(a)pcwalhl ( b ) perpeiidr'c~~~lnr

to tl~egrc~itr
of face veneer.

The application in the above exarnple gives

Ef = -(31 d E,, .t 2d . 0) = 0,60 E,, for o,.<11 grain of face veneer (15)
5 d

1
EL = -
5d
( 2 d E, + 3 (d . 0) = 0,40 E , for or,<Igrain of face veneer (16)

Tension stresses perpendic~llarto the plane of plywood panels are to be avoided.

Compression stresses perpendicular to the plane of plywood panels induce srnaller
deformation than in timber of the same species of wood, from which the veneers
are made, because the transverse deformation is reduced by LIE lay up of the
veneers.

Characteristic values
For plywood panels which have a long history of st[-uctural use in the EC and
EFTA countries, the characteristic values of mechanical properties and density
EN TC 112.406 values are given in EN TC 1 12.406 "Wood-based panels - Characteristic values for
established products". For types of plywood not listed in EN TC 112.406,
characteristic values shall be determined using the sarnpiing techniques set out in
E N 1058 EN 1058 - "Wood-based materials - Determination of cltaracteristic values of
EN 789 mechanical properties and density" and testing procedures given in EN 789 "Timber
structures - Testing of wood-based panels for tlie determination of mechanical
properties for structural purposes".

Charcrcter-isficdensity
The characteristic densities in EN TC 112.406 range from 350 kg.lrn"or softwood
species up to 550 kgittt3 for beech plywood. Some characteristic density values are
given in Table 2,

STEPIEUROFORTECI3 - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programrnc

 4y7e oJ
S- FIN- US- CAN- D-
chcirncrcristic
,t:yrvood' ply~jood' Ply~vood3 p/Jt,voori4 plyvood 5
srrertgth

Fig. 1 fk7 f
r~ltrrN/IIIIH-111r11 N ~fk.,
I I I I"tlrnr
It- ~hrtltl' trvn
1 fk fk
~hiii11~ N / I ~ I , ~ z ~

Table 2 Clrar~cfer-istic srrerrgrli 1rn11ie.sill ffharn' nitd clramcterisfic der~,sif)f

r~diresill
kS/rir" nccorciirrg to EN TC 112.30h for- estoblisl~edpr-odrccts.

I. S\vedislr plyrt~oodP30, spurce, ic?r.sm~ded

2. Firlrrislr birch pI~*rrrood,1,1 r?rnr Ireileer, sanded
3. US pljotlood C-D, e~posrrreI , g w ~ c pI, rt~tsur~ded
4. Cutmdiorr plyrt~ood,llouglas $fir; regrilar or r-egillar select shcntirilrg,
rorscrnded
5. Ger-rr~arrbeeci~plylvood (far k,, k2, k-q see Eqidafiorrs (171, (IS) orrd
f 19))
6. 2 5-1aye~..r
 Cltnrncteristic n~ecltmticc~l
properties
Tables 2 and 3 give a selection of the established products froin EN TC 112.406.
Characteristic values for French and Gerinan plywood panels consisting of uniform -
wood species can be derived using the composition factors of equations (17) - (19),
see Figure 7. The required equations listed in Tables 2 and 3 are valid for E, I and
EN 635 - 2 and 3 11 veneer grades in accordance with EN 635 "Plywood. Classification by surface
appearance", part 2 for hardwood and part 3 For softwood.

S- FIN- US- C.4 N- U-

pfy~vood' p(~voorl- plv~c~onr&3p l Y ~ ~ ~ o o dplylcloorl
4

Fig.

Table 3 Meall' valties of tttodtclus of elasticity irt N/tiun2 occorditrg to EN TC 112.306

for esrablishcd producrs.

Footr~otcsI to 6 sce Tabie 2.

,,<,,,,
7. Cl~amcterisricvalue E,,, = 0,8 Eiqf

STEP/EUROFORTECI?- an initiative under the EU Comctt Prograrnmc

For plywood of' mixed wood species, EN TC 1 12.406 gives extended composition
factors in order to take into consideration layers consisting of different wood
species in one plywood cross section.

The factors k, and 15 can be used for the calculation of characteristics of in-plane
bending st!-ength f':,,,, on the basis of bending strength perpendicular to plane.f;,,+,:

Ibr the products in Table 2

The tnean value of the panel shear rnodulus G,,~,,,,,.,,,,
ranges from 500 N/ti~m'for sofiwood species up to -700 Nlt~rm' for German beech
plywood.

Concluding summary
- Plywood, a classic wood-based panel is produced on the basis of a well-
established teclinology and used for Inany structural components.

- For the application of characteristic vtlIues it is important to clifferentiale between

- bending perpendicular to the plane of the panel
- in-plane bending.

- Characteristic values of mechanical properlies for established pIywood products

can be taken from EN TC I 12.406.

-
STEP/EUROPORTECI-l nn initiative undcr thc EU Comcll Progmmmc
 Wood-based panels - Fibreboard,
particleboard and OSB.

STEP lecture AI I 0bjectives

D.R.Griffiths To introduce the manufacture, properties and uses of fibreboards, particleboards
University of Surrey and OSB.To identify how design data is derived for use with EC5.

Summary
The various types of fibreboards, particleboards and OSBs are noted and their
manufacturing processes detailed. An overview is given of board properties and this
is linked to the methods adopted by CEN for the specification of boards and the
derivation of design values. The range of uses in constmction for the board types
described is tabufared.

Introduction
Wood has been designed in nature to ~neet very specific engineering and
environmental needs, but man seeks to adapt it to a very much wider range of uses.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of timber in size and anisotropy, new man
made forms of wood have had to be introduced. Gluiain and plywood developed
with the advent of structural glues and the rotary peeling process. More recently,
developments have concentrated on reconstituted forrns of wood such as
particleboards, OSB, fibreboards and parallel strand lumber. These developments
contribute much to i~nprovingthe efficiency of the forest resource. More energy is
consumed in the conversion process but this is far outweighed by the benefits of
using either waste or fast growing s~nalltimbers and in fabrication costs. The main
use of this reconstituted or conlposjte wood is in wood-based panels. Table 1 shows
the five main groups of wood-based panels and details tile three which fonn the
subject of this lecture.

Production and consunlption data show a marked increase in the use of wood-based
panels in the last decade. 30 rllillion cubic metres were consumed in the 12 EC
countries in 1989 and of this more than two thirds was particleboard. Furthermore,
Europe is self sufficienl in particleboards and fibreboards but imports nearly two
thirds of the plywood used. Wood based panels are very versatiIe and are used in
many different industries including furniture, wall panelling, packaging and do-it-
yourself; 50% of the product is used structurally, principally in the constniction
industry, and is covered by the Construction Products Directive (CPD) of the EU.
Structural uses include flooring and roofing, wall sheathing, forniwork and specialist
structural uses such as web members in 1 and box beams. The CPD also includes
internal fitments such as doors and stair units which represent a further major
market for wood based panels.

Many types of wood based panels are relatively new materials and not all the
boards suited to structural use have had their chnracteristic strength and moduli
evaluated so that they can be used in conjunction with lfre k,,,, and k,,, factors a ~ ~ d
joint information contained in EC5. Where panel products have a history of
stnlcturai use and this experience has been incorporated in rlarional standards then
this information has been used in the derivation of characteristic values. Otlier
materials are put through extensive test programmes, using tests specially
formulated by CEN cornmittees to meet tlie varying requirements of different panel
products, in order to produce design data. At the same time materials' specifications
and performance requirements are being produced so that manufacturers can achieve
-
conformity and use the CE mark which indicates compliance with the essential
requirements of the CPD. Product standards are likely to remain the most common
means of assessing the structural suitability of fibseboards, particleboards and OSB -
for many years to come.
WOOD-BASED PANELS
I I 1
Plywood Boards Detailed Spccial Bomd
(STEP lecturc A10) in This Lecture Products
I I I
Pnrticleboard OSB Fibrcboard

Bot~declivith Mit~emlBotrcled Bo~rderl1c1itlt Orgutric Mitrernl Botldcd

Orgarlic Bin& I'.P Bitldcr:~
I 1 I I
Chipboards Cement-Bonded Hardboards, Gypsutn
Particlcbonrds Mediunzboards, Fi brcboa~xki
Softboards,
MDF

Board types and manufacture -

Pnrticleborrt~cls
A particleboard may be defined as a panel ~naterialmanufactured under pressure A

and heat from particles of wood (wood Flakes, chips, shavings) with the addition of
an adhesive. The main types are named in Table 1. In the past, boards made using
larger particles such as wafers and stlxnds have been included under the generic
term particleboards. However, the major differences between OSB and chipboard
-
and the continued growth in use of OSB has resulted in it being awarded a separate
status in CEN codes.
--
Clt ipbocr rcl
Chipboard dates from the 1940s and was originalfy developed to utilise waste
timber; it was generally of [ow quality. After a slow start, growtli has been -
tremendous and quality and tlnish have been improved and can be designed to suit
end use by varying the materials, the lay up of the board and tlic pressing cycle.
The wood chips form 85% of the board and are norn~ally from coniCerous -
softwoods such as spruce and pine although hardwoods such as birch may be used
for heavy duty boards. Tlze chips ilre cut by a series of rotating knives to produce
thin flakesfchips which are screened, dried and then sprayed with adhesive. The
chips are next blown on to a forming platten and, by using different sized chips
-
stored in separate hoppers, a multi-layered matt can be built up. Fine chips at the
lop and bottom of the tnatt provide a smooth surface suitable for painting; long
(30 t11in) thin chips provide a strong dense layer just under the surface and larger -
chips fonn a more econon~ic,lower strength and lower density core. The chips are
randomly oriented such that the board performance will be sirnilar in all directions
in the plane of the board. The common binders are synthetic resins, either urea
fonnaldehyde (UF) for boards intended for use only in dry conditions or the more
-
expensive rnelatnine urea forinaldehyde (MUF) for boards with enhanced moishlre

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an iniliativc under lllc EU Comeit Programlnc

-.
The two processes start in a similar manner. Raw material, normally softwood
forestry thinnings, but varying from sawdust to hardwood wastes and always
exctuding bark, is chipped and rnechanically reduced to basic wood fibre. The chips
are steamed under high pressure to soften the lignin, the natural gluing agent in the
wood, which is thermoplastic and will provide all or part of the bond in the formed
board. Alternatively, for wet process boards only, the Masonite (or explosion)
process is employed where tile sudden ejection of the chips from a steam healed
pressure vessel causes them to disintegrate.

Manufacturing Board density

process
Low Medium High
< 400 ~ ~ / I I I ' 2 400 kg/111~,< 900 kS/Ir? > 900 kg/r11~
Wet Softboard (SB) Low Density Hardboard (HB)
Mediumboard (MBL)

Imprcgnatcd High Density Ternpered

Softboard (SB.1) Mediunlboard (MBH) Hardboard (HB .I)
Dry Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF)
Note: Board symbols shown in brackets; I means "with additional properties".
Tublt 2 Twes offibrebonrcl.

Wet process nza~irrfnctltre

This is the older method of forming boards. The fibrous mass is mixed with hot
water to form a pulp and additives are mixed in, as required by the final use of the
board, such as flame-retardant chemicals and bitumen emulsion or other water
repellent treatments. The pulp is then drained of water by suction pumps acting
through the forming mesh and by the action of the thicknessing rollers.

Softboard is formed at this stage by coolir~gand drying the board. The density will
be between 200 and 400 k8/tn3 and thiclcnesses of 9 to 25 n ~ r rare common. For
more dense boards, the material must first be pressed at a temperature of 160 to
180°C. The need to remove further water at this stage results in the typical board
finish of one smooth face formed against a polished plate and one rough 'screen'
face fonned against a wire mesh. Mediurn boards are in the density range 400 to
900 kg/itr"ith thicknesses from G to 13 ,nm, Hardboards are 900 to 1100 kg/itl" in
density with thicknesses between 3 and 8 mnl. Tempered hardboard is a special
quality structural hardboard of higher density, with added water repellency which
is obtained by passage of the material through a hot oil bath, and possibly of higher
strength achieved through the use of additives such as phenol formaldehyde.

Dty process n r n n ~ ~ o c t ~ u . ~
In this more modem process the fibrous mass is conveyed in an air stream to the
matt forming station. The fibres must be coated with resin, either UF, MUF or MDI
(isocyanate) and up to 10% by weight, to achieve good bonding. The matt may be
up to 500 rilnl thick and is then pre-pressed between steel belts to remove air. Cut
lengths are hot pressed into slteets giving two very finely finished surfaces. Medium
Density Fibreboard (MDF) is available in thicknesses up to 40 mm and in densities
in the range 600 to 1000 kg/tn3. Board edges may readily be profited for specialist
use.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comett Programme

Board properties
Wood-based panels overcome some of the deficiencies of natural timber in that they
have a lower degree of variability, lower anisotropy and higher dimensional stability
in the plane of the board; they are available in very much larger sizes and provide
a wide range of finishes.

The variability is reduced by the random distribution ofthe components into a more
even consistency. The reduction in variability increases as the size of the
components decreases. This improves the characteristic value of a structural
property in comparison with the mean perfonuance determined from tests.

However, in comparing bending strength and stiffness for boards of a similar

density, performance in general will reduce with component size. Unless the boards
are very heaviiy densified, performance will be much lower than for solid timber;
this is in part due to the reduction in anisotropy. A11 particleboards and f i b r e b o d s
except OSB are nominally isotropic in the plane of the board. Timber, in both
strength and movement, has a value of anisotropy of up to 40:l. Plywood can
reduce this value to 5:l in simple 3 ply lay ups and to 1,5:1 in inore expensive
multi lay ups, whereas OSB is normally about 2 to 2,5:1. Figure 1 compares
strength ranges for typical timber and wood based materials.

Key: (a) So(twood (b) Softwood Plywood

(c) Tcmlxred l-iardbonrd (d) I-lardboard
(e) MDF (0 OSB
(g) Chipboard (h) Ccment Bonded Particleboard
if Parallel to grain or I Perpendicular lo gwin or
strong direction weak direction

Figrirc I Con~pnrisonof bmclflirrg ,sfrer~grits

f, of satvtt firltbet-nrrd urood-based paneis.

Isotropy considerations also affect the dimensional stability of wood based panels
as shown in Table 3. Dimensional stability in the plane of the board is relatively
constant for single board types and even between board types. It is much better than
for timber across the grain. As a consequence sheet materials are ideal where large
widths are required such as in flooring and wall sheathing but even so must be laid
with 2 to 3 rl71ll gaps to allow for the small moisture movements.

STEPiEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tl~cEU Comet1 Programme A1 115

Stability across the thickness of the board is less good but depends very much on
board type and can be reduced by additives or by conditioning the board prior to
use. This process brings the moisture content of the board much closer to its end
use condition col~~pared with the as-manufactured state and effectively reduces the
problem of thickness changes and differential movements which could lead to
bowing of the boards once they are fixed in position.

Timher or Percentage change in dimension

wood-based pancl type
Parallel to grain or Perpendicular to Through Ihickness
board length board length
Solid Timber
Douglas Fir c0,10 030 (R) I ,oo (T)
Beccl~ c0,10 1,20 (R) 2,00 (T)
Plytt~ood
Douglas Fir
Clripbonrd
Loadbearing dry
Loadhearing humid

OSB 020 0,20 10,OO

Filn-cbunrds
I-Iardhoard 0,15 0,15 3,50
Tenlpered Hardboard 0,15 0,15 3,50
MDF 0,20 0,20 3,50
Notes: R is radial direction.
T is tangentit11direction.
--

Table 3 Di~irertsionulsmbility of rirnber arrcl ~vood-based~~atrels:

perccrrtcigc clrmrge
it1 clintetrsiorr fiotti 65% to 85% relative Iruirtidity.

Particleboards and fibreboards comprising mainly timber are visco-elastic and

susceptible to creep. However, due to the smaller component size, the rate of creep
is substantially higher than for timber and plywood. In design this affects the k,
and k,,,factors quoted in EC5 (see Table 4). Creep effectively results in very low
stresses and moduli being used for permanent and long term loads, although the
effect diminishes for medium and short term conditions.

In addition to the standard effects of moisture, load intensity and duration, the effect
of creep in wood based panels increases as the quality of the board decreases,
usually related to density and glue quality, and as the size of particle decreases.

One of the most important factors affecting the end use of a panelboard is moisture.
Ilumid conditions encountered in kitchens, bati~roomsand roof spaces reduce the
perfonnance of boards, as is the case with all tirnber materials. Lower quality
boards show very little recovery on subsequent drying. However, higher quality
boards, usually denoted by the use of moisture resistant glues such as MUF, PF and
MDI or by specialist processing such as oil tempering, are capable of very
considerable recovery and are therefore able to be used in service class 2
conditions. Cement bonded particleboard is very stable under humid conditions and
is the only wood based panel that can be fully recommended for exposed external
cladding use (service class 3).

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tllc EU Come11 Programme

Material Solid lirnbcr Particleboards Pnrticlcbortrds Fibreboards
Glulnm (heavy duly) (loadbearing) (loadbearing dry)
Plywood OSB OSB grade 2
grades 3 and 4 Hardboitrds (load
bearing humid)
Load duration k,l,adI kt,,' k,l,,,,f b,; knwri; k,1,; k,lu,~ k,jrl
class
Pcrnmanent 0,60 0,803 0,40 1,50 0,30 2,25 0,20 3,00

Medium tcrm 0,80 025 0,70 0,50 065 0,75 0,GO 1,OO
Short term 0,90 0,OO 0,90 0,OO 0,85 0,OO 0,80 0,35
Instantaneous I , 10 1,fO r,lO 1,lO
Notes: 'Values also given in EC5 for service classes 2 and 3.
'Values also given in EC5 for scrvicc class 2.
v a l u e for plywood, use 0,G for solid Limber and glularn.

Tnble 4 Co~aparisonof kJJU,,, ancl k,,,,ficlor:r. for service clcrss I (dt-y cortditiotts) otrly
for cI$trent titltbcr atid ~cloodbmed ~ ~ u n11mteria1.s.
el

Moisture content also affects the durability of the board with respect to fungal
attack. In general, this will ]lot be a. problem as the board should not be used in
conditions which will support fungal growth. However, most particIeboards arid
standard fibreboards (i.e. those without specially improved properties) will be less
durable than the wood species from which they are made. The incorporation of
fungicides will increase the resistance of the board and give more confidence when
boards have been exposed lo accidental wetting. Wood based panels will not
normally be attacked by the rodents and wood boring insects common to most of
Europe; specialist treatments would be necessary where abnornlal conditions prevail.

Certain types of board offer specialist properties, for instance the thermal insulation
of softboards, but in general where the board density is in the normal range for
timber, then tl~ermal,acoustic and fire properties will not be significantly different
from those of solid timber,

Specification and design values

In order that wood based panels [nay be safely used, it is necessary to set standards
for board quality. Minimum specifications are defined which relate to the type of
board and the general properties important to its end use. Test methods are detailed
which allow lnanufacturers to control the quality of their board and demonstrate its
performance relative to the minimurn 1eveI.

Initially CEN standards categorise wood based panels illto the board types defjrled
earlier. These types are then graded into their potential for end use, including both
structural and non-structural applications. Table 5 identifies the grades of board.

General recjuirements are detailed fbr each board type, covering dimensional
accuracy, density variation and moisture content, together with others specific to a
type of board, such as surface soundness and formaideliyde contertt. Further
specifications are then set for strength properties which are used for factory quality
control tests covering:

- bending strength and ~iiodulusof elasticity related to n small specimen three

-
STEP/EUROFORTECI-I an initiative under the EU Cornell Programme A11/7
 point bending test,

- transverse tensile strength which measures the internal bond for a small
50 irtrpt square specimen,

- thiclcness swelling measured over 24 hours in cold water,

- bending strength, modulus of elasticity and transverse tensile strength tests

after accelerated ageing; restricted to boards specified for use in ltumid
conditions.

Supplementary properties may be supplied by the maufacturer based on CEN tests

to cover properties such as iinpact andlor static point loading on the board surface,
creep and axial screw withdrawal. Other information important to specification
could cover thermal movement, thermal conductivity and vapour transmission.

The strength properties of chipboards and OSB are very dependent on thickness and
require thickness classes to be introduced in their specification. Fibreboards are
more consistent through thickness, requiring fewer classes, but their specification
is made more complex by the range of densities of board and types of manufacture.
(see Tables 2 and 5).

The strength properties covered by the specification of wood-based panels must not
be used directly in structural design. Two approaches are then available to the
engineer. Either to use characteristic values for the structural properties together
with the k,,,,,,k,,, factors given in EC5 or to use performance specification standards
for particular components such as floors, walls and roofs. The latter standards will
relate grades of board to an end use based on their material specification and their
performance in the relevant special prototype tests which are in preparation by
CEN. These tests will enable the performance of all materials to be evaluated in
relation to the problems defined by their end use. Of particular relevance to floors
and walls is impact damage and it is clear that this cannot be directly related to the
properties covered in the material specifications.

In the former design approach, characteristic values for boards will have been
derived by one of two means. Firstly, where boards have a history of safe use and
have in the past been subjected to rigorous test programmes, then the available
information has been adjusted to calculate the required characteristic values.
Secondly, where there is no history of previous stnrctunl use, the values are based
on a new set of structural tests which have been introduced by CEN to enable all
wood-based panels to be assessed in terms of bending, tension, compression, panel
shear and planar shear properties. These tests have been developed for a "medium
size of sample" which has reduced the effect of the variability in cross-section of
the larger component type boards sucli as OSB and plywood but without requiring
expensive full sheet testing. The tests determine a five minute strength and a
stiffness modulus in the range between 10% and 40% of the strength values. These
tests are detaiied in prEN789 "Testing of wood-based panels for the determination
of mechanical properties for structural purposes". Environmental conditions are
defined to determine the performance at the boundaries between climate classes.
Additional creep information may then be required to determine ,k and kc,,, factors
appropriate to the board and thus derive long, medium and short term strengths
from the test data if these factors are not included in EC5.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - ;In initiative undcr thc EU Cornett Programrnc

Board type CEN Code Notation Characteristic
and description Tor of boards in values for design
by use specification CEN code available

Chipboard EN312-1
- General purpose, dry EN312-2 P2
- Interior filrnenls, dry EN312-3 P3
- Loadbearing, d ~ y EN3 12-4 P4 Yes
- Loadbearing, humid EN3 12-5 P5 Yes
- Heavy duty, loadbearing, dry EN312-6 PG Yes
- Heavy duty, foadbearing, humid EN312-7 P7 Yes

Cement bondcd EN634- I

- Single grade only EN634-2 CB
OSR EN300

- General purpose and

ii~teriorfitments, dry
- Loadbearing, dry
- Loadbearing, humid
- Heavy duty, loadbearing, humid

Hardbowds EN622-2
- General purpose, dry HB
- Genernl purpose, humid HB.H
- General purpose, cxlerior HB.E
- Loadbearing, dry HB.LA
- Loadbearing, humid HB .HLA I
- Heavy duty, loadbearing, burnid HB .HLA2 Yes
Mediuinboards EN622-3
- General purpose, dry MBL, MBH
- General purpose, humid MBL,H, MBH.H
- General purpose, exterior MBL.E, MBH.E
- Loadbearing, dry MBL.LS, MBH.LA1
- Loadbearing, humid MBH.HLS 1
- Heavy duly, loadbearing, dry MBH.LA2 Yes
- Heavy duty, londbearing, humid MBH.HLS2
Dry process boards EN622-4
- General purpose, dry MDF
- General purpose, hunlid MDF.H
- Loadbearing, dry MDF.LA
- Loadbearing, humid MDF.HLS
S oftboards EN622-5
- General purpose, dry SB
- Genernl purpose, humid SB.H
- General purpose, exterior SB.E
- Loadbearing, dry SB.LS
- Loadbearing, humid SB.HLS

Table 5 CEN code grurlitlg of rtrood-based patlels.

STEP/EUROFORTECl-1- nn iniliativc under the EU Comclt Programme

The assessment of existing structurally used boards tias been restricted to chipboard
and types HB.HLA2, and MBH.LA2 fibreboards (see Table 5). Their characteristic
values are included in CEN document EN1 12.406 "Wood-based panels:
Characteristic values for established products", and design factors are given in EC5.
OSB has been the first material to go through the CEN test procedures and is also
included in EC5. Other boards, sucl~as cement bonded particteboard, have the
durability qualities to be used st~ucturallyand may well be included in revisions to
EN I 12.406 and EC5 when characteristic values become available, but at present
their structural use is restricted to the perfonnance specification route.

Table 6 compares cliaracteristic values for typical wood based panels for a datum
thickness as close to an 18mm datum as possible, and notes the appropriate
thickness class.

Propcrties Board type

Particlchoards Particleboards Fibreboards Fihrehoards
P4 P7 MBH.LA2 HB.HLA2
landbearing, dry l~cavyduty, loadbcaring, dry heavy duty,
loudbcuring, loadbcaring,
l~umid hun~icl
Thickness range 13 - 20 13 - 20 > 10 >5,5
lltltl

Density kC:/~rt3 GOO 600 600 800

Bending f,, 12,5 16,7 15 32

Tension f; 7,9 10,6 8 23
Cornpression f, 11,l 14,7 8 24
Panel shear f;. 61 8,1 4s IG
Planar shearf, 1,6 2,2 0,25 2.5
Men~rA.Iod~tiirof Eiasticity (Nhrrtli')
Bending E,,, 2900 4230 3900 4600
Tension E, I700 2485 2900 4600
Compression E, 1700 2385 2900 4600
Pancl shear G, 830 1195 1200 f 900
-- -

Tnble 6 CEN clraracteristic ~~ctlrres

.for establislred bvuod-bused pur~els.

Joitlts
For nailed, screwed and bolted panel to timber joints, the rules for timber to timber
joints apply. However there are very few characteristic values available for
embedment strength and head pull through strength for fibreboards, particleboards
and OSB. Hence, it may often be necessary to undertake CEN perfonnance tests on
fasteners and panels to determine the resistance of joints in panels to lateral and
axial loads.

In many end uses of wood-based panels, such as timber frame walls, the fixing
performance is not individually assessed but is covered by tests on a typical full
scde structural member which may incorporate many fixings.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an inilialive undcr thc EU Comctt Progr:ln~mc

Use
The use of wood-based panels is wide ranging and dependent on the nature and
properties of the different board types. Being a composite material, it is often
possible to build a specification for a board based on a projected end use; an
example of this would be the development of MDF for the furniture and semi-
structural fittings industries. For structural use, many types of board will be
eliminated based on tlteir quality and durability. Boards may then be limited to a
narrow range of uses due to their special properties and to negative influences such
as cost; for instance, the density of tempered hardboard makes it difficult to nail as
a sheathing but ideal as a web material in I beams. However, the majority of boards
which are of a similar density to timber will compete with one another and with
plywood in a rmge of markets. The grading of the board in terms of strength and
moisture resistance will then deternine its specific use in the various domestic,
commercial and industrial construction situations.

Table 7 delails typical end uses and the types of wood-based panel that might be
most appropriate.

Use Board type

Particleboards OSB CBPB' Fibreboards

Sarking P5 OSBl3 CB SB.H, MB.H. HB.H

Flat roof decking P5 OSBl3 CB

Cladding

Fascias CB HB.E
Soffits OSB13, OSBl4 CB HBH.HLA1, HB.E

Ceilings and All boards !nay be sui(nb1e but will be limited by special
partilions requirements Tor impact, fire, moisture and sound.

Domestic P4, P5 OSBl2, OSBl3 CB

Commercial P5 OSBl3, OSB/4
Industrial P7 OSB13, OSBl4

Webs or stressed P7 OSB/4 HB .HLA 1/2

skins
Notes: ' Single grade ol board, notation dcfincd in Table 5 no1 used by CEN.
T ~ b l e7 Use of ~c~ood-bnscd
porrels.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initia~iveundcr the EU Cornett Programme

Concluding summary
Fibreboards, particleboards and OSB are refatively new structural materials. They
are efficient in their use of waste or low quality timber and small diameter logs. As -
composites their properties may be developed to suit their end use and they are now
able to replace solid timber and pIywood, in many situations. Board development
is on going and not all boards have had their characteristic structural properties -
defined. Thus alternative methods of specification are sometimes necessary to
enable thern to be used in structural situations, typically in Rooring, roofing and
waf 1 sheatliing.

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tlie EU Cornett Programn~e

 Adhesives

STEP Iect~rreA I2 Ob,jectives

E. Rnknes To give an overview of the different structural wood adhesives and to show how
The Nonvegian lnstiiutc of they are used in timber products and timber structures.
Wood Technology
Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material.

Summary
The theory of adhesive bonding is briefly described, and reference is made to the
present situation concerning EC5 and adhesive approval. A brief description of
current and potential structural wood adhesives is given relating to composition,
durability, application, classification. Types of joints (parallel, end-to-end,
crosswise) and the process of bonding are described in principle, and bonding of
pressure-treated wood is briefly mentioned.

Introduction
Structural wood adhesives are used to bind two or more wooden parts together in
such a way that the product behaves as a static unit. The task of the adhesive is to
fill the voids between the wooden members, and to produce adhesive bonds to each
member which are equally strong and durable as the cohesive forces within the
members. In addition, the adhesive layer itself must have sufficient strength and
durability to retain its integrity in the assigned service class throughout the expected
life of the structure.

The attraction forces between adhesive and wood are of the same type as the
cohesion forces in the wood, i.e. electric attraction forces between molecules. The
resulting bonds are mostly of the secondary bond type, i.e. hydrogen and van der
Waals bonds. Some primary bonds, for instance covalent, are also likely to be
produced with some adhesives. In order to provide the intimate contact necessary
LO produce bonds of this type, the adhesive must, at some stage in the bonding
process, be in the liquid fonn. T l ~ ebonding process consists of two steps:

- application of a liquid adhesive which wets the surface of both adherents so

that attraction forces between adhesive molecules and wood molecules are
created across the borderlines,
- transformation of the liquid adhesive, which fills the voids between the
members, into a solid of sufficient strength and durability to retain its
integrity throughout the service life of the construction.

The latter process is called hardening. It may be brought about in three ways:

- by a physical process, like the removal of solvents, or the solidifying of a

melt as in thermoplastic adhesives like Polyvinylacetate (PVAc) and hot
melts,
- by a chemical process, in which the adhesive ~noIeculesreact with each other,
forming primary bonds and creating a polymeric network such as in epoxies
and polyurethanes,

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative under tile EU Comet1 Programme A1211

- by combination of solvent removal and chemical reaction (urea-, melamine-,
phenol- and resorcinol-formaldel~yde). -
With structural adhesives there is afways a chemical reaction involved. Adhesives
relying purely on physical curing such as them~optasticshave, generally, too much
creep to be used for structural purposes. -
EC5 classification of adhesives
At present there is only one established EN-standard for classification of structurai
wood adhesives, namely EN 30 1 , "Adhesives, phenolic and aminoplastic, for load
bearing timber structures: Classification and perforn~ance requirements". The
corresponding test standard is EN 302, "Adhesives for load-bearing timber
structures - Test methods, part 1-4". The standards apply to phenolic and
aminoplastic adhesives only. These adhesives are classified as:

- type I-adhesives, which will stand full outdoor exposure, and temperatures
above 50 "C,
- type 11-adhesives, which may be used in heated and ventilated buildings, and
exterior protected from the weather. They will stand short exposure to the
weather, but not prolonged exposure to weather or to temperatures above
SO "C.

According to ECS only adhesives complying with EN 301 may be approved at the
moment.

Plywood and particle board are used as elements in some timber stnrctures. TI~ere
is, at present, no EN-standard for the classification of the adhesives used in these
products, and hence they have to be evaluated using national standards. (e.g. BS
1203, "Specification for synthetic resin adhesives for plywood", BS 1455,
"Specification for plywood manufactured from tropical hardwoods", DM 53255,
"Bestirnmung der Bindefestigheit von Spemholzleimun,oen im Zugversuch und im
Aufstechverfahren" and DIN 68705, "Sperrhoiz, Begriffe, aligemeine Anforde-
rungen, Priifung".

Current types of structural wood adhesives

( R F ) nrrd Pltetrol-1-~sorci~t~1-for~~~zald~'i~~~cle
Reso~i~tol~bl~t~lctIcIeI~~~cle (PRF)
nc/lzesives
The pure resorcinols are made by reacting resorcinol (a phenolic compound) with
fo~lnaldehyde.The process is carried out with a deficit of formaldehyde, and the
reaction stops when this is consunled. The adhesive, which is a liquid, is used with
a "I~ardener"containing formaldehyde. This co~npletesthe cure of the resin to an
infusible state. In addition, the hardener usually contains inert fiIlers of various
kinds, in order to make the glue "gapfitling". As resorcinol is an expensive
ctlemical, some of it is now usirally replaced with other, cheaper phenols. For both
types, curing may take place at room-temperature (15-20 "C) or at elevated
temperature. These adhesives are suitable for radio-frequency curing. The bonds
formed in the reaction between resorcinol and other phenols with formaldehyde are
of the -C-C- (Carbon to Carbon) type. These bonds are very strong and durable, and
not susceptible to hydrolysis. The RF's and PRF's therefore give very durable
bonds: they are fully water-, boil- and weather-resistant, and will also withstand
salt-water exposure (Selbo 1965).

STEPIEUROFORTECM - an initiative undcr thc EU Camell Progmnime

Members glued with these adhesives will not delaminate in a fire. Permissible
glueline thicknesses are up to approximately 1 rrrrn with ordinary adhesives and up
to 2 I I ~ ~ with
II special, gnp-filling types. The gluelines are neutral, i.e. neither acid
nor alkaline, and hence they will not damage the wood or corrode metals. They are
very dark in colour. Tlie cured adhesive will not emit formaldet~ydeor other
hannful chemicals. RF's and PRF's are type I adhesives according to EN 301, They
are used in laminated beams and arches, Rngerjointing of structural members, I-
beams, box beams, gusset joints, nail-gluing etc., both indoors and outdoors.

adl~esises(PF), hor-settirtg
PIteiioi-for7r1n1rlel~j~c~e
These are made by reacting phenol with formaldehyde under alkaline condition, at
elevated temperature. The reaction is stopped by cooling. The adhesive may be
supplied as liquid, powder or film and is alkaline. I1 is cured by the appljcation of
heat (1 10-140 "C), and, for some types containing more reactive phenols, by a
combination of lieat and the addition of a formaldehyde-containing hardener. Tlie
gluelines are very dark. They have the same durability properlies as the RF- and
PRF-adhesives.

Hot-setting PF's are typically hot-press adhesives, and they are used in structural
and mwine plywood, in fibreboard, etc. Radio frequency-curing is not possible
because of "burning", but microwave curing is used for some products, like
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) beams. Hobsetting PF's cannot be classified
according to EN 301. When tested to BS 1203 or BS 1455, they will meet the most
severe requirements (WBP, "Weather and boil proof').

ocl/~esives(PF), cold-settir~g
Pl~enol~fbrr~tsil~Ze/~~~rIe
In order to make a PF cure at room-temperature it must be made acidic. This is not
possible in an aqueous solution, as the acid would precipitate the resin. The
adhesive is, therefore, dissolved in alcohol, and made to cure by the addition of a
strong acid. The gfueline itself has the same strength and durability properties as
the other phenolic-type adhesives, i.e. fully water-, boil- and weather-resistant. The
hardener, however, is so strongly acidic that it is liable to damage the wood
surfaces.

Cold-setting PF's are classified according to EN 301, but the current types are
likely to be eliminated by the "acid damage test" given in EN 302-3. These
adhesives were used lo some extent in the fifties and sixties in glulrun production.
Some of these buildings actually collapsed many years later, and there is reason to
believe that acid damage from the adhesive is the cause. Cold-setting (acid-curing)
PF's of current type, therefore, should not be used for structural purposes.

orl/~esiijes(UF)
Urenlfor7nnlcfel~jtrle
UF's are made by I-eactingurea with formaldehyde. The reaction is speeded up by
acid and heat. At a suitable stage the reaction is stopped by cooling and
neutralising. It is started again by adding an acid-releasing hardener and, for some
types, by heating in addition. UF's are a very versatile adhesive family. They may
be supplied as liquids or powders (sonletimes with hardener added), and they may
be cured at illly telnperature from 10 "C upwards. Speed of curing may be adapted
to the process. They are also suitable for radio frequency-curing. The gluelines are
light in colour.

Tile hot-press types are used for non-structural plywood and chipboard etc. They
are classified by for instance BS 1203 tuld BS 1455 where they meet the two lowest
r*equirementsonly (INT, "Interior", or MR, "Moisture resistant"). Only special cold-
setting UF's are suitable for structural purposes. They must not be too acidic, and
they must have filler added to make them gap-filling (up to 1 nrm), otherwise the
gluelines will crack on their own if thicker than 0,1 t r l t ~ Even
. these adhesives have
-
limited heat- and water-resistance, and they are broken down fairly quiclcly by
combined heat and high relative humidity. In a fire they will tend to delaminate.
UF's for structural purposes are classified according to EN 301 as type 11-adhesives. -
They are used in glularn production and fingerjointing for interiot construction.

Melnrrrirre-iirea .forr~~alcieliyde
nclitesives ( M U F )
These adhesives are closely related to UF adhesives, but some of the urea is
replaced with melamine in order to increase the water- and weather-resistasice.
Some of thein even contain resorcinol for the same purpose. MUF-adhesives are
supplied as hot-press adhesives, for pIywood etc., with intermediate water-
resistance, and as cold set where together with hot set adhesives they are used for
glularn and fingerjointing.

Tlze cold set ones are classified according to EN 301. Some of them will be type
11-adhesives, with properties comparable with UF's. The best will meet the type I-
requirements, and thus be classified as "weather-resista~lt".They are, however, less
resistant than the resorcinols, and not suitable for marine purposes (Selbo 1965).
However, MUF's are often preferred for economic reasons, and because of their
lighter colour.

Casein adItesi\~es
The main constituent of these adhesives is the milk protein, casein. The adl~esive
is delivered as a powder, consisting of casein and various inorganic salts. When the
powder is mixed with water a series of clle~nical reactions occur. Aftcr
approxin~ately 15 minutes these have resulted in the casein being dissolved as
Sodium Caseinate. After 4-8 hours this has been transformed to Calcium Caseinate,
which is fairly insoluble in water ("Curing-reaction"). The gluelines are fairly light
in colour. They are less water resistant than UF gluelines, but more resistant to
combined heat and high relative humidity.

Caseins are probably the oldest type of structural adhesive and have been used for
industrial glularn production since before 1920. They have proved suitable for
indoor and protected outdoorsconstntction, but have to be protected against mould
attack with a suitable fungicide. Caseins do not meet the requirements of EN 301.

Environment RF/PRF PF(hot) MUF UF Casein

Marine + + x x x
-< 50 "C,;85 5% r.11. C + + -b +
GIueIirre colour Dark Dark Light Light Light
EN-class 301-1 301 - 1/11 301 - 11

+ Suitable x Not suitable (+) Sorne brands suitable

- Not covered by existing EN-standards
Tc~bleI Stritabili~of air-rcnr str~rctitrulwoad ucNle~*ives.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programrnc

Potential new structural wood adhesives
Test methods developed for one or more types of adhesives, like those in EN 302,
are not necessarily suitable for other types. Approval of a new adhesive type,
therefore, wilI involve two steps:

- establish with adequate confidence that the long-tenn durability of the new
type is satisfactory,
- devise shorl-term tests which are able lo distinguish between the good and
the bad brands of the new type.

A generd methodology for this is given in the CIB-publication 96 (1987).

The following four adhesive types are at present considered as potential structural
wood adhesives.

Epo.~y ctcllr esivcs

These are two part adhesives:

- pat-t I is an epoxy resin whose lnolecules are terminated with epoxy groups,
- part 11usually consists of bifunctional amine(s).

None of them contain solvents. When mixed together epoxy and amine react to
make up an infusible resin.

Epoxy adhesives may be "tailored" to the area of application, and some of them are
definitely suitable for wood gluing, They have very good gapfilling properties.
I-lowever, due to their high price and their application properties they have only
been used in special cases for wood bonding, for instance:

- building of wooden boars,

- repairing delaminated glulaln beams,
- bonding of nietal, plastics, rubber etc. to wood,
- repairing wood with decay or other damage ("casting"),
- glued-in bolts.

Epoxies have very good strength and durability properties, and the weather
resistance for the best ones ties between MUF's and PRF's.

Two-par-tpoZylrr-et/~nnw
Part I consists OF bi- or trifunctional isocyanate and part I1 of bi- or trifunctional
alcohols. Both are solvent-free. When mixed together they react to form a
polyuretlime resin, These adhesives have good strength and durability, but
experience seems ro indicate tliat they are not weather-resistant, at least not all of
them (Hedlund 1987). As for wood bonding they have mostly been used for special
purposes, for instance:

- aIu~niniuinto plywood in sandwicl~constructions,

- corrugated steel plates to plywood for load-bearing roof elements (used in
Scandinavia for more than 10 years),
- glued-in bolls.

SEPIEUROFORTECH - an ir~iliaiiveirnder tllc EU Cornelt Programme A 1 2/5

Orre-pcrr.!pol?llrrethcnlc.s
The reactive component is an isocyanate. When applied to wood, part of it will
react with ~noistureand be converted to amine. This reacts with the remaining
isocyanate to form il poly-urea resin. Carbon dioxide is formed duiing the curing,
and this will make the adhesive foam if the glueline is thick. Strength and durability
properties are muct~the same as for two-part PU's, or slightly inferior. They are not
gap-filling.

In Gertnany two brands of one-part PU's have been approved for use as a structural
wood adhesive, both indoors and outdoors. They are limited to G 117 spans and 0,3
tltrrr glueline thickness.

isocj~nrtcrtes(EPI)
El~ruisioitpo1~~1tzc.r
These are also two-pall: adhesives:

- par1 I: Emulsified polytner, e.g, poiyvinylacetate (PVAc),

- part 11: "Blocked", e~nulsifiedisocyanate.

Working properties and initial curing is much the same as for PVAc-adhesives, but
when the glueline dries, the isocyanate is released and acts as a crosslinker. Strength
and durability are reported to be very good for these adhesives, and soilie brands
are approved by the American Institute of Timber Construction as exterior grade
adhesives for sln~cturalwood bonding. Others have been found to be less durable
(Yoshida 1986).

Within each of these four adhesive types there are brands of very difFerent
properties, Some of [hem may be suitable its structural wood adhesives, and some
are definitely not. The problem is that at present there are no short-term approval
tests to identify the suitnble brimds.

Property Epoxy Two-part PU One-part PU EPI

Weather rcsistnncc ? 'I ? 'I

Heal rcsistilncc 7 ); I? 'I

Water rcsistancc '? '1 ? '?

Creep 'I 'I ,4 ?

Toughness i i- f +
Gapfilling + i- x x
Adhesion i- f o
Easy to usc x x x -+
Curing time o o o +
+ Good, probably bctter than currcnt adhcsivcs.
o Co~nparablcto currcnt adhesives.
x Inferior to currcnt adhesives.
? Uncerlain, large variations between brands.

The use of structural wood adhesives

Three ways of bonding wood !nay be distinguished.

STEPfEUROFORTECI-I - iW initiative undcr the EU Comctt Prograrrlmc

Prr~-~lllel
(sirkw~ys)
joiitts
Here the glue must match the shear strength parallel and the tensile strength
perpe~ldicularto the grain direction of the timber. Approved adhesives will nialcli
these requirements without problems. Swelling and shrinking stresses wilI be small,
since all the members are in line with each other.

End-to-ertc?joiitts
111this casc the adhesive should match the tensile strength of the tirnber in the grain
direction. Structural butt end jointing of timber, which irnplies that the adhesive
must lnatcfl the tensile strength of the timber, is not possible wit11 current
techniques. Instead, the jointing is carried out in such a way that tensile stresses in
the litember are transformed to sliear stresses in tile gluelines. This may be done in
various ways, but the method used irtdustrially is fingerjointing. In this joint the
combined shear strength of' all the finger areas should ideally match the tensile
s~rengthof the cross-section of' the member. Since the shear strength is only 1/10
of the tensile strength, the glueline area should be approxi~nately10 tirnes the cross-
sectiori area. Again members are in line with each other, minimising swelling and
shrinking problems.

CI-ossv-i~ise
joirltiilg
In this case the adhesive must match the shear strength parallel and the transverse
tensile strength of the wood, which is not a problem. The jointed members will,
however, be at (more or less) right angles to each other, and this can cause great
stresses in the gluelines due to rnoisture movement of the wood. Such gluing is,
therefore, lnostly limited to two cases:

- the ~nembersto be jointed are so thin that they will restrain tlie movement
of each other (fairly) effectively e.g. in plywood, OSB, particle board,
fibreboard,
- restrained members like plywood and particle board are glued to solid wood
~nemberswhich are fairly narrow e.g. in I-beilrrrs, box beams, gusset joints.

In such products the sniail lengthwise movement of the solid wood members will
match approximately with the restrained movement of the woodbased panel.
Stresses along the glueline are therefore rattler small, but they [nay be high across
the glueline if the ruernbers are wide, or the moisture fluctuations great. This may
produce fatigue failure in the joint with time.

The boltdiitg pr-occss

This consists of the following steps:

- conditioning the timber to a moisture content corresponding to the average

~noisturecontent which is likely to apply in service,
- machining of the surfaces to be bonded, preferably just before bonding,
because freshly cut dust free surfices give the best giuelines. This must be
done with sharp tools, to prevent darnaging the surfaces,
- mixing and application of adhesive,
- application of sufficient pressure to Itold tlie members in contact with each
other until the adhesive I~asgot sufficient handling strength,

- in some cases: application of heat during the pressing period in order lo

STEPEUROFORTECI-1- an initiative under ~ h cEU Cornell Progriimme A 12/7

 speed up curing,
- conditioning of the bonded members to obtain postcuring and temperature-
and moisture-equilibrium.
-
treated wood
BoncIi~tgo j chet~ticcrflj~
Clle~nicaltreatment may be used to protect wood against decay, or to make it fire-
-
resistant or water-repellarlt. If the members are used in glulam production
afterwards, they will have to be planed before gluing. This requires a certain
penetration of the chemical, or n~ostof it will be removed by the planing. -
Such treatment of tiiaber may affect the gluing properties, dependant on the type
of treatment. As a nlle the treat~nent/adliesive-combination should be tried out -
beforehand. The following guidelines may be applied:

- creosote and other oilbased treatments. Gluing is difficult but possible with -
PRF and polyurethane-adhesives. Gluing firs1 and impregnating afterwards
is recornmended.
- waler-soluble salts. The copper-chroine-arscrlic salts usually give no -
difficulties. Salts containing free acid (e.g. boric ilcid) or compounds able to
react with formaldehyde (e.g. ammonium salts) may give problems. Some of
the decay protecting and most of the fire protecting salts are of this type. -
References
CIB WSOIRILEM 71-PSL (1987). Prcdiction of service life of building matcrinls and components.
CIB-publication 96. -

Ilcdlund, B. (1987). Weelhcr-cxposure of glued laminated blanks for windows (in Swedish). SP-
rapport 1987:40. Stateris Provninpsnnstall, Borb, Sweden.
-
Selbo, M.L.(1965). Pcrfor~nanccof melamine adhesives in various exposures. Forest Prod. J. 15 (12).
1965, p.475.

Yoshidn, H. (1986). Bond durability of water-based polymer-isocyanate adhesives (API-resins) for

-
wood. (Japanese with English summary), J. Jap. Wood Res. Soc. 37-(6) 1986, p.432.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comctr Progrnmmc

 Behaviour of timber and wood-based
materials in fire
STEP icciure A 13 Objective
14. Hart1 To present information about the beliaviour of timber and wood-based malerials
ZiviIingenieur riir under the influence of fire.
Bauwesen
Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
Information is provided based on the lmowledge of the essential colnponents and
natural properties of timber affecting its behaviour when exposed to fire, that is the
cl~elnicaland physical changes under the influence of fire, are explained.

Introduction
There is no simple way of expressing the behaviour of a matet-ial with respect to
fire. There are two distinct phases to a fire, the developing phase and the fully
developed phase and a materials performance has to be categorised in respect of
those two conditions. The developing phase incorporates a number of separate
phenomena, the combustibility of the material, the ease of ignition, the speed of the
spread of firefflame across its surface and the rate at which heat is released.

The fully developed phase represents the post ilasll over conditions where all
combustible materials become involved in the fire. The desirable properties are the
ability to continue to carry load to contain the fire within the zone of' origin without
the escape of flames or hot gases and without conducting excessive heat to the
unexposed face that ]nay lead indirectly to fire being transmitted to adjacent areas.
The ability to resist the fully developed fire is known universally as the fire
resistance but in general terms this can only relate to an element of construction
rather than to a material. The performance of even a simple eiernent such as a
column or a beam is dependent upon such Faclors as the end conditions and the
magnitude and distribution of any loading.

Considering the behaviour of wood-based materials and solid timber when subjected
to the developing fire, wood-based malerials will burn and are rherefore rated as
combustible. Whilst the coznbustible nat~iremay be rnodified by the use of coatings
or impregnation with flamelfire retarding salts, none of these can render timber, or
its related products, non-combus~ible,albeit higher levels of energy may be needed
to cause it to bum. Solid timber is not readily ignited and there are very few
recorded cases where timber will have been the first material to be ignited. Solid
limber will require surface temperatures well in excess of 400 "C if the material is
to ignile in the medium to short term without the pressure of a pilot flame. Even
when a pilot flame is present the surface temperature will have to be in excess of
300 T for significant time before ignition occurs. Timber tends to be used as the
basis against which other materials are adjudged as timber is not considered Lo
represent an unacceptable ignition risk in most environments. The actual values are
related to the density, species, moisture content and shapefsection factor.

Timber, being combustible will spread fire across its surface, the phenomena being
a number of ignitions each triggering an adjacent ignition. As timber is not readily

STEP/BUROFORTECI~I- an initiative under tile EU Comctk Progrumtne A1311

ignitable the speed at which fame will spread across its suri'ilce is also reasonable
for a combustible material. Nearly all countries will permit the use of untreated
timber for low risk applications. The raie at which timber releases heat is obviotisly -
very dependent upon the nature of the initial heating regime, the availabililiy of
oxygen and the density, shape and size the timber member being located. As wit11
all of the above properties, European countries each developed their own bencti
scale tests for establishing the fundalnenlal performance of materials against these
-
categories and as such there is no pan-European way of expressing the performance
of timber against tliesc developing fire conditions. All coi~ntriesallow the use of
timber in inany applications, indicating that its bchaviour is not considered to be
-
particularly hazardous.

When timber or wood-based materials are exposed to a fi~llydeveloped Sire they -

exhibit tiiany desirable characterislics. Whilst the exposed surfaces will ignite when
the heat flux becomes great enough, and initially bum fairly vigorously it soon
builds up a layer of insulating charcoal, see Figure 1. As wood is a poor conductor -
of Ileal there is very little transmission of heat into ren~ainingunburnt material. This
has rnany benefits.

i r e I Tlie charlges itr tirrll~errtrrdcr- tile it!flrtatce qj'jirz.: ( a ) chnrrecl tirrzher,

(b) [~yralisislayel; (c) rbiher u~~affectecl I I fire.
~

in tile case of solid timber the core section remains cool only a short distance
behind the burning zone. As a consequence the temperature or the residual section
is cool and the construction does not have to accommodate darnnging thermal
expansions. Also, because the core retilains cool, all of the cold slate physical
properties of the timber are retained and any loss of loadbearing capacity is as a
result of reduced cross-section, rather than a change in thc physicaI poperties. When
wood-based slieet tilaterials are used in the construction of seperating elemnetits, both
as structural riie~ubersand linings, the low thennal conductivity prevents the heat
from being easily transmitted from the hot lo the cold face of the construction.

The fully developed fire is chari~cterisedin tests by tile standard temperature-time

curve given in IS0 834 (see Figure 2 ) or the equiilalent nalional standard. The
relevant criteria are given as:

- loadbearing capacity (separating and non-separating elements)

- integrity (separating eletnents)
- insulation (separating elements)

Critical deflection and rates of deflection are norrnally given as criteria for
loadbearing capacity. The integrity is generally evaluated by means OF the
development of gaps of excessive size (set nationaily) or the ignition of a cotton
fibre pad. Insulation is deemed to be compromised if a mean temperature rise of
I40 "C is experienced or a rnaxirnum rise of I80 "C is exceeded.

STEPIELJROFORTECII - an initiative under tllc EU Cornell Progrdmmc

 ROD

Timber. will only lose loadbearing capacity when the cross-section of the non-fire
damaged/residual section is reduced to the size wllere the stress in the section as a
result of' the applied load is in excess of the strength of the limber.

Timber-based materials will not fissure or shrink such that gaps Inay develop until
the timber is so thin that burn-through is close and the rise in temperature will only
exceed the criteria when tile thin, heat affected zone reacl~esthe outer face and
again burn-through will soon follow. Timber is highly predictable when exposed to
the rully developed fire conditions.

Fundamentals
Timber and wood-based materials consist ~nainlyof cellulose and lignin, which
the~nselvesare formed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are therefore
combustible and it is alnlost inipossibie to make the112 incombustible. But complete
incombustibility is only necessary in very rare specific cases.

Ii!j7ueitccs on the fire be1tnviou1-

The form, surface, dlape and the size of the cross-section of timber and wood-bused
elen7ents are of great influence upon tl~eirfire behaviour.

Combus~ibilityis dependent on the surface/volume-ratio. The grealer this is the

inore easily ignition starts and the raster the flames spread. Many sharp corners and
coarse surfaces enlarge this ratio and result in a less favourable fire bchaviour.
Cracks and shdies also increase the effects of fire. Tllus thc charring rate of glued
laminated timber, which is rnostly free of shltkes and cracks, is lower than for solid
timbcr.

The iiine taken for wood to ignite and for con~bustionto spread is dependent on the
(oven dry) density. Thus different lcinds of wood behave differently under the
influence of fire. The relationship between density and the rate of combt~stionis
shown in Figure 3.
i r e3 Relcirions/ril~benvceri clcr~siryp atld rure rd' corrlbrr.stiott RC (Kollrrlorr~~
and
Cord 1968).

The relationship between density and ignition is similar: the higher the density the
longer it will talcc for the wood to ignite.

The moisture content ol' timber is another i~iiporlantfactor inri~~ericing

the bchaviour
of timber wlien exposed to llre, 111 timber structures the rtloisture content is mostly
between 8% and 15%. This inearis that for each tonne of wood about 50 to 150 kg
of water have to evaporate before the wood will burn. The innucnce of the moisture
content upon the charring rate need not be taken into account because of the low
variation in tlie equilibturn moisture content.

Cltenzical artd pltysicni processes cii~ringtt~eco~rll>rr,stiorlqj' rvood

When wood and wood-based materials burn, chemical decomposition starts with the
resultant formation of charcoal and combristiblc gases. Spontaneous ignition of a
thin strip of wood may occur within a range of temperature from 340 to 430 "C.
But ignition is also possible at a much lower te111perature(e.g. 150 "C) if the piece
of wood has been subjected to heat for a long time. Tcrnperrtt~iresunder I0O1'C but
well above room temperature !leal up the timber and bring about a drying process.
A decrease of strength and modulus of elasticity takes place.

When tlie temperature of 100 "C is reached water begins to evaporate and steam
takes the path of lowest resistance to escape through corners, arrises, joints, open
pores and shakes. fn these places the timber dries more quickly. The temperature
does not increase until all of the water has evaporated. Figure 4 shows the
temperature below the pyrolisis layer, when the timber is heated according to the
IS0 temperature-time curve and in relation to time. The figure shows that the
temperature increases after the water has evaporated (100°C). The pyrolisis layer is
the zone between the charred and natural timber where the wood has been aFfected
che~nicallyby the fire but has not fully decomposed.

Between 150 and 200 "C gases are generated which consist 70% incombustible
carbon dioxide (CO?) and 30% combustible carbonmonoxide (CO). Once the
temperature reaches 200 "C, more and more combustible gases form and the
proportion of CO, decreases. As soon as the gases ignite the temperature on the
surface increases rapidly. Carbonization of the wood then continues. The
decomposition occurs in a the pyrolisis layer which is about 5 17rr)l thick. At
temperatures above 500 "C the production of gas is very much reduced and tile

-
STEPJEUROFORTECH an illitiativc lindcr the EU Comclt Programme
production of charcoal increases. This explains the appearance of timber after
exposure to fire.

loo -

r e4 Tetl~peratrttz,ill rlle Ileafed rirtrbcr i~elontlte pyrolisis lager (see Figitre 1 )

accor~i'irrgto !Ire I S 0 tcnrperartcre-tim cline (Figrrre 2).

The thermal conductivity of charcoal is only about one sixth that of pure solid
timber. The layer of charcoal tlterefore acts as an insulant and tile decomposition
of the deeper internal zones of tile remaining cross-section is tlius greatly retarded.
Due to this effect and because of the low hear conductivity of tinlber tlle
temperature in the iniddle of the cross-section is much lower tllnn on the surface.
For this reason the fire resistance of timber is mucl~higher than genenliy supposed.
The following Figure 5 shows beams and columns exposed to fire from 3 and 4
sides.

Figure 5 Benms a11d colruntir btifore mid crfier tile exposure lo,fire. ( a ) rerrrflinirrg cross-
secfio~l,
(12) clmrrecl titnbe,; fc) jire barriers.

Clt ar-ring rates

Many lest resuIts for wood and wood-based materials hove shown a linear
relationship between charring depth and time. A consrant charring rate can therefore
be assumed for calculation of tlte fire resistance of' a section. TIte following charring
rates p,, in Table 1 can be used for simple methods of struclural fire design (see
STEP lecture B 17) without the need to take special consideration of the rounding
of edges. Thus the residual cross-section is considered to be rectangular in fire
design calculntions. The more acctrrale assesslnent of residual cross-section covering
P,
rounding of arrises allows n slower charring rate, in Table 2.

STEP~UROFORTEC1-I- an initintivc under dm EU Comet1 Progmmnic A 1 315

 Material

Solid softwood with p, 2 290 kg/r1r3and min a 2 35 rtrm

Glired laa~inatedsof'twood with p, 1 290 kg/tri3
Wood panels with p, = 450 kSht13 anti t,, = 20 rnru
Solid hardwood with p, 2 450 kghtl"
Glued laminated hardwoctd with pk 2 450 kS/trta
Oak
Solid hardwood with p, 2 290 F;~~II'
Gli~ecllatninated hardwoocl with pI 2 290 k.g/tr$
Plywood with p, = 450 kg/rrr\~~ld ti, = 20 rrrrrr
Wood-based panels wit11 p, = 450 kSht13i d ti, = 20 U I I I I

EC5: Part 1-7,: 3.1 Tc/l?lc I Desi,q~iclrar-ii~rgrores P,,. t,: tlrickrress f!"\tooorl utirl wood-bcrsec.1parreis, n:
~~~idtfl/dLptir
of C I ' ( I . S S - S ~ C I ~ O I I .

For other densities and thicknesses of wood aticl wood-based panels the charring
rate sliot~ldbe calculated as
Po.p,r = Po,ds,.o kp 4 (1)
where

For closely packed inultiple layers the charring rate may be calculaled hased on tlic
total thickness.

Material in trtttdttrhr
SolirI softwood with pi 2 290 kg/tn3 0.67
Glued latninated softwood with p, 1 290 kght? 0.63
Solicl harclwood with p ,,,,,,,, 1 3 5 0 kg/trr3 0,54
Glued laminated hardwood with p,,,, 2 350 kg/rt~' 0,54

Tile shape of' the char-line at nrrises should be assumed as circular with a timc-
dependant radius according to Figure 6. For more coinplicated neth hods of structural
lire design applicable for parametric fire exposure should be used the charring rate
PI,,,, according Annex D in EC4: Part 1-7,.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - ;in initiative undcr the EU Comclt Prograrnrne

Example
Calculation ol' residual section rind second moment of area after 60 minute fire for
a glulant beam (softwood, p, 2 290 k,S/rl13, b x h = 200 x 600 I I I I I I ) .

I 7 ~ ~SIUICIIII
C I V S S - S C Cqf O I I bcanr.

Cnse I
p,,= 0,7 mndtnin
Charring depth 4,,,,,= 60 0,7 = 42 ~nrn
Residual cross-section area
A, = (200 - 84) (600 - 42) = 64723 I I I I ~ "
Second nlornent of area

I, =
' 5583 = 1,68 . 10' rm4
12
cnse 2
p = 0,64 /anr/rrlirr
Charring depth [I,.,,,,, = 60 . 0,64 = 38,4 nrnr
radius at arrises r = 30,O nmt (see Figure 6)
Residual cross-section area
A, = (200 - 76.8) (600 - 38.4) - 0,5 . 30' (4 - n) = 68803 nrtrl'
Second moment of area

Reference
ICollmann. F.F.Pand Calk. W.A. (1968), Principles of wood science and ~cchnoiogy.Volume 1, Solid
Wood. Springer Bcrlin, I-lcidclbcrg, Gcrmnny, 502 pp. ISBN 0387042070.

STEPIEUROFORTECN - :In inilioti\fc under lllc EU Cornctt Programme A 1317

 Detailing for durability

STEP ICCLII~CA 14 Objectives

G.Sagot To set out guidelines relating to the use of timber slructural members in a range
Consuiting Stmclurai of climatic conditions and limiting the need for preservative treatment withoul
Enb'Tincer compromising the load-bearing integrity and durability of the timber or wood-based
product.

Prerequisite
A 15 Durability - Preservative treatment

Summary
This lecture begins with an examination of the various conditions which Rvour
biological attack by fungi or wood-boring insects (including termites). Particular
attention is given to the influence of the geographical zone and its corresponding
climate. Practical examples are provided which identify building details to avoid,
and forms of construction which are recommended.

Introduction
Timber is susceptible to biological attaclc whereas metal components may corrode.
Biological attack is of two main types:

F~cngalntrnck
This occurs in timber which has a high moisture content, generally between 20%
and 30%. Fungi need the presence of water and oxygen to develop and the
optimum moisture content varies according to the particular fungal species. The
presence of fungal attack can seriously reduce the load-bearing capacity of timber
structures. The loss of strength may be variable, depending on type of fungus and
the extent of attack. Significant strength loss may be present, even in cases where
the appearance of the timber remains largely unchanged.

Where possible, the design of the building should minimise the situations in which
structurnl timbers are sub-jected to 11jg11 rnojslure levels which allow fungal decay,
Some fungi, such as Lenzites sepiaria, can survive through dry periods and continue
their attack in timbers which are subject to intermittent wetting. Therefore, design
should provide conditions which:

- prevent wetting of the timber wherever possible;

- ensure rapid drainage and ventilation of the timber where it is i~npossibleto
avoid periods of wetting;
- use timber with sufficient natural durability, or timber treated with an
appropriate wood preservative, where it is not possible to avoid exposure to
persistent wetting.

Irlsect nffrrck
This is encouraged by warm conditions which favour their development and
reproduction. Termites are particularly aggressive to timber, and are only active in
the warmer parts of Europe. Their presence and activity decreases towards the

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an ini~iativcundcr Ihc EU Comcll Propramnic A1411

Northern parts of Europe. The presence of central heating within buildings may
encourage the activity and development of insects by maintaining moderate
teniperatnres during the coldcr parts of the year. Insect larvae may die if subjected
to low temperatures. The development of cracks or splits in preservative treated
timber which penetrate through the outer treated layer may provide sites for egg
laying or the initiation of attack, significantly reducing the value of the treatment.

The natural durability of different limber species in relation Lo insect attack is

variable. In most timbers, the heartwood is normally durable, but the heartwood OF
different timber species shows various levels of resistance to termite attack. The
sapwood region may or may not be durable depending upon the timber species and
the insect type. The sapwood of all timbers is considered susceptible to termite
attack. EN 350-2 "Natilral durability of solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural
durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe" gives
an indication of the durability to insect attack for comrnon timber species (Table I).
In plywood construction, the natural durability may be enl-ranced by the presence
of chemicals associated with modein synthetic resin aclhesives.

Cornmerci:~l name Hvlotrunes Anobiurn Termite

Fir, Norway Spruce SH SH S
Larch. Douglas Fir, Maritirno Pine S S S
Scots Pine, Redwood S S S
Oalc, Sweet Chestnut nla S M
European Beech, Popl:ir n/a S S

Tcrble I Nut rtrcr 1 ~ilirclhiligrof tvood species ( S : .srrsce[>riblc,SN: hccr t.rrr~oorlolso

.susceptible, h4: ttiode,n~clydtrrnble, rr/cl: rrnr~ap~~licc~ble).

Cost-osiotl oJ' lrreral cunrponettts

In r~ormalservice conditions, timber is nor attacked by acids and bases. Metal
cornponents should be protected against cor~osion,where necessaiy if the service
conditions can affect their long term performance. Painted or coated metal
cotnponents rnay be required to prevent staining of timber elements where
appearance is a factor.

Ci~issij'icatiottqf setvice conclirio~ts

Tlte levels of exposure to moisture are defined differently in EC5 and EN 335-1
"Durability of wood and wood-based products - Definition of hazard classes of
biological attack - Part I : General". EC5 provides for three service classes relating
to the variation of timber performance with moisture content:

Senlice c l ~ s sI is characterised by a moisture content in components corresponding

to a te~nperatureof 20 OC and a relative humidity of the surrounding air only
exceeding 65% for a few weeks per year (maximum 12% in the timber).
Service class 2 is characterised by a moisture content in components correspondi~~g
to a temperature of 20 "C and a relative humidity of the surrounding air. only
exceeding 85% for a few weeks per year (maximum 20% in the timber).
Sen~iceCIISS 3 involves clirllatic conditions leading to higher t~ioisturecontents than
in service class 2.

In EN 335-1, five hazard classes are defined with respect lo the risk of biological
attacks:

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative under [lie EU Cornet1 Programme

Haznrd class I , situation in which timber or wood-based product is under cover,
Tully protecied from the weather and not exposed to wetting;
Nazc~rdclcrss 2, situation in which timber or wood-based product is under cover and
fully protected fro111the weather but where high environmental htrmidity can lead
to occasional but not persistent wetting;
Hcrznrd c1rrs.s 3, situation in which tiniber or wood-based product is not covered and
not iu contact witli the ground. It is either continually exposed to the weather or is
protected from (lie weather but subject to Srequent wetting;
Ncrznrd clc1.u 4, situation in which timber or wood-based procluc~is in contact witli
the groutid or- fresh water ai~dlhus is pennanentfy exposed to wetring;
Nuznrfi cl~iss5, situation in which timber or wood-based product is permanently
exposed to salt water.

The examination of these classes shows that service and hazard classes I ~~clate to
siniilar conditions as service and hazard classes 2. The service class 3, however,
ellibraces hazard classes 3, 4 and 5, It is in these hazard classes that tlie risk of
biological attack is tnost severe and requires greatest attenriorl to detail in the
building design in order to reduce the conditions of timber exposure to those of the
lowest hazard class. Timber in classes I and 2 may only require tnoderate or low
levels of natural durability, or reli~ti~elylight preservative treatments to ensure
satisfactory long-term performance.

The risk of attack in hazard classes 4 or 5 excludes the use of glulam where this
relies on preservative treatment to tile laminations before gluing and assembly, as
tile subsequent planing necessary to produce a fiat surracc would remove part of the
most effectively treated outer zones. 111 heartwood regions, where penetration is
Iirnited, this may expose portions of untreated core. Suitable supplementary
treatnient is necessary.

Designing for durability

Many factors come into play concerning the durability of timber. Timber should be
installed close to the estimated equilibri~~rn moisture content, appropriate to the
building, so tl~otis only necessary to limit ~noisturevariation during tlie year.
Timber which is installed at too high iI nloisture content or is directly exposed to
weathering or where the climate conditions produce wide variations in air humidity
is likely to show cracks or splits caused by shrinkage. These can expose unprotected
timber in preservative treated material, allowing water and fungal spores to enter-
or- insect eggs to be laid beyond the protecled zone.

Tlie designer has to consider moisture variation induced by:

- water i n its liquid state,

- high hurnidily which in turn is affected by temperature.

In the liquid stale, water progression in timber is primarily parallel to the grain.
This rnust be taken I I I ~ Oaccount by protecting the ends, either by keeping the timber
out of situations wliere water can rise by capillary action or by treating the end
grain in such a way as to limit further rnoistirre intake, for exan~pleby applying
rcsins or epoxides.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-1- nn initi:~tiveu~lclcrthc EU Comctl Programme

Examples of some situations which may result in high moisture contents in timber
include:

- Moisture will easily penetrate timber placed in warm, damp air, for example
in poorly ventilated attics where ventilation shafts emerge.
- Joints between timber elements or between timber and masonry constitute an
area wltere end grain may be exposed to air if shrinkage occurs after drying.
- Condensation can result in timber becoming cot. Condensation can be
controlled by insulation combined with a vapour barrier. Drainage should be
provided where condensation is likely to occur, e.g. at the base of glass
walls.
- Direct wetting will occur in titnber in ground contact, in door and window
fiarties and in areas, where wind driven snow may collect. Consideration
should be given to the risk of direct wetting in rooms where water is laid on,
such as showers, bathroom, kitcl~ensetc. where there may be an overflow or
splashing.
- Water may become trapped bettind waterproof barriers in walls, in the ground
or in mechanical joints, preventing its natural elimination by evaporation.
Arrangements sliould be made to avoid the accumulation of water close to
metal plates.
- Wetting risks are increased during storage on site and building erection prior
to rooting. Timber stocks should be covered arid only be left on the site for
the 111inirnum tiit~e necessary for erection, and one weelc at the most,
especially in bad weather.

Prevention of fungal attack

In the Decision Making Sequence (see STEP lecture AIS), it is possible to limit the
preservation treatment 10 be applied. This decision making sequence applies not to
tile overall building, but to each individuai structural member. If the insect risk
exists in all classes in so far as their presence is reported in the region, the risk of
cryptogarnic attack increases considerably, together with the hazard class.

It is possible to reduce the risk through careful construction details, especially to

reduce timber moisture content. It is, on the contrary, impossible to influence the
extremes of temperature which depend upon [lie geographical siluatiotl and the rislc
increases with the raising of mean temperature.

If it is impossible to stop water penetration, is usually possible to provide for a

system of rapid water evacuation in order to avoid exceeding d ~ 20% e inoisture
content litnit, or to limit the humidified zone. Solutions to this could be provided
using a ciecompression space, a water pipe or a ventilation space.

The moisture content of timber is consequent upon a balance between water

absorbed and water evacuated, and can be reduced where arrangements are made
to retard uptake and promote evacuation. A good example is metal shoes at bases
of colunins which wise the timber at least 100 /tit11 above the ground level and the
cut foot is then Ieft in contact with air. In case of trickling, water does not collect,
and if slight absorption of water occurs by capillary, it is evacuated by evaporation
at the cut, as soon as the source of ~noisturedisappears.
Qnra 1 14t(t11joirlt prirzciple it1 titrlber c-otrstrnctior ( 0 ) air-~ighrjoinr. ( b ) rtleclrcrtlicnl
os.senzbl~crlld ( c ) de~0111pre.~.siO11 SpCICe.

In horizontal or oblique members, the existe~~ce of longitudinal surface cracks

increases the risk of penetration by conducting the water directly towards the inside
of' llle piece, just where it is most difficrllt to evacuate. As far as possible, timber
rmernbers ~ilustbe placed so as to avoid this phenomenon. It is advisable to set the
Inn~inationsof glularn members with the heart upward as recommended by EN 386
"Glued laminaled timber - Perfornlance requirements and ~ninimumproduction
requirements" (see Figure 2). Such oriented laminations reduce the penetration of
water into surface cracks and facile drninage when the surface is subject to wetting.
For the same reasons, glularn members which curve downwards concentrate water
in the lower part withoiit any possibility of' evitcuation, and fungal attack is Inore
likely to occur.

liigrrre 2 Dispnsiriott qf larrrirlariorrs irr exterior glrrlnnr; leff: rarldotr~orier~tatioirof

ic~n~inarion.~:
1i~flrel.petietrafe.ri n ~ owood; right: nric~rtatecll~rtriinario~ts:
itrater
cntr escape (N'1imbleor. t~~'atecI tirrtbei.coi~eritigloitit ~~etltif~tiurl
space orr top).

Prevention of insect attack

I~~itiolly,
the natural durability of the selected timber species should be established
with respect to the particular irisecl species to which it may be exposed. It is also
necessary to establish whether the particular insect is present in the region in which
the timber to be used (see STEP lecture A15). Where a risk of insect attack to the
timber exists, the timber must be treated with an insecticidal wood preservative. The
application must be carried out before the timber is installed but as far as possible,
after any machining or working of the surfaces. If re-worlring of the timber surfaces
on site is needed, preservative treaiiiienl sl.~ouldbe re-applied to these areas.

STEP/EUROFORTECI*I- :in initiative trnder ihc EU Cornet1 Rugramme A 1 415

 For stirfaces which can develop significant cracks or splits, and exposed untreated
core surfaces, pcriodic maintenance treatment is required. Consideration [nust be
given to the provision of free access to the timber surfaces. If this is not possible,
a more intense preservative treatment should be specified, which penetrates to a
depth greatcr than that to which subsequent cracks are likely to develop. This
reduces the risk of the exposure of an unprotected timber core to insect atlack.

Where a specific risk of attack by subterranean termiles is present, in addition to

noimal protection by natural durability of wood or preservative treatment, the use
of mechanical barriers between thc ground and thc timber may provide useful
protection. This type OF termite produces a mud-covered gallery between the termite
colony in the ground and the lirnber conlponents which it attacks. This protection
may consists of a preservative treatment of the ground or a mecllanicat barrier. Thc
use of iueclianical barrier- or caps enhances the visibility of the gallery if it is
developed to a sufficient size to bridge tile barrier, Routine maintenance inspections
to detect and remove the presence of the galleries is necessary and corisideration
should be given to the access ability and visibility of surfaces linking the timber
component to ground level,

Resistance to corrosion for metal fasteners and connections

EC5 give exatnples of miniinusn corrosion protection or material specific9t' r ions
necessary for different service classes. Sorne inore strict corrosion protection
measures niay be required, for example in a chernical prod~~cts store, for salt and
fertiliser storage, or in special plants sucti as phosphoric acid kictories where ir is
esseiltial to use bolts, dowels and steel plates of the appropsiate grade of' stainless
steel.

Service Class
Fastener
I 2 3
Nails, Doweis, Screws. None None Fe/Zn 25c"
Dolts Norle FefZn 12c FclZn 25c"
Staples Fe/Zn IZc FeEn12c Stainlesssteel
Punclled rnetal plate I'asteners and FelZ11 12c Fe/Zn l2c Stainless steel
steel plittes up to 3 nlnl thick
Steel plates over 3 tjittt up to 5 None Fe/Zn 12c FelZn 25c"
t ~ t t t r in thickness

Steel plates over 5 ~nrtt None None Fe/Zn 25c"

'I For especially corrosive conditions consideration sliould bc given to Fe/Zn 40, hot dip
coating or stainIess steel.

EC5: Pan 1

Examination of individual cases

Clcrddirzg rlsecl for blncirzg

Claddings are generally considered to be in hazard class 3. Boards are often piaced
at 45" to provide racking resistance. Surface water is then conveyed preferably
towards a "V" cut. A drain pipe must put in place at this spot so as io allow the
water to evacuale quickly by gravity or by evaporation at the cut end of the board.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - ;in initiative under the EU Comet1 Rogrammc

Figtur 3 Detnililtg csa~ltplefor- cladclitrg joint wirh "V" crtr.

Exfer-tml colll~nits
These columns are considered to be in either hazard class 2 or in hazard class 3
according to the measures required. The moisture risk is, in fact, very limited if the
column is far from the ground. If no precautions are taken, the columns must be
considered in liazard class 4,

The base of columns of sheltered but. unenclosed structures must be set in place in
such a inanner as to ensure efficient ventilation and to avoid any entry of water by
capillary. The height of the timber above the ground varies with the climate and the
risk of accumulated debris at that spot (see Figure 4). The post can be placed on a
low wall but, in this case, the boitom end of the post must be treated to avoid the
entry of water by capillarity; for example using epoxidc resin, r-ubber paint or
asphalt.

Figtrre 4 E.~orl1pleof bnse fflexterior colrcntrrs.

Edge beauts
These lnelnbers are usually considered to be in hazard class 4. They are exposed
outdoors to rain and sun and indoors to an atmosphere whicl~is often hot and
damp. The classification can be improved by providing a ventilated surface
covering, e.g. by a protruding roof, and by ensuring that the external coating is
more permeable to water vapour tl~nnthe inner coating (see Figure 5).

- an initiative undcr the EU Comcll Programme

STEI:I)/EUROFORTECH A 1417
r e5 Edge beans detailing for limiter1 pcnetmtiorr of ulater; left: eaves, right: ( a )
itapour pernleai~lrand water-figltffi1t11, (b) vapoltr-tight filnl.

Special case of switnniitzg pools

These constructions are subjected to moisture hazards from several sources: water
splashes, from the pool or floor-washing, condensation on the glass partitions with
dripping on the inside, rainwater on the outside, and with water accuiliulation on
a level with the lintels. Great attention must be paid to leading this water towards
the outer face of the timber, or to limiting contact for example, by placing, the
base of the timber posts sufficiently above the ground. When ail precautions are
taken, timber, in swimming pools, can be considered in hazard class 2, otherwise
they must be treated according to hazard class 3 or 4.

Briclg.es mzd gnitgways

These can be bare or covered. In the case of uncovered bridges and gangways, their
classification in llazard class 3 or 4 is essential. In the case of covered bridges and
gangways, the classification may be lowered to hazard class 2, especially if
precautions ~ u taken
e to coat horizontal beams open to driving rain or sun. Special
attention must be paid to the protection of cantilever joints where these exisl. In all
cases care must be taken to educe water accumulation due to rain and other causes.

Figure 6 Profecriort of bricIgc tinrber:

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initintivc under [he EU ComeU Programme

Concluding summary
- If it is not possible to use durable naturally heartwood , the most important
point for preservation against insect attack is to assure a continuous barrier
with a preservative treatment.

- In order to limit use of preservative treatment against fungi attacks, it is

necessary to prevent water ingress.

- It is essential to provide a suitable outlet for water and waler-vapour in the

event of accidental penetration of water.

- If it is impossible to ensure that moisture content is below 20% the treatment

prescribed for hazard class 3, 4, or 5 should be applied. In this case it must
not be forgotten that machining takes off the nlost important part of
treatment, e.g. by planing.

STEMEUROFORTECI~I- an initiative unclcr the EU Comclt Progmmmc

 Durability - Preservative treatment

STEP lecture A 15 Objectives

L.M.R. Nuncs, To explain the need for preservative treatment and to introduce the different types
P.P. dc Sous:\ of treatment. To outline the specification of a preservative treatment for timber and
Laborat6rio Nacional de wood-based panels.
Engcnhoria Civil (LNEC)
Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
Fungi and insects are tlie two main biological agents responsible for till~ber
degradation it1 service. Tllerefore, their life cycles and types of action are
summarized. The concept of natural durability is explained and tile factors
influencing this timber properly are outlined. Different wood species have different
natural durability, thus the concept o i durability classes emerges and is explained.

Preservative treatments can be used to avoid timber degradation and the types of
preservatives and methods of treatment are described. The specification of a
preservative treatment for timber and wood-based panels is outlined. Future
perspectives in timber preservation are also discussed.

Introduction
Under ideal conditions timber can be in use for centuries without significant
biological deterioration. However, if conditions are not ideal, many widely used
species need a preservative treatment to be protected froin the biological agencies
responsible for timber degradation, mainly fungi and insects.

Prese~vativetreatments are cllernical treatments where specially formulated products

containing biocides (fungicides andtor insecticides) are incorporated into Lhe timber
in order to upgrade its durability against the biological attacks. These preservative
treatments are normally applied to the timber before use; however they can also be
applied to timber in service.

Timber preservation is indeed a major issue. For example, this was demonstrated
by the results of a survey carried out in 1980 involving Inore than two hundred
Swiss architects (Sell et al., 1982), where, in opposition to the high rating of timber
when compared with other building materials in terms of aesthetics, durability was
clearly the major shortcoming of this material. I1 is obvious that it is very difficult
to increase the use of structural timber witllout taking care that the durability of lhe
material is assured during its intended life.

When a designer proposes a timber structure, a doubt occurs frequently on whether

11e should specify for a preservative treatment for the timber and, iF so, what type
of treatment and preservative should he reqirest. The answers to these questions are
not always simple, as a certain number of inter-related factors should be taken into
itccount. EC5 states these factors in a general way and also states that "the
environmental conditions slzall be esti~natedat the design stage to assess their
significance in relation lo durability and to enable adequate provisions lo be made
Tor protection of the products". Moreover, with respect to tlie resistance to

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I- on inilialive under the EU Comclt Progrnm~rle A1511

biological organisms, it requests that "timber and wood-based materials shall either
have adequate natural durability in accordance with EN 350-2 for the particular
hazard class (defined in EN 335-1 to 3), or be given a preservative treatment
-
selected in accordance with EN 351-1 and EN 460".

111 this lecture a background summary of durability and preservation of timber is -

given. The information will be linked to the package of European Sti~ndards(EN
Standards) about this subject, already published by the European Committee for
Starldardization (CEN) or in final phase of elaboration by the Tectinicai Co~nmiftee
CENtTC 38 - "Durability of wood and wood-based products". These documents will
-
apply in Europe in the near future and will help designers to answer tlie questions
formulated above.
-
Biological agencies of timber degradation
The two main biological agencies responsible for timber degradation are fungi and
insects although in specific situations, timber can also be attacked by marine borers. -
Some notes about these agencies are given below.

Flr~zgi -
Taking into account the effect of their action, two types of fungi can be
distinguished: wood-destroying fungi and wood-disfiguring fungi. The attack of the
latter have nor~naHyno significant effect on the mec11anic;il resistance of timber as
they only depreciate the aestlietic appearance of the material, without destruction
-
of the cell wall. I-Iowever, este~isivedegradation of decorative coatings can occur
due to the action of these fungi that include mould and blue stain fungi.
--.
On the other hand, wood-destroying fungi affect tlie mechanical resistance of timber
and are of greater interest within the scope of this lecture. These fungi auaclr timber
by rtieans of an enzymatic action that results in rot and they include the
Basidiomycete wood-rotting fungi responsible for brown or white rot - so called due
to the coiouration given to the timber attacked - and the soft rot fungi, which are
grouped together on the basis of their ability to f o ~ mcavities in the wood cell wall,
that leads to a surface softening of the timber and eventually to rot in depth. For
the growth of wood-rotting fungi a moisture content higher than 20% is needed.

I~lsects
Insects attack timber by opening tunnels which sometimes arc packed with bore
dust. The two main types of insects causing tlie deterioration of timber are beetles
(Coleoptem) and termites (1.soptem). -
Beetles are insects with a larvae cycle. The flying insects lay their eggs in cracks,
splits, rough surfaces of timber or wood pores and, the resulting larvae penetrate the -
tiinber by boring tunnels as they develop. This is the dest~uctivestage of the life
cycle; the adult insect will complete it after metamorphosis and the opening of tfle
exit I~ole,which will probably be the only visible sign of the attack on the tirnber --
surface. There are several species of wood-boring beetles throughout Europe; the
most colninon are the House Longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes I~ujirlrrs),the Common
Furniture beetle (Alrobiiurl pl~ncintiwi), the Death Watch beetle (Xestobirrttt
nfofovillosu~~) and the Powder Post beetle (Lycins brr/~~tieus). Although only -
attacking softwood, the House Longhorn beetle is by far the most damaging and it
can cause Failure in structural timber, particularly when the sapwood content is
high. Normally, beetles attack dry timber but they can tolerate higher values or
moisture content.

STEPIEUROFORTECI.1- at1 initintivc i~ntlcrtlje EU Comet1 Programme

 s social insects tl~atbuild their nests in contact with the ground and
T e r ~ n i ~ eare
forage over a distance for their food, building tunnels between their nests and the
source of: timber, which should have moisture content conditions similar to those
referred to for wood-destroying fungi (greater than 20%). This description applies
only to the most important species found in Europe, the subterranean termites,
namely Reticulitennes lucifugus and Reticulitermes santonensis.

Mnrine borcra
In European rnarine waters the most common borers are the shjpworn~(Teredo spp.)
and the gribble (Limnoria spp.). The stlipworm is a bivalve mollusc with larvae that
settle on tilnber where they lodge by boring an extensive network of holes. The
gribble is a small shrimp-like crustacean that bores into the timber surface, where
it lives, making numerous side burrows and causing erosion on marine tirnber
structures.

Presertce of bioiogicnl crger~ciesirt Errrope

The biological agencies referred to previously are not present all over Europe. In
fi~ct,a survey carried out by CEN/TC 38 in the different CEN Members (no data
from Iceland and Luxembourg) sllows that there is a generalized rislc of fungi attack
in all countries (with an insignificanr risk of' attack by some species in Austria and
Italy) but the risk of attaclc by insects varies significantly from country to country -
linked to the average air temperature - as it is reflected in Table 1, resulting from
that survey.

Ilousc Longhorn bccllc R R R 1IL R R R R 0 L R L 0

Common Furnilurc R R R I R R R R R R R R R
bcctlc
Dcath Warch beetle R 1 R I 1 R 1 I R 1 1 0 O I I
Powder Post bectlc R R R O R R R R R O R I O
Tcrmitcs 0 O I O R L I L O O R O O

-
R Risk; I - Insigtiiticnnt risk; 0 - Na risk; L - Locally prcscnt in khc counlry
TnDIe I Nc~tiono/CIL'C~II'C~I~OIZS ~ S of ffttcick by insects.
~ I t,isk
C O I I C ~ ~ Ithe

Timber properties related to preservation

clur~lbili~y
N(I[~{I-01
Natural durabilily of timber, understood as the ability to resist the attack of a
biological agency without any preservative treatment, varies significantly fro111
timber species to timber species and, within the same species, it is greater in the
heartwood than in the sapwood.

In order to assess tlte natural durability of a timber species, a series of tests can be
performed, and the results obtained usually lead to the attribution of a certain
durability class to the different tilnber species. EN 350-1 "Durability of wood and
wood-based products. Naturitl durability of soiid wood - Part I : Guide to the
principles of testing and classification of the natural durability of wood" establishes
those tests (field tests andlor laboratory tesls) and the criteria for the evaluation of
the results, and defines a certain number of durability classes regarding the
resistance to the nttilck of fungi, beetles, ternlites and marine borers.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - :ln initiative under the EU Cornctt Progrnrnmc A 15/3

However, natural durabiIity tests have been performed for a long tirne on different
tiri~berspecies all over the world. The infonnation resulting from those Lests was
gathered in EN 350-2 "Durability of wood and wood-based products. Natural
-
durability of solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of
selected wood species of importance in Europe", where, whenever possible, the
durability classes defined in EN 350-1 are assigned to around 100 rilnber species, -
including softwoods and hardwoods. The use of this infortnation should be made,
however with care, taking into account the criteria set in EN 350-2. For instance,
the natural durability class assigned for resistance to Lirr~galattack, refers only to the
heartwood, as sapwood is considered not durable for all tiniiber species (note that
~ t hardwoods is lower than in softwoods).
sapwood c o n t e ~ in

Trentcibili~
The effectiveness of a preservalive treatment depends mainly on the amount of
preservative that is absorbed by the timber and the depth to which it penetrates,
although factors like distribution of preservative iiiay also pIay an impostant role in
tllc effectiveness. The ease of titnber impregnation is naturally related to the type
of product used and to the tiiethod of treatment adopted but it depends luainly on
the degree of permeability and the moisture corltent of the timber. EN 350-2 also
includes, for the tirnber species listed, an indicatior~ of the corresponding
treatability, based on a four classes system (treatability classes). From this
infonnation, it becornes clear that sapwood is much easier to impregnate than
heartwood; in the end, it is quite possible that the durability of the sapwood of a
certain tilnber species sub.jected to a proper preservative treatlilent becomes higher
than the natural durability of the heartwood OF that same species.

Timber preservatives
Timber preservatives are chemical products intended to increase tiriiber's resistance
to the attack of biological agencies. They have usually been classified into three
major types: tar oil preservatives, organic solvent preservatives and water borne
preservatives. However, aqueous emulsion systerns are also now well established
in timber preservation.

Tar oil preservatives were the first to be used to treat timber industrially and include
a set of different products obtained by distillation of coal tar; the most important
products of this group are creosote and the anthracene oils. Due to its odour,
difficulty to over-painting and general eco-toxicological ch~?racteristics,rnost
countries have now restricted the use of this type of preservative to exterior works
(e.g. transmission poles, railway sleepers) and immersed timbers.

Orgarlic solvent preservatives are solutions of biocides (fungicides and/or

insecticides) on a non-polar organic solvent that can be volatile or non-volatile.
Products using a volatile solvent (e.g. white spirit) are the i~lostcornmon and can
be described generally as light organic solvent preservatives (LOSP) or paintable
preservatives; additives like water repellents and colouring agents rnay also be
included. The lcey features of these products are the ready penetration on timber
even when applied by superficial methods (edgebrushing, dipping) and the absence
of dimensional changes of the timber. These products are widely used in joinery
and cladding.

Water borne preservatives are basically constituted by miner111 salts dissolved in

water. The most common products belong to the group of preservatives known
generally as "chromated copper". Amongst this group are chromated copper arsenate
(CCA), chroitlated copper borate (CCB) and chrornated copper silicafluoride (CFK).

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- on inilioiivc undcr thc EU Comcit Programrile

These products are nonnafly forced deep into timber, using pressure and the
treatment requires tIie drying of the timber after treatment. Other water borne
products like disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and sodiu~nfluoride are also used but
their application is mainly by diffusion in green timber. Water borne preservative
products are probably the most widely used in timber structures. Timber adequately
treated with CCA is suitable for internal or external use and in situations where the
risk of attack is high. Corrosion of inetal devices in contact with CCA treated
timber car1 occur - especially if the moisture content of timber is high - and
adequate protection should be provided.

Lastly, it is important to point out that there are several European Standards (EN
Standards) already published concerning the test methods for the evaluation of the
effectiveness of preservative products. Actually, two EN Standards about
preservative products with special interest for this lecture are in preparation: EN
351-1 "Durability of wood and wood-based products, Preservative-treated solid
wood - Part I : Classification of preservative penetration and retention", prEN 599
"Durability of wood and wood-based products. Performance of preventive wood
preservatives as determined by biological tests - Part 1 : Specification according lo
hazard classes" and prEN 599-2 "Id. - Part 2: Classification and labelling".

Methods of preservative treatment

Methods of preservative treatment of timber norlnally coinprise a set of techniques
used to force a preservative product to penetrate into tlie timber iii order to get an
adequate retention and penetration. There are several methods of treatment with
different degrees of effectiveness. The right choice depends on the timber species
and the retention and penetration values relevant to the hazard class.

The following methods of timber treatn-lent are widely used: brushing, spraying,
dipping, diffusion, double vacuum and vacuum pressure. The first four are non-
pressure inetliods but, in the last two, pressure is needed and the necessary
equipment includes a closed cylinder (autoclave). A brief description of these
methods is included in Annex A (infonnative) of prEN 599-1, where the product
penetration inlo the timber (defined according to EN 351-1) normalIy attained in
those treatments is also given. Based on that infomiation, rt brief description of
-
pressure methods probably the most appropriate for timber used in stiuchlres - is
made. In the vacuum pressure method, timber is introduced into a closed cylinder
and subjected lo a vacuum to remove air from the cells. The preservative liquid is
then introduced and a pressure usually between 0,8 and 1,5 N ~ I I J Uis? applied. A
final vacuum removes excess liquid from the timber surface before nonnal
atmospheric air pressure is restored and the timber removed. This process, called
"Bethel1 process" or "full-cell process" can be slightly changed on the "Rueping
process" or "empty-cell process", in which the initial vacuunl is replaced by an air
pressure, in order to increase the recovery of preservative during the finai vacuum.

The double vacuum method is similar to rhe vacuum pressure ~netl~od ("Bett~elI"
process) but the pressure applied is lower (less than 0,2 Nhnnr2)and the period of
final vacuum is bigger.

Furthermore, it is important to notice illat the vacuum pressure and diffusion

methods rely heavily on water borne preservatives and can be used to treat timber
even in the pole form. The use of organic solvent preservatives is usually restricted
to the double vacuum rnetliod and superficial applications. With these treatments
the tiinber sliould be at the finai dimensions and any areas exposed by subsequent
cutting or drilling sl~ouldbe further protected.

STENEUROFORTECI-I - nn initialivc u ~ ~ d cthc

r EU Comclk Prognrnimc A 1515
Specification of a preservative treatment for timber
Previously in this lecture, a brief background concerning the biological agencies
responsible for timber degradation, the timber properties related to preservation and
the methods of preservative treatment was given, and relates closely to the
standardisation work ongoing in Europe.

This information will be useful now to answer the questions that designers are often
facing with, as fortnulated in the beginning of this lecture. They concern the need
of a preservative treatment for timber in a specific situation and the choice of the
type of treatment and preservative product to be used. The answers to these
questions will be also based on the EN Standards already published or in final
phase of elaboration.

In orcier to deal with this problem, some basic data is still missing. They concern
the assessment of the risk of attack by biological agencies of il certain timber piece
in a specific situation and From this emerges the concept of hazard classes. EN 335-
1 "Durability of wood and wood-based products. Definition of hazard classes of
biological attack - Part 1: General" establishes five hazard classes for timber and
wood-based products and indicates the biological agencies relevant to each situation.
EN 335-2 "Id. Part 2: Application to solid wood" defines those classes for timber
and includes, in an informative Annex, a decision-making sequence to help
designers to select a suitable titnber species for a specific use.

not he ;~cliicvcd
by prcscrvi~tivc
tr~atment I I be nchievcd
by prescrvnlivc
~rentntvnc I /
prcsewalivc (5)i~nd trcatmcnt

I ) Scc EN 335-1 tmd figure A.2 of EN 335-2 2) Scc EN 350-2

3) Scc EN 460 4) See EN 35 1-1 5) Scc prEN 599.1

Figure I Gertelal cleci.sion-r~~nkilzirtg

seqrtertcc for selectio~to f tit~thcrnppt.opriate to the
Irazard cluss of use Urotri EN 335-2).

Figure 1 shows this decision sequence adapted from EN 335-1; it should be noted
that all standards listed in this figure have already been referred to previously in

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initintivc t~nderthc EU Comctt Progrnrnme

this lecture, with exception of EN 460 "Durability of wood and wood-based
products. Natural durability of solid wood. Guide to the durability requirements for
wood to be used in hazard classes" that gives guidance on the selection of a timber
species according to its natural durability for use in a particular biological hazard
class.

This decision sequence shows that a coherent system of EN Standards is in its final
pllase of preparation to help designers in making decisions about this subject. The
infonnation included in this lecture gives a general overview of this standardisation
system but it is obviously not complete; therefore, the only way for a designer to
take the right decisions when specifying a preservative treatment for timber is by
careful consultation of tlie appropriate EN Standards that soon wiIl be in force in
several countries of Europe and that will be probably adopted later on to a larger
extent.

Specification of a preservative treatment for wood-based panels

Wood-based panels are also extensively used in timber structures, namely, plywood,
particleboards, fibreboards and oriented strand boards, and durability of these
products should obviously be discussed.

It is important to emphasize that the majority of the infonliotion given so far also
applies to wood-based panels. The main difference is related to the natural
durability of these products, wliich depends less on the species than in the case of
timber; in fact some additional factors Iilce thickness of particles and plies, fibre
preparation, binder characteristics and quantity can also contribute to durability.
Additionally, the equilibrium moisture content of a wood-based panel in a given
environment, usually differs from that attained by timber of the same species from
tvhicli they are ~nade.

Taking this into account, prEN 335-3 "Durability of wood and wood-based
products. Definition of hazard classes of biological attaclc - Part 3: Application to
wood-based pal-rels" defines, siil~ilarlyto Part 2 for timber, different hazard classes
for plywood, particleboards, fibreboards, and cement-bonded particleboards, the
latter being considered to have an insignificant risk of attack in all hazard classes.
Furtliern~ore,prEN 335-3 includes art informative Annex giving guidance on the
suitability of different types of wood-based panels (characterized by appropriate EN
Standards relating to tlie products) for use in tlie hazard classes. It is important to
note that prEN 335-3 applies to non-coated panels, though, in timber structures, this
will be the common situation.

The natural durability of woad-based panels can also be increased by a preservative

treat~nent.In this case, the preservative products used are normally organic solvents
and the treatment is usually rnaclc, or by brushing, or incorporating a preservative
product in the binder or in the plies during the fabrication. This latter method
assures a greater protection than tlie first. Some innovative metllods of treatment
like vapour boron treatment have, in recent years, shown promising features for the
treatment of wood-based panels.

Future perspectives in timber preservation

In recent years, two principal factors have provoked changes in treatment
teclir~ologyand preservative products: the increasing cost of some solvents, and the
even more iinportant concern over environ~nentalaspects of timber preservation,
including air and water quality standards, and the effect of treated timber on man
arid oti non-targeted organisms.

STEP/EUROFORTECII - nn initiative urrdcr the EU Cornctl Programmf A1517

Most countries now have regulations regarding timber preservatives and Enany of
tbern do not allow the use of certain active ingredients such as dieldrin. TraditionaI
organic biocides, like creosote, pentachlorophenol or lindane are partially rest icted
as well as the inost comrnonly used water-borne copper-chrome-arsenic
forrnulntions.

Nowadays, several products, either new or rediscovered, are already being

introduced into the market and these include: borates and copper naphthenates or
organic and organometailic systems like isothiazoles, chlorotalonil, thiazoles and
triazoles. r

Environmental health and safety requirements point lo the use OF preservatives that
cornpty with the following characteristics: the preservative should be non-toxic lo
hurnans and to the environment or at least be rendered non-toxic rviten fixed in the
limber; the treatment should be carried out when the timber is in its Final shape in
order to minimize treated timber waste; plant operations should exclude e~tlission
of toxicants and there should be no soil, air or waterway contamination; and
redundant preservative treated timber should be recycled or disposed of with
minimal environr~lentaldisruption.

Reference
Sell J. et al. (1982). I-folz in1 Bauwescn. Report No. 210, Swiss Federal h h o r a ~ o r yfor Maierials
'Testing and Research (EMPA), Dllhendorf, Switzerland.

S'l'EP/EUROFORTECM - an initiative under the EU Cornctt Programme

 Environmental aspects of timber

STEP lccturc A 16 Objectives

T.Viitavnincn To give a global overview of the major potential environmental i~npactsof timber,
'I'echnicnl Research Ccntrc in all stages of the life cycle (from "cradle to grave"). To discuss the method for
of I=inland (VT[T) assessment of environmental impact.

Summary
The environmental aspects of building materials, and thus of timber, are gaining
more weight ns selection criteria for application in constructions. As this is a
relatively new research area, methods for assessment of the environmental impact
of wood are under develop~nenr(e.g. Life cycle assessment). The environmental
aspects of timber in general are regarded as positive, as conipared to otlter buildirlg
materials, the main reasons being that

- wood is a renewable material,

- the European forest is a sustainable source of timber,
- the positive effect on the Global Warming or Greenliouse Effect of the earth,
by reducing the CO, level during production in forests and by replacement
of fossil fuel by wood in the waste stage,
- the general low energy requirements for production,
- the potential for reuse, recycling or energy production, thus producing a
~l~inilnumof waste.

The areas that need more environmentally friendly alternatives are gluing, wood
preservation and coating. Emission of organic voIatile compounds (e.g.
forinaldehyde, hydrocarbons) froni glues and paints and emission of components
fi-orn preservatively treated tirnber are the major potential environmental risk
factors.

Introduction
Environmenlal aspects have become, along with tecflnical and econornic aspects,
increasingly important in the evaluation of products. Environmenlal aspects have
gained inore and more attention in legislation, product approvals, standardization,
and in the consumers' choices and preferences. Environmental labelling systems are
increasing and different steering measures are being introduced in order to reduce
the overexploitation of nntural resources and to avoid pollution and environtnental
risks.

Environmental assessments of materids and products

Environmental consequences of the use of a certain material or a product must be
evaluated from "cradle to grave", that means over the whole life cycle of the
product. In the assessment, the consumption of inaterials and energy and the
effluents to the environment over the life span are considered. The methodology of
the life cycle assessrlient (LCA) of materials and products is still in the developing
phase. A number of LCA methods have been proposed, some of thein mainly
concentrating on the inventory of environmental data over the life cycle, some also

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - an initintivc under thc EU Corneit Programme A1611

proposing steps for the evaluation of environmental consequences. It is, however,
vely difficult to estabIish uniform criteria for the assessment of different types of
environmental impacts. The need for guidelines for LCA has been identified and
among others, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Cf~emistryas well as
standardization organisations IS0 and CEN are working in order to produce a code
of practice.

In this paper, environmental aspects of timber and wood products are discussed
excluding pulp and paper. Wood products are mainly used for building and
construction, for packaging and for furniture. Previously few LCA studies have
been made for wood products. The environmenial assessment of wood products
should include harvesting and transport of wood raw inaterial, industrial
m a ~ ~ u h c l u rofe the product, transport to the site of use, building process or
installation, period of use including maintenance, demoiirion and management of
wastes. For each stage, an input-output calculation shall be made and the total
environmental effect evaluated on the basis of the calculations.

In order to evaluate the environmental impacts of the use of timber one should also
be able to compare those itnpacts with the use of other, alternative ~naterials.The
most important alternatives for timber and wood products are concrete and other
ininerai materials, steel, aluminium and other metallic materials as well as plastic
materials and different co~npositematerials.

It is generally accepted, that wood has environmentally fiivourable properties in

comparison with many substitutes. Tlle most important Fact is that wood is a
renewable raw material. Wood products require relatively little energy and cause
little pollution to the environn~ent.It is 110 longer, however, adequate to refer to
these qualitative statements; the environmer~tal itnpacts IIILIS~ be corlfirined
quantitatively. In the future all producers will have to demonstrate the consumption
of energy and resources as well as the emissions to the environment caused by
their products.

Structural liPc span Iir~paclslo be :tsscssed

Felling,
trilnspon of logs

Industrial

-
processing

Use of wood - to soil

producks
- 10 watcr

Demolikion,
waste tnanagernelli
- -

Timber resources and harvesting

The world's forested area is estimated to be about 5 billion hectares, of which just
under 3 billion hectares are closed tkrests. Over half of the forests are in temperate

STEPIEUROFORTECI-1- iln initiative trnclcr the EU Comett Programme

and cold areas. Historically, lnan has destroyed and reduced forests on enormous
areas by clearing land for agriculture and other uses and by forest felling. It has
been estimated that only about one third of the world's original forests still exist.
The rate of deforestation during the last decade has been about 17 million hectares
per year. Deforestation is mainly taking place in tropical forests which disappear by
1,8% per year (Dudley 1992).

Also Europe has seen large scale forest losses in the past, particularly in tlie south
and in the Mediterranean area. Currently, the forest cover is estimated to be around
160 nill lion t~ectares(the European part of the former USSR is not included).
Contrary to the historical generalisation above, the last 100 years have been a
period of net gain due to positive afforestation and conservation legislation. Also
the annual growth of forests per unit area has been increasing thanks to effective
silviculture and forest improvement. The estimated ainount of timber in the
European forests in 1990 was 18,s billion n13. The annual net increment in 1990
was estimated at 584 n13, which is 20% bigger thim the estiniate in 1980. The
annual production of roundwood in Europe in 1990 was nearly 400 rnillion 111"
which is about 1 1 % of the total world production. The annual harvesting in Europe
is 25-30% s~nallerthan tlie annual net increment (FA0 1992).

Deforestation and forestry practices have become items of serious concern in the
international environmental debate. The disappearance of forests is a most serious
ecological threat to the earth and most countries have now bound themselves to
sustainable forestry. Also, the member countries of the International Tropical
Timber Organization (I'lTO) have decided that the international tropical timber
trade should be brought to a basis of sustainable production by tlie year 2000.
Earlier, tlie maintenance of the productive capacity of forests has been emphasized
as the main measure of sustainability. In the future it will be necessary to pay
attention to more complex enviroillnentaI goals such as protection of the forest
ecosystem as a whole, conservation of biodiversity (abundance of species) and
protection of' culrural, recreational and aesthetic values. The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio in 1992 produced
a number of decisions for the protection of forests. Also, the users of timber have
started to dern;uld guarantees for that the Limber originates from ct sustainable
forest.

Logging changes the ecology and e~ivironnienlalconditions of the forest in many

ways. Nulnerous forest plant and animal species require specific habitats in order
to flourish. In today's Europe there is very little native or old growth forest left.
Native forest areas and special biotopes are, as a rule, excfuded from commercial
exploitation or placed under regulated timber production. The issue of the suffi-
ciency of conservation areas and natural parks has, however, been a subject of
constmt debate.

In Europe, commercial forests are normaily well tended. Confrontations ]lave

ellierged, however, between the forestry practices used, clear cutting in particular,
and noncor~~~mercial forest values. The forestry sector has taken heed of the
criticism and management practices have been modified Lo be Inore compatible
with natural phenomena. It continues to be a challenge to European forestry to
develop and improve utilization methods that are both efficient and based on tlie
principles of sustained yield accompanied by a keen awareness of environmental
issues. To ensure this, European countries have increased international efforts in
research (e.g. European Forestry Institute establisl~ed in 1992) and created
n~onitoringmechanisms (e.g. Minislerial Conference on the Protection of Forests
in Europe in 1992).

An existing threat to the European forests is the decline in tree health caused by -
the inlpact of atmospheric pollution and acid deposition. In particular, northern
conifer forests are sensitive to air pollution. International cooperation is absolutely
necessary in order to reduce pollution. -
Forestry and greenhouse effect
Wood material is Formed by the assimilation by trees of carbon dioxide, water and
solar energy. Wood is an important part of the short-term civbon cycling on Earth.
-
Atmospheric carbon dioxide fixed by trees is fiteststored in living trees and later in
wood products for tlundrecb of years. By deterioration or combustion the carbon is
released back in to the atmosphere and fixed again by trees. -
Carbon dioxide is the tnosl important ol' so called "greenhouse gases" in the
atmosphere. Its concentration in the atmosphere i s constantly increasing because of -
the irtcreased use of fossil fuels. The increase of greenhouse gases causes warming
of cliinate which is considered to be one of the most important environmental
problems ahead us. There are also indications that the increase of carbon dioxide
!nay play a role in the depletion of tile ozone layer particularly in the northern
-
hemisphere. In order to act against the greenhouse phenomenon an international
agreement (entering into force in 1994) has been made to oblige countries to
reduce emissions from fossil Cueis. The greenhouse phenomenon can also be
-
reduced by increasing the binding of carbon dioxide in forests and in other.
biomass. This has actually happened in Europe as the surplus of annual increment
over annual felling in forests has increased. However, the net fixation of carbon -
dioxide cannot be increased simply by reducing the felling. An old forest will reilch
a saturation point where the fixation is balanced by the release of carbon dioxide
by decay.

Solar energy

Fonniltion
of wood

I
l++<z>-l Wood prwducls

In the combustion of wood solar-derived energy is released to be used for the

production of heat or electricity in order to substitute for fossil fuels. Tile carbon
dioxide released by cotnbustion does not increase the net carbon dioxide level of
the atmosphere because only the same carbon dioxide is released back that was
originally bound from the air into the wood material. This carbon dioxide would,
in any case find its way into the atmosphere even if wood were not used for energy
production but left to decay. On the other hand, the increase in the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air will be restrained, if ~.enewablewood lnaterial is used to
substitute for fossil fuels or as an alternative for products which require more fossil
fuels in production.

Environmental impacts of forest industry

From the environmental point of view, every industry should mdce the most of its
raw materials while minimizing the harmful effects on the environment.

Wood maierial is utilized fairly coinpleteIy by the forest industries even if large
amounts of by-products and waste wood are produced in single processes. The
yield of sawn tirnber for instance is only about 50% of the round wood volume,
but the byproducts are used for the production of pilIp and paper, reconstituted
boards etc. Bark and other wastes unsuitable for raw material are utilized for
energy production.

The manufacture of wood products requires in general less energy than the
manufacture of alternative products of other materials. It is very difficult to give
exact figures of energy consumption because the production systems may vary
widely. The figures presented in the literalure often lack information on the lneans
of calc~ilationand on the system boundaries. Regarding the pollution resulting from
the energy production, the source of energy used is very decisive. A considerable
proportion of the energy in the wood industry is produced by burning bark and
wood wastes, about 80% in the sawmilling industry. Even if the energy demand in
the wood industry is low, there still is a continuous need to strive for energy
economies in order to keep the advantage. The pl-oduction phases that require most
energy are drying of wood and heat pressing (panel products).

Malerial Primary cncrgy content

kI.YII/kg kWlAtr3
Sawn timber 0,7 350
Glulnm 2,4 1200
Pnrliclc board 3,4 2210
Fibreboard 3,4 3400
Plywood 5,4 3240
Cement 1,4 1750
Concrelc 0,3 700
Bricks 03 1360
gyp sun^ board 2,4 1820
Steel 5,9 46000
PVC pl:~stic 1 S,O 24700
PU plastic 40,O 1800
Aluminium 52,O 141500

Among the different industrial branches, forest product industries itre considered
fairly harmless to the environment. In the sawmifling industry, environmental
impacts are caused by water storage of logs because of dissolving bark and wood
substances. Environn~entalproblems are also caused by noise, smell and handling
of wastes. The most serious environnlental problems have been connected with the
use of toxic blue-stain preservatives (chIorinated phenols in particular), which may
have polluted soil and watercourses. These have nowadays been replaced in most

STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr thc EU Cornctl Progrnillme A 1615

countries in Europe by less harmful chemicals and the need for their use has
diminished due to efficient kiln drying practices.
-
Even if the qualitative environmental problems are fairly well known in the
sawmilling industry, much more research is needed in order to find out quantitative
emissions into soil, water and air. Research needs regarding the effects of floating, -
water storage of logs and barking, impacts of blue-stain preservatives, emissions
From drying kilns and from energy production, dust, mould spores and volatile
organic emissions from wood should be considered.

In the joinery and furniture industries, problems to the environment are caused by
different additive materials, by hydrocarbon emissions to the air, noise, dust and
waste treatment. The most acute problem is surface finishing. Ciirrenlly used
finishes and lacquers are mainly based on organic solvents. The new European
directives will presume sigriificant reduction of organic solvent emissions, which
will require installation of cleaning eqi~iplnentor change of finishing systems.
Today the general trend is towards water-based and bio-based finishing systems.

In the panel products industry, problems are caused by adhesives that may create
harmful emissions and problem wastes. Problems may also emerge from coatings
and various additive materials.

From the environmental point of' view, one of the problem areas of the forest
industry is tirnber impregnation plants. The most used chemicals have been CCA-
salts and creosote oil. These give good durability to timber but are more and more
considered questionable from the environmental point of view. In rnany old plants
soil and sometimes even ground waters havc been contaminated by toxic
preservatives. Due to more advanced technology, better environmental protection
and waste management, the conditions are usually satisfactorily controlled in
modern plants.

A new European standard for treated timber is under preparation. It will include a
whole range of impregnation classes so that the level of protection is better
adjusted to the need of protection for the particular end-use. Development work is
under way in order to find new, environmentaIly more friendly concepts for
preservation.

Transport
Logging and transport of logs require sorne energy (oil, diesel fuel) and cause
disturbance and destruction to the forest nature. Nowadays, vegetable oils may be
used instead of diesel oil in harvesters. The transport of logs and of finished
products accounts for only a s~liallshare, usually only a few percent, of the total
energy consumption and emissions over the life cycle of forest products. For
environmentat calculation, data on the means of transportation, the average
distances and types of Fuels used are needed.

Wood in use
Timber and wood products are generally safe in use and cause very little effect on
the environment during utilization.

In recent years there has been growing interest in the health and safety aspects of
the indoor climate and building materials. Many building materials emit different
volatile organic compounds (VOC) that may cause health problems. The knowledge
of the emissions from different materials is still very poor. Regarding wood-based

STEPIEUROFORTECII - an initiative i~ndcrl l l e EU Comcu Programme

products, formaldehyde emissions from certain adhesives and finishing materials
11ave created most concern. The problem was most acute in the case of urea-
formaldehyde glued particleboards. Nowadays, very strict regulations have been set
upon the formaldehyde emissions from products and the problem has been
overcome by changes in the glue composition and in the manufacturing processes.

Wood contains slnall amounts of different extractive compounds, e.g. terpene

compounds, that are volalile and rnay be perceived as the typical smell of fresh
wood, Tile amounts emitted are very small and depend upon the age of tile wood
surface. No connections have been proven between these emissions and health
problems but some of the terpene compounds are considered to produce allergic
effects.

Durability of a product is also an environmental aspect because it may dictate the

service life of the product. Timber constructions when properIy designed have good
durability. If the moisture stresses are too high, unprotected wood is susceptible to
biological deterioration like growth of mouId and decay fungi. As well as reducing
durability, growing fungi produce bad smells and their spores may give rise to
health problems.

Demolition and waste management

Increasingly strict requirements for the management and reduction of wastes are
expected to affect aI1 producers more and inore in the future. Nowadays, the
building sector produces large amounts of waste both at the building site and on
demolition. There is a growing demand for increased reuse and recycling of
building materials.

After the first period of use, timber or wood products can be reused in other
constructions, recycled (manufactured into new products like reconstituted boards)
or used for energy production.

From the point of view of waste managenlent, wood has an advantage over many
materials in that it is easily degraded biologically in nature. However, reuse or
recycling or utilization for energy production should, as il rule, be preferred to
disposal by dumping.

Considerable environmental advantages can be gained by increased utilization of

wood products for energy production after the period of use as a construction
material. The theoretical energy content of wood varies with ntoisture content and
density. The effective thermal value of dry wood fuel is 5,3 - 5,5 kWlr/kg.
Combustion of wood produces, in general, similar emissions to combustion of other
fuels. The main difference is thal wood cornbustion does not produce notable
sufpl~uremissions. The quality and amount of en~issionsdepend upon the burning
conditions. High temperatures are required for complete combustion of organic
compounds. Wood ash con be used for soil fertilization.

Burning of moist wood or improper combustion conditions can result in high

einissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Special requiren~entsare set on
the burning of wood products including citemica1 preservatives, certain adhesives
or additives, which may produce toxic emissions or in the case of inorganic
compounds, concentrate in the ash.

Wooden products and constructions are seldom made of pure wood but combined
with several other ~naterials,which may ~nakereuse or recycling more difticult.

STEP/EUROFORI"ECH - an initintivc undcr [he EU Comctl Programme A 1 617

There is a need to pay more attention to the aspects of reuse and waste manage-
rnenr already in product development, planning and design phases.
-
Concluding summary
- Wood is a renewable raw material when it originates froin a sustainable
forest. Wood material is fortued in living trees from carbon dioxide and -
water by means of solar energy.

- European forestry is based on susrai~lableyield. However, there is a need to

develop the forestry practices further so that felling will cause as little
destruction to the natural environment as possible.

- The use of: renewable wood inaterial will help to reduce reliance on the
remaining resources of nonrenewable materials.

- It is ei~vironmentallysound to use tilnber fro111European forests efficiently.

If the forests are underexploited, tilnber has to be substituted by other
materials which are likely to produce Inore impact on the environment than
the use of timber.

- Forest industries cause r.elatively little pollution to the environment and the
irnpact is further diminishing with the n~odemizatioi~ of d ~ eproduction
processes. The industry should, however, monitor the a~nounlsof effluents
and other impacts more closely and colltinue to minimize these impacts.

- Regarding forest products, environmental concerns are often caused by

materials other than wood: preservatives, adhesives, finishes etc.
Development work is needed to introduce environmentally Inore friendly
alternatives to many of the present materials.

- Wood is easily degraded in nature, which is an advantage concerning waste

management. Wooden wastes should, however, in rlle first place be reused,
recycled or utilized for energy production. As wood material forms a part of
the short-term carbon cycling, the co~nbustionof wood does not increase the
net level of carbon dioxide in the air. The increase in the level of carbon
dioxide can be counteracted by using wood to substitute for Fossil fuels or
for products that require Inore fossile fuels in production.

References
Dudley. N.(1942). Forests in uoublc. A rcview ofthe sraius of [emperate forests worldwidc. WWF.
London, England. 260 p.

F A 0 yearbook 1490 (1992). Forest Products. F A 0 krcstry Series NO. 25. Rome, Italy. 332 p

STEMEUROFORTECI-I - an initilitivc nndcr tl~cEU Comctt Programme

 Serviceability limit states -
Deformations
STEP lecture A 17 Objectives
S. Thelnndcrsson To explain the motives for the control of deformations and to describe liow
Lund University deformations in timber structures can be estimated during the building lifetime
within the context of EC5.

Prerequisites
A2 Limit state design and safety format
A19 Creep

Summary
Short- and long-term deformation behaviour of timber as influenced by climatic
conditions and load variations is briefly described. Various reasons for the control
of deformations in timber structures ilre discussed and criteria for serviceability
design are suggested. The formal calculation method proposed in EC5 is presented
and a design example for the serviceability limit slate concludes the lecture.

Introduction
The overall performance of structures sl~ouldsatisfy two basic requirements. The
first is safety, usually expressed in terms of load bearing capacity, and the second
is serviceability, which refers to the ability of the st~ucturalsystem and its elements
to perform satisfactorily in normal use.

It is generally understood that violation of the safety criteria may cause risk to
human life and substantial damage, whereas violation of serviceability requirements
rarely leads to risks for humans and usually involves lower economical losses. On
the other hand, the overwhelming majority of structural defects actually observed
in practice are related to serviceability. For this reason, the question of serviceability
is very important in stn~ctrrraldesign.

In the case of horizontal tin~berelements, serviceability requirements with regard

ro deflections and vibrations are very often decisive for the structural dimensions.
This lecture deals with ser?iliceabilily related to deformations in timber structures.

Deformations in timber structures during the building lifetime

The fact that variable loads (such as imposed loads on floors and snow loads) often
dominate in timber structures means that the deflection will vary considerably
during the lifetime of' the structure. This llas to be considered in a rational
serviceability design.

Figure 1 illustrates the deflection history of a beam loaded with per~nanentload and
snow load (see Mktensson, 1992; Theiandersson and Mbrtensson, 1992). The total
deflection can be subdivided into one part 6, due to permanent loads immediately
i~fterloading and one part 6, which is variable during the lifetime of the structure.
The variable part 6, consisrs of a reversible portion 6,,,, which is present only
during limited periods when the variable Ioad is high, and n continuously increasing
poltion 6,,,,,,, which for all practical purposes Inay be considered us irreversible
(Mktensson, 1992). Sllort duration load peaks, such as those illustraied in Figure

STEPIEUROFORTECI-i - nn initinlive under tl~cEU Cornctt Programme A1711

1, occur both for snow loads and imposed loads in most common types of
buildings.

IMk,
'2, irrsr

I x 6.

Figlire 1 Tin~rvariation iri principlefor clejlccriori of n bean1 ivit11pcrtrratlertt (G) atlrl

varialrle (Q)lorrds. Cfrnle A shows the deflectioil if the Dcatir is loaded with
the c11aracteri.sticloclrls G, + Q,d~rrirrgtlie ,t~lioleperiod F is t t ~ rload S the
deflrctioiz and t tile tirite iri jrec1r.s.

Hence, for design purposes, the following deflection components lnay be defined
with reference to Figure 2':

6; is the precamber of the beam in the unloaded state (0).

6, is the beam deflection due to permanent loads immediately after loading
(state 1).
&2 is the deflection of the beam due to variable loads plus any time dependent
deflection due to permanent loads (state 2).
6,,, is the sagging of the beam relative to the straight line joining the supports.

' The llotation 6 for deflection is used hcrc in n conceptual sense. In EC5, wllere lt~enotation
u is used. the definitions of deflection components arc siigtiily different from those in
Figure 2.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - :In inilit~tiveundcr the ELI Conlett Programme

 Figlrr-c 2 Deflectiot~co~lrponeatsfor a siltrply srrppor-fed ileanl.

Normally both 6, and 6, are fixed wher~the construction work is completed and
do not change during rite lifetime of the structure (unless the permanent load is
changed). The components 6, and ti,,,,however, will vary during the lifetime of the
structure.

Load combinations for the serviceability limit state

ECI:Part 1: 9.5 The basis of design common to all Eurocodes, specifies different types of load
combinations which may be used for verification in the serviceability limit state.
Two of these, the characteristic (rare) combination and the frequent combination are
of interest in connection with timber structures.

The cltaracrerisric coi~ibir?atiorlis intended for use mainly in those cases where
exceeding the limit state causes significant damage or unacceptable irreversible
deformation. The symbolic definition of this combination is:

~ h e p e ~ u e tcont~irmtion
lt is intended For use mainly in those cases when exceeding
the limit state is associated with minor damage or ~xversibledeformations. The
symbolic definition of tlie frequent combination is:

In the above expressions Gkjand Q,,{are characteristic values of permanent and

variable loads, respectively. The ternis ~ y Q,,,
~ ,!11~,,
~ Qti and ' L I ~
Qkei ~ represent
.~ the
combination, the frequent and the quasi-permanent values of variable load Q,,
respectively.

Limitation of deformations
The most common reasons for the limitation of defor~nationsin structures are:

- general utility and appearance (e.g. to limit annoying visual effects and to
avoid sloping floors),
- structural requirements (e.g. to avoid damage to non-structural elements such
as partitions, doors, windows and claddings and lo guarantee smooth
assembly, water tightness, drainage of roofs),
- of machinery,
equipment requirements (e.g. to guarantee proper f~~nctioning
pipes, cables, ducts and their supports).

Modern codes like EC5 onIy give functional requirements in general terms stating
that structures sl~ouldbe designed in such a wny that serviceability aspects such as
those listed above are considered. Specific numerical limits of deflection or slope
should in principle be decided by the structural engineer from case to case,
depending on the actual situation and the demands of the client.

STEP/EUROFORTECH- iln initintivc under ihc EU Comclt Programn~e A 1713

 Deflection criterion to avoid significant damage
A typical case is when excessive deforn~ationsmay cause significant damage to
partitions, instaIlations, fixtures arid finishes. In this case the risk of exceeding the
deflection limit should be kept at a low level. Therefore, the deflection should be
calculated using the characteristic load combination defined by Equatiotl (1). The
damage is ~iormallycaused by deformations occurring after the constnlction work
is completed and a deflection criterion for sit.trations where significant darnage can
be expected can be written as:

where ti1 is defined in Figure 2 and 6,,,,, is the critical value of the deflection
causing damage. The limit 6,. generally depends on the nature and detailing of
the elements which could suffer damage. In the absence of more precise information
-
6,,<,, could be taken as a fixed value, say 30 111111, or a certain fraction of the span
Q, say U300 for a simply supported beam and U150 for a cantilevered beam.
These values are often recommended for beams in floors arid roofs which are in -
contact with partitions and non-structural elements.

Deflection criterion related to appearance and general utility -

From the point of view of' appearance and general utility it may often be desiritbie
to avoid excessive deflections which are permanent or occur over long periods.
Occasionnlly exceeding the detlcction limit may, however, be acceptable if the -
deflections are reversible and limited to short periods of time. In this casc a
somewhat higher risk of passage of the Iimit can be accepted and the deflection
may be calculated on the basis of the frequent load combinatio~tdefined in Equation
(2). An appropriate criterion for this case is:
-
where 6 , , , is defined in Figure 2 and S,,,, is the acceptable deflection limit with
respect to appearance and general utility. The value of 6,,,., depends on a number
of factors such as type of building, type of structure, whether the beam is visible
or not, tile attitudes of the building users, etc. For instance, the requirements are
normally ii~uchhigher in residential buildings than in industrial buildings. As a
general recommendation the value 6,,j,,.,= U250 may be given.

Deflection limits recommended in EC5

EC5:Part 1-1: 4.3 EC5 gives some recotninendations for limits ofdetlection which may be used in the
absence of more precise information. All limits given in EC5 are related to the
chai-acteristic load combination, Equation (1). with ipo in the last term replaced by
yf,. In cases where it is appropriate to limit the instantaneous deflection 112,i,tsc due
to variable actions the criterion II,,~,,.,~ IU300 is recoml-~iendedfor a beam on two
supports with length Q.This criterion can be relevant for example when excessive
deformation rnny cause darnage to non-stnrctural elements.

In cases where it is appropriate to limit the final net deflection it,,,,p,, the criterion -
rt,,,, < U200 is recommended. This criterion can be relevant when the deflection
control is motivated by requirements of appearance and general utility. This limit
is more liberal tllan that given above, since in this case the criterion is related to a -
more severe load combination.

STENEUROFORTECI-I- an iniliativc under tile EU Co~neltProgrnmmc

 Calculation of load induced deflections based on ECS principles
The instantaneo~isbending deflection it,, can usually be calculated from elementary
beam theory using formulas given in standard textboolcs and manuals. Since the
shear stiffness for wood is comparatively low, shear induced deflections may
sometimes be significant. The detlection u,, due to shear can be calculated by the
well established theory for shear deformations of beams. The total instantaneous
deflection liinr, is the sum of it,, and u,,.

To get an idea of the significance of shear deformations, consider a simply

supported rectangular timber beam with uniformly distributed load. For this case,
the ratio between shear deflection 14,. and bending deflection ir,, at the mid span is
approximately given by:

The ratio E/G is approxirnateIy 15 for timber and glulam. Tllus ~ r , / l c , , , is roughly
0,15 for Plh = 10 and less than 0.05 for elh = 20. For a concentrated load at the
mid span the correspondi~~g ratio is about 20% higher.

The long term deflection or creep under sustained loads in timber depends to a
great extent on the climatic conditions, even if the rate of creep in wood at a
constant high moisture content is only siightly I~igherthan jn wood at constant low
moisture content. The most important factor is the intensity of variation of moisture
content in the material. This means that the long term deflection is higher for timber
in outdoor conditions, with rapid and frequent flucluations in relative humidity, than
for timber indoors, where the climate is controlled. For the same reason, timber
with large cross sections exhibits lower creep than timber in small sizes, since the
material in a heavy timber beam has a much slower response to fluctuations in the
surrounding relative humidity. Su~facetreatment leading to increased moisture
resistance at the surfaces has the same effect (Martensson, 1992, Taylor et al 1991).

In addition to Ioad induced deformations, the serviceability of structural systems in

timber is very much influenced by shrinkage and swelling in the material. The
deformations imposed by moisture variations arid moisture gradients can often be
of the same order of magnitude or larger than tl~oseinduced by mechanical loads.
Suc1-1effects have to be controlled by appropriate structural design and detailing and
by adequate moisture control of the timber before it is built into the structural
system. Pure moisture induced deformations will not be considered further in this
lecture.

EC5: Part 1-1: 4.1 Principles for the calculation of deformations are given in the form of application
rules in EC5. According to these rules, the instantaneous defom~ation~ t under
~ , an ~ ~
action should be calculated on the basis of mean values of the appropriate stiffness
moduli, which are specified in standards associated with EC5 for timber and glulam
as well as for those wood based materials which are classified for structural use.

The final deformation ulin including long term deformation is calculated as:
il/in = f ~ i , ~ rI( + (6)

where $,/is a creep factor which describes the increase in deformation with time
depending on climatic conditions and the duration of the load considered. Values
of k,,,, are given in EC5 (Table 4.1) for different materials and for different service
classes and load-duration classes.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initinlive under the EU Comclt Progri~nim~ A 1715

When the deforrnation is to be calculated for a load combination with actions
belonging to different load duration classes, the contribution of each action to the
total deflection should be calculated separately and then added.

Design example
Figure 3 shows a flat roof supported by straight glulam beams with cross section
165 x 990 iitrti, spacing 6 111 and a span of 20 H I . Strength class GL36 with E,,,,n,,,,
= 14500 N/ltlnz2. Service class 1. The dimensions of the beam have been determined
on the basis of design in the ultimate limit state. The second moment of area is I
= bh3/12 = 1 3,3 1 0' m~nr".

Figure 3 Roof strucrraz. corrsiderr.d itz dcsigtl e,~onrple.

Characteristic load values:

permanent load: G,= 0,5 kNAtr2
snow load: Qk= 0,8 ~ N A ~ Iyr,,? ,= O,6, yr, = 0,2, yrz = 0

Uniformly distributed loads q, on the beams (spacing 6 t n ) and corresponding creep

factors k,,/are given in the following table (snow load taken as medium term load):

Lond q, (N/~!vtr) 41,

Permanent 3,O 0,6
Snow 48 0,25

First, the instantaneous mid-span bending deflection it, for a reference load q,:, =
1,O N/lnm is calculated.

-
The shear component of the deflection can be estimated from Equation (5). With
HG15 and Pllr 20 the additional deflection due to shear is about 33% of the
bending deflection. Thus, the total deflection due to q,, becomes rf,,,, = 1 1 2 i,mt.

Deflectiorz control for the case wlzen sign$cnrzt dartrage can be expected
In this case the additional deflection occurring after the building has been erected
is assumed to be of interest (8: in Figure 2). The criterion given by Equation (3)
is used with the characteristic load combination, Equation (1).

STEPIBUROFORTECf-I - an initintivc under tl~cEU Cornett Programme

Creep deflection from permanent load + final deflection from snow load
= [3,0 . 0,6 + 4,8 (1+0,25)]u, = 7,8 it,, = 84 tnr?r (or 11240).

If the deflection at the mid-span needs to be limiled due to structural requirements

this value is usually too large. If a non-structural element connected to the beam
needs to be protected against excessive deformations, the deflection at the point
where the partition is placed should be checked.

The criterion I ! ? , . , ~ ,2~ U300 recommended in EC5 could possibly also be applied
here. In this case rt,,;,,, = 4,8 i(,/ 54 I I I <
~ ~U300 = 67 rnnr.

Thus, the beam performance is considered acceptable according to this criterion. It

is quite clear that any suggestion of a general deflection limit can be questioned.
The only way to assure a rational serviceability design is to evduate the design
situation based on the relevant circumstances in each specific case.

Def7ecfion control n~irltrespect to appenmrzce at~clgenerctl utilit)~

From the point of view of appearance the final net deflection is usually of interest.
The criterion given in Equation (4), with the frequent load combination, Equation
(2), is relevant in this case.

Final deflection due to permanent load + final deflection due to yf, Qk(frequent
value of snow load) = [3,0 . (1+0,6) + 4,8 . 0,2 (1+0,25)] ir,,/ = 6,0 urd = G5
nrm. This value corresponds to QJ300 and can usually be considered acceptable for
a beam of this size.

The corresponding criterion recommended in EC5 is in principle the same, but with
the characteristic load combination, Equation (I). This gives:

This value is higher than the recommended limit in EC5, which is U200 = 100 rtlrtr.
Again, different criteria intended to check the same functional requirement give
different results. In this particular case, quite large deflections may occur on very
rare occasions with extreme snow loads. These large detlections are only temporary
and reversible and might be accepted in many cases. A way to avoid them without
increasing the beam diinensions is to apply a precamber 1 1 , lo the beam. The
precamber could be chosen equal to the deflection due to permanent load + half the
deflection due to the frequent value of the variable load. This gives a precamber of
4 ll,,, = 43 mrw.

ConcIuding summary
- Serviceability criteria related to deflections often govern the dimensions of
horizontal timber elements.

- The deformation of timber stnictures changes during their lifetime, due to

variable loads, moisture variations and creep.

- The reasons for limitation of deformations should be clearly defined by the

designer in each specific case.

- The choice of load combination for calculation of deflections should depend

on the expected consequences of excessive deformations.

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr tile EU Comell Programme A 1717

References
Mirtcnsson, A. (1992). Mcchrtnical bchaviour of wood exposed to humidity variations. Dep. of Str.
Eng., Lund Univ. Report TVBK-1006, Lund 1992.

Mlrtensson, A.. Tiiclandcrsson, S . (1992). Control of deflections in timbcr s~ructurcswith reference

to Eurocode 5. In: Proc. of thc CIB W18 Mccting, Ahus, Sweden, Papcr 7-5-102-2.

Ti~ylor,G.D., West, D.J., Hilson. B.O. (1991). Crccp of glued leminntcd timbcr undcr conditions of
varying Itumidity. In: Proc, of the 1991 Int. Timber Eng. Conf:, London, UK.

STEPlEUROFORECH - an initiative undcr thc EU Cornet( Progrnmntc

 Serviceability limit states -
Vibration of wooden floors
STEP iecrure A I S Objectives
S. Ohlsson To explain the n~echanismsof serviceability reduction due to the disturbing
~ h a ~ r n e rUniversity
s vibrarion of wood floors and to explain the background and application of the
of Technology dynamic methods specified in section 4.4 of EC5.

Prerequisite
B3 Bending

Summary
Servjce requirements based on tluman tolerance of vibration are described.
Service loads from human footfall and from rotating machinery are surveyed.
The design loads according lo EC5 (unit impulse and static concentrated force)
are described and the way in which they are believed to represent real dynamic
loads is explained.

Static stiff~~ess
properties of timber floors related to concentrated vel-tical forces
are described. Models and calculation methods are introduced.

Dynamic properties of plate-like stmctures are introduced. Dynamic properties of

timber floors are explained in some detail, especially for one-span simply
supported floors. In particular, eigel~frequencies,mode shapes, modal masses and
modal damping itre essential concepts.

The design method based on iimitation of the impuIse velocity response is

explained. The background assu~nptionsare surveyed, effects of various possible
re-designs are illustrated, and limitations of the method are outlined. Effects
from the general strucrural properties of the whole building and its mechanical
system on the transfer of vibration are briefly explained.

Serviceability requirements
A buiIding is generally rated as serviceable as long as it fblfils all its intended
functions in an appropriate fasl~ion.A11 serviceability aspects which are strongly
dependent on the slruclural system or on the structural co~nponentsof a buiIding
are included in the terrn "structulmalserviceability". These aspects should be
considered by the struclural engineer during the design process.

Structural serviceability requirements are usually formulated in relation to a

building or in relation to a fairly large portion of a building. Most serviceability
criteria originate from the following objectives:

- Acceptable llurllan comfort.

- Ensured functionality of building and insmllations.
- Acceptable visual building appearance.

These design objectives are referred to in EC5. Damage to surfacing materials or

partitions may for instance represent a loss of building hnctionality (loss of
water tightness of a bathroom floor) or an unacceptable appearance (cracked

STEPEUROFORTECII - ;in initiative under tlic EU Comctt Programme A18/1

Serviceability requirements are to some extent different in nature when compared
to classicaI requirements on safety. Some states of violated serviceability are
reversible. This is for instance true for human discomfort caused by vibration.
Another specific case can be illustrated by the visual appearance and the -
functionali~yof a floor. Both qualities are related to the deviation from a flat and
horizontal condition. Consequently, the total deviation composed of initial
deviation, deviations due to static load and deviations caused by climate factors,
is relevant. In such cases it is possible to use pre-cambered components in order
-
to limit the deviation. Consideration of such initial deviation (pre-camber) is
permitted in ECS, where limiting values of deflection are given. This is not
applicable in conjunction with dynamic problems. -
I11 order to facilitate engineering design of timber stluctures, the rnost essential
ECS serviceability requirements have been transformed to design limiting values -
for deflections and vibrations respectively. The remaining part of this paper is
focused on criteria for vibrations.

Vibrational serviceability
In general there are many load-response cases where structural vibrations rnay
constitute a state of reduced serviceability. The main concern, however, is with
regard to human discomfort. People are in most cases the critical sensor of
vibration. Among different dynamic actions, htrinian activity and installed
machinery are regarded as the two most important internal sources of vibration
in timber-framed buildings. Human activity not only includes footfall from
normal walking, but also childrens' jumping, etc. Two critical load response
cases are finally identified:

- Human discomfort from footfall-induced vibrations.

- Human discomfort from machine-induced vibrations.

Human susceptibility to vibration is a compiex matter. Griffin (1990) provides

an extensive monograph on the subject, and I S 0 2631-2 (1989) rnay be
co~isideredas a summarising document. The following basic statements are valid
in most situations:

The hunian sensitivity to vibration is:

- related to vibration acceleration for frequerlcies < 8 Hz;

- related to vibration velocity for frequencies > 8 H i ;
- increased by the duration of vibration;
- decreased by proximity io and awareness about the source;
- decreased by physical activity.

In the light of these conclusions, two different design aims emerge. Firstly, the
vibration levels in the vicinity of the dynamic action should be limited and
secondly, the transfer of structural vibrations to adjacent building units (e.g.
another apartment) should be avoided.

The first aim may be achieved by proper design of the local load-bearing floor,
as described in the following sections. In order to attain the second aim, a
suitabte structural system must be chosen. The use of moment resisting frames
incorporating both vertical and liorizontal members can enable vertical vibration

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an inilialive undcr thc EU Cornell Programme

transfer to adjacent storeys and may not be the best choice in this context.
Continuous floor construction between different apartments should be avoided.
Partitions should preferably be located above each other and be vertically
supported by the foundation. Location of a partition at floor inidspan in just a
single storey may stlucturally couple the two adjoining floors and they will
experience almost the same vibration. This vibration may be acceptable on the
floor where the dynalnic load acts, but it may be intolerable on an adjacent floor
where the neighbour is unaware of the source.

Human-induced vibration
EC5 is concerned with the design of residential wood-based floors with respect
to vibrational serviceability. Dynamic influence from ordinary human activity,
i.e. footstep forces, is considered. More severe dynamic loads, which can be
anticipated from dancing and rhythmic exercises call for other design methods,
Allen (1 99O),
T11e design criteria presented here apply to floors with a fundamental frequency
f, higher than 8 Hz. Floors having a lower fundainental frequency will
experience more severe dynamic resonanl response from people in motion. Such
floors must be designed due to principles not covered by this lecture. Eriksson
(1994) discusses design principles for such floors, which usually have larger
spans than are common for wooden floors.

The different eigenfrequeticies of a rectangular floor simply supported along all

four edges may be calculated according to the approximate Equation (1).

where f, is approxiinately equal to the fundamental frequency for a

corresponding beam inember of unit width, f,, which is given by Equation (2):
-

The palameters used are as follows:

n is the mode number (only first order inodes are considered, that is only
modes with a mode shape corresponding to a half sine wave in the
direction parallel to the span direction are incorpornted).
1r1 is the rnass per unit area (kg/nt2).
I is the floor span (In), O is tf~efloor width (111).
El is the equivalent plate bending rigidity per unit width (N~w'lnt), index I and
b refer to perpendicular directio~~s and I represents bending in the stiffer
direction.

It lnay be observed Ronl Equation ( I ) that the difference between consecutive

resonances is dependent on the ratio between rhe bending rigidity in two
perpendicular directions. Most wood floors will have a high degree of
anisotropy, that is the quotient between such bending rigidities will be low. As a
consequence, typical wooden floors will have a high number of closely spaced
resonance frequencies within the frequency band of interest with respect to
serviceability.

The criteria and corresponding methods for calculation are based on the proposal

STEPIEUROFORTECN - nn initiative undcr thc EU Cornell Pmgarnmc Ai8l3

presented by Ohlsson (1988). The scientific background is documented by
Ol1lsso11(1982). A sulnrnary of the background is presented here.
-
The dynamic footfall contact force from ordinary tvalking has been
experimentally verified. A case representing a person treading in place will
cl-eate a forcing function like the one in Figure I . In residential prelnises the -
transient short-time response will be governing. The force is composed of two
different component types:

- Low-frequency components (0 - S Hz) which originate from the step

-
frequency and its harmonics.

- -
High-frequency components (8 40 Hz) whicli mainly originate from -
impacts when the heel contacts the floor surface.

Since the fundamental frequency of the Floor is supposed to be higher ~ h a n8 Hz, -

the lo~v-frequencycomponents will generate vibrations which are semi-static in
the sense that their alnplitudes are governed by the structural stiffness, while the
rnass of the floor is rather insignificant. Since this assumption is important, EC5
requires that the filndalnental frequency is cniculated and shown to be at least 8
Hz, or higher.

I 1 Sr~coessivcfovrstep cotiiact forces F fiottt ordirtcoy )!!alkittg PL'I.SQII ( { I ) ftitd

cor-rz.sporrclirtg aggrrgrrrcd 1-e.sltltarlt force F,,,, acting otr the f i o r (b).
0ltl.ssor1 (1988).

As a consequence, the corresponding design action is taken as a static

concentrated vertical force oT 1,O k N , see Figure 2. The resulting vertical
deflection rl is limited to 1,5 nint. It should be pointed out that the calculation
may be based or1 a model reflecting the reat two-wny action of a floor.

The high-frecluency impulsive force compolients are represented by a unit

impulse of 1,O Ns as the design action. The resulting vibration velocity v caused
by such an idea! impulse is a property of the structure.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initio~ivet~ndcrihc EU Cotnctt Programme

Figrou 2 Typical r.estiltc?trr.force-titirc iiistoty front 0 r ~ ~ i l l ~~polkitlg,
1 3 ~ iIli(strntiot?of
correspottclitig iiieciliscd rlcsigt~iictiotrs corwisting of GI sturic force F, crarrcf u
r~rlit irrtprtlse 1 (top), ~.csrrltittg deflcctior~ rt (bottoili left) orti1 vihl.ation
~~eiocity v ( t ) (bottonr riglrt) arrd iirriirirtg cl-iteria.for. riesigir ctrlcrciatiorls !I,,,
illlii L1,.

It may be recalled thal if the floor had been a free rigid body with a
concentrated mass 121, a unit impulse would have resulted in a velocity of the
mass equal to 11h4. For a practical floor with distributed stiffness and inass, the
initial maximum velocity may be calculated using Equation (3):

where the summation is taken over all different modes of vibration 11. @,, is the
lnode shape function for mode r t , which is normalized for unit maximum modal
displacement and ,?I,, is the nlodal mass (sometimes referred to as the gerleralized
mass) for mode 11. Two modifications of Equation (3) are now undertaken. The
first one concerns the sunlmation of contributions from different modes of
vibration it. Experimental work has shown (Ohlsson, 1982) that the frequency
content of imp~llsiveforces induced by footfall is essentially confined to the
frequency range below 40 H i . Consequenlly, the summation may be restricted to
all modes with eigenfrequencies lower than 40 Hz. The second modification
concerns the mass wl~iclishould be included in the calculations. It is difficult to
state assumprio~lsRere, wl~ichare on the safe side. With regard to many timber
floors, however, it will be co~~sentative to assume a Iow value for the distributed
mass. It is thus stated that calculations sIlal1 be carried out based on the
distributed Inass of the floor only. The second modification is that the modal
properties (eigenfrequencies, mode shapes, m d modal masses) are calc~~lated for
this "bare" floor, but a standard addilion of 50 lcg to each modal mass rn, is
allowed when calculating the velocity response. This addition represents a
notional vibrating portion of the body of the person which is supposed to be
disturbed by the vibration.

It has been found that Equation (3) can be significantly simplified for the
ordinary case of a rectangular floor which is simply supported along all four
edges, Ohlsson (198s). Assuming floor dimensions b x I n12 and a mass of a unit
are:i floor nt k,g/~tr" Equation (3) may be approxilnated by Equation (4), which

STENEUROFORTECH - an initiative under lfle EU Cometl Programme A1 815

corresponds lo the formula given in EC5.

The parameter n,,, represents the number of eigenlnodes with eigenfrequencies

lower than 40 Hz and mbf is the floor mass. The additional 50 kg of modal mass
in the denominator is represented by the quotient 41200 in Equation (4). The
number a,, can be calculated from Equation (51, which is an approximate
expression.

An effective way is established of calculating the maximum vibration velocity

due to an ideal unit impulse. The favourable effect of a short vibration duration
must also be taken into account. This is achieved by making the limiting value
dependent on the damping of the floor. The most relevant damping parameter in
this context is the damping coefficient a,. This parameter represents the decay
rate expressed with respect to time rather than with respect to the number of
oscillations. The damping coefficient is defined as:
Go = f C (6)
where f may be rakcn as equal l o the fundamental frequency 'f, and the modal
damping ratio 6, !nay be taken as 0,Ol (1%) for ordinary wood-based floors.
Darnping is a parameter which shows large scatter and an expected value may be
around 1,5% to 2%, Chui (1988) and Ohlsson (1982). If a value higher than 1%
is to be used for calculations, duration ought to be verified. In fact, it sllould be
shown that such a bigher damping value will be valid for the entire expected
service life of the structure. The limiting value is expressed as a h~nctionof the
damping coefficient in accordance with the procedure suggested by Ohlsson
(1988):

where f is taken as equal to the fundamental frequency .f, divided by I ,0 Hz in

order to achieve a dimensionless exponent.

Example
A floor in a private dwellinghouse with the following properties is to be
checked.

The dimensions in plan I x b are equal to 3,9 x 4,8 t11" All four sides are simply
supported. The floor is constructed with:

- 22 /nm chipboard flooring in accordance with prEN 312-4 supported by 45

x 220 mrrt' wood joists of grade C22 according to prEN 338 and spaced at
600 urtrr centres (span = 3,9 171).
- 70 x 45 111111' spaced boarding of grade C16 according to prEN 338 which
is fixed at 300 tnrn centres (length = 4,8 i n ) .
- II rrzrlz plasterboard.

Cliaracteristic values For the different materials according to EN 112.406 and

prEN 338: I991 are as follows:

STEP/EUROFORTECFI - an initiative ulidcr tlic EU Comctt Ptopralnmc

Floor chipboard E,:,,,,,,, = 2650 Nhm11'.
Wood joists E,,, ,,,,, = 10000 Nhn111'.
Spaced boarding E,,,,,, = 8000 Nhntnt'.

The Inass per unit aream equals 35 kg/rr12.

Equivalent bending rigidities are calculated:

The static deflection I / from a static concentrated force F of 1,O kN is calculated

using a grillage model and the computer program BLAG (1991). The resulting
vertical deflection rr is found to be 1,3 nrnt. This value is lower than the limiting
value of 1,5 ~ n n t .A diagram based method like the one illustrated by Pharn Sr
Gianarakis (1980) may be used instead.

The fundamental frequency f , should be larger than 8 Hz. Since f, is

approximately equal to.f,, Equation (2) can be used:

The fundamental frequency is found Lo be higher than 8 Hz and the design

methods are thus applicable. The number of contributing modes is calculated
according to Equation (5):

The value of the impulse velocity response is calculated according to Equation

(4):

The limiting value is calculated according to Equation (7):

- 100(~*'"~')= 0,019 (I JsY(Ns)
'nlar,~irnir -

The floor is thus found to comply with the criteria for human-induced floor
vibration in EC5.

Machine-induced vibration
Slructural vibrations caused by installed machinery should be limited. The
human sensitivity to steady vibration from such sources is estimated according to
Griffin (1990). Accepti~blelevels of vibration may be taken from Table 2 and
Figure Sa in annex A to IS0 2631-2 (1989). Calculation of steady vibration
should be based on expected unfavourable co~nbinationsof pennanent load and
variable load as stated in clause 4.4.2 of EC5. The variation of ihe corresponding
effective mass will consequently be rather high. Since many wood-based

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornet1 Programme A1817

 -
sttuctural components have closely spaced eigenfrequencies, the frequency bands
where an eigenfrequet~cy must be expected to occur will be rather wide.
Vibration isolation or separate stn~cturilsupports for installed machinery may be -
the best solution in many cases.

Concluding summary -
Serviceability is a lnatler of quality and performance in relation to cost. The
limiting values corresponding to criteria for human-induced floor vibrations
presented here should be regarded as minimum requirements. It is essentiai to
stimulate active customer decisions about desired levels of' functional quality at
-
the design stage of a constn~ctionproject.

References -
Allen, D.E. (1990). Floor vibration from ilcrobics. Canadian Journ of Civil Eng, Vol 17, No. 5, pp.
77 1-779.

Blag (1991). Manual for PC progtatn fbr skalic and dynamic noor calculations, Aby-konsult,
-
Gothenburg.

Clu~i,Y.H. (1988). E\uluation of vibritional pcrfortnance of' liglit-weight wooden floors. Proc. ol'
the 1988 Int. Conl: on Timber Eng., Vol. I, pp. 707-715, Forcst Prod. Rcscarch Soc., Madison,
-
Wi.

Eriksson, P-E. (1994). Vibration of' low-frequency floors - Dynamic forces i~nd response -
precliction, Doclorat thcsis, Ctialn~crsUniversity 01' Tect~nology,Gotlicnburp.

Griffin, fv1.J. (1990). I-landbouk of Iiurnan vibration. Ac;rdcmic Prcss, London.

-
IS0 1631-2 (1989), Evaliiation of human cxposurc to wl~olc-body vibralion, Pall 2: Cuntinuous
and shock-induced vibration in buildings (1- 80 Hz). [SO, first edition, k b .

Ohlssun, S. (1983). Floor v i h r ~ t i o ~ond

~ s humiln discomfort. Doctoral thesis, Clialn~essUniversily -
of Technology, Gotl~enhurg.

Ohlsson, S. (1988). Springiness and human-indttccd floor vibrations. Documer~t012: 1988, Swedish
Council Ibr Building Research. Slocktlolrn. -
Phi~m.L,& Gianankis, C.M. (1980). toad distribution i r ~tirnbcr beam grid systcnrs. Techn. papcr,
2nd scricsl Div. of Building Rcscarcll; No. 36, Cornmonwceltlr Scientific and lndusttial Rcscarch
Org., Australin. -

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initinlivc under tile EU Coinett Progr;~mn~e

 Creep

STEP I ~ C I A
U 19
~ ~ Objective
I,.D, Andriomitantsoo To describe the basic concepts for understanding the phenomenon of creep in wood
CEBTP and timber.

Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
The lecture explairls the basic phenomenon of creep, before emphasising the effects
of the main parameters and their relative importance. Typical experimental curves
are presented as illustrat'ion.

Fundamental aspects
Creep represents the increase of the defo~~nation with time, under a constant applied
action. It is a particular aspect of ~nechmicalbehnviour of a material. Wood is
generally considered to be a viscoelastic material. As sliown in Figure 1, the creep
pad of the deformation begins after. the insrantaneous deforlnatio~l u,,,.
Experimentally, r r , , , is obtained by progressively applying the load within n well
defined time and under defined conditions, up lo a fixed value.

Fiig~oaI A schcriratic rcpr~.seitratio~~ of ~~iscucii~sric /.eltatjiotrrof (1 rrrcrtcric~l.14 i s flte

rlcfo,atnrio~i,F tire locrrl c11d r rlic rit~ie.Creep a; tirne tji,, is ilji,,- llbtSr R is [Ire
I%Col~el-y.

In this representation, creep exhibits two principal cl~aracteristics:

- a r.elatively rapid increase part at the beginning, as shown by the steep rtnd
variable slope of the curve. The slope of the creep part of the curve u(r) is
the creep rate.

- n range rtpproilchillg stabilisation wit11 a constant creep rale.

 On unloading, a progressive recovery, total or partial, to the initial state occurs.
Total recovery corresponds to pure viscoelasticity. Partial recovery means that
plastic darnage, even microscopic, has occured.
-
In a stabIe environment and for stresses less than about 35% of the instantaneous
strengll~of wood, the deformations under two different stresses have a constant
ratio, independent of time and equal to tile stress ratio. The co~npliance
(deformation/stress ratio) is independent of the stress. Viscoelastic behaviour is then
considered linear.

In the design ~nethods,all conditions, and particularly the load (or stress) are such
that this assumption of linearity is always appropriate.

Principal parameters of creep

The parameters influencing creep in wood are:

- load duration,
- i~ioisturecontent,
- temperature, and
- stress level.

Generally, interactions occur between all of them but only the combined effects of
load duration and moisture content are taken into account in the design rules.

Some brief comments on the temperature and the stress level effects are presented
for information.

Irz~z~errce
of load ciziruriolr
Under steady-state environmental conditions, creep deformation increases with load
duration. Its amplitude strongly depends on load level, which must be maintained
lower when the duration of load is extended in order to ensure an acceptable
deformation limit of the structure with time.

For instance, under a given load, creep of solid timber may increase from two to
four times for load duration ranging from six months to twenty years.

EC5: Par1 1 - 1 : 3.1.6 In the calculation rules, five load duration classes are defined. Tile value of creep,
for a given class, is talien as constant.

Itlfltietzce of nloistrrre content

Solid limber, glulam, and board materials are all, to different degrees, sensitive to
humidity, with a very ~narkedeffect on creep beyond certain limits. Creep increases
with tnoisture content. Generally, under the same conditions, it is considered that
creep of wood based panels is higher and, of these materials, plywood has the least
creep. Creep amplitudes, from once to twice the instantaneous deformation, are
current values for indoor use under permanent load. Thcy can rcach three to four
times the instantaneous deformation when the moisture content is close to 20%.

Research results on structural sized solid timber and glulam (Rouger et al., 1990)
show elsewhere that creep is practically equivalent for these two materials when the
average moisture content does not exceed the value of 20%. The experimentally
observed differences between the two materials are mainly caused by the differences
of the instantaneous deformation. These differences are directly related to the
modulus of elasticity andlor to the moisture content.

STEMEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative under illc EU Cornelt Prograrnmc

ECj: Pna 1-1: 3.1.5 The design rules clearly distinguish three service classes, corresponding to three
different ~noisturecontents of the wood.

An additional situation must be underlined for solid timber, whose moisture content,
near to the fibre saturation point at t11e time of' erection on site (25 to 30%), will
greatly decrease to reach the equilibriuln state in service. Where there is variable
moislure content under stress, there is an acceleration of creep and the final
deformation is even greater.

Experimental rcsults on solid timber and glulam, under protected external

conditions, show creep values ranging from once to twice the instantaneous
deformation, after more than one year under stresses of 2 N / I , T ~ I5T ~ ,h n r n h n d15
Nhlmt' (Andriamitantsoa, 1992).

Different curves, illustrating four moisture content effects on creep are preserzted in
Figure 2.

Figror 2 Rclc~tivrdefori~ratiatr-fimcrrrvrs for beattrs at difleret~~ ~ltoistrrrecotrditior~s.

A, grwe,~tirrtber k q ~ glrerr;
t B, green rini/~erdrying to 12% moisrlar catl~er?t;
C,tinrbo kcyt (11 12% trroislirre rorltcrrt; D, iirrrbo. irririai1.y ot 12% ~nroistr~re
cotrtetil crllo~vucito rtbsorh irtoisrltrc. r(d) is titw itt days.
All.~itreusli. 24% of creemge $hart tcrttr ,srre~rgrlr.T=25"C. (Artturtwrg atrd
Kftrgstorl, 1962).

I~flirertceqf terertlpei~crtr~l-e
The polymeric nature of' wood cornponerlts makes it also sensitive to temperature.
For practical purposes, the higher the temperature, the greater the anlpiitude of rile
creep. Further, variable telnperarures result in an acceleration of the creep
(Dinwoodie et al., 1991).

In fact, in normal use, when the telnperature does not exceed about 50 "C, its
influence on creep is negligible and masked by the effects of moisture content
variations, even when these variations are low.

Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that the notions of temperature and nloisture
content movelnents, in situ, have to be related to two parameters:

- the thickness of wooden elements added to that, for instance of encasements,

STEP/EUROFORTECl4 - :in iniiiiltivc under Ihc EU Comctt Programme A 1 9/3

 finishes, or similar means which decrease the exchanges with the
environment.

- the speed and the frequency of the ambient atmospheric variations.

Unsteady gradients occur ncross the section and one consequence is a reduced creep
amplitude co~nparedwith a coinplete humidification or drying, where a steady state
!vould be reached.

i~tjlilrrenceqf Stl'ESS
Provided that the rpplicd stress and the duration of the measurement are sufficient,
the creep curves for wood (deforn~ationversus tin~e),generally terminate, just as
with nlost collstn~ctionn~arerials,in an acceler;tted stage preceding ruphlre, which
can be explained by progressive damage of the wood. The higher the stress, the
higher the rate of creep and the shorter is the time before fracture (see Figure 3).

Figlrr-c 3 iitflrrcr~ceof stress (evel.~nrr c*rzcpa, < (3, < a, < G, < CTv
t tlrc tinle.
t i is 111rc/~fur.rtirrtiu~~,

In the design metliods, the stress levels are calculated so that creep remains within
the stable phase, where the rate of deFormation is low and stable during the lifetime
of the cor~sttuction.Experi~nentalresults, show11 in Figure 4, present this applzrent
stability, for stress levels less than 35% of the instantatleous resistance.

STEPfEUROFORTECI1 - an initiative ur~dcrihc EU Conicti Prograrumc

Influence of load duration anti moisture content according to EC5
The combined effect of load duration and moisture content is quantified by the
factor k,,+ in the general expression of the final deformation:

Writing,

it can be seen that the value of creep is equal to k,,p, itia,,.

In timber structures tllese effects must be calculated for eaclli component such as
joints or members and then sunlimed to obtain the total deformation (see e,g. STEP
lecture 39).

Mechanical joints
Similar behaviour. exists in mechnnical limber joints, because of the local
deformation of wood, in colnpression under the fastener. The magnitude of tlliis
creep may also be at least as important as that in wood. Maximum creep is obtained
when one of the jointed pieces of wood is loaded perpendicular to the grain.

Concluding summary
- Load duration, moisture content, particularly moisture content variations,
temperature and stress level influence the extent of creep deformation. Even
if rl~ereare complex interactions among these variables and even if these
inler.acLions change from one material to another, the combined effect of the
two first parameter-s can be considered as tile most significant in normal use
of timber and wood based panels.

- Creep deformation is calculaled by n~ultipIyingtlie factor- k,,ty by the initial

deformation. The factor k,,,,depends on the load duration and service classes
of the structure.

References
Andriamilantson 'L.D. (1992). klcchnnosorptivc bcl~aviourof struclural sizcd solid timber and glula~n
(in French). Proc. IUFRO, Vol 1 : 317-8, Nnncy, France.

Ar~nsirong,L.D. and Kingston. R.S.T. 11962). T l ~ ccffccl of riroisttlrc contcnt changes on lhc
dcfi)rnmtion of wood undcr strcss. Aus~rali:in Inrrn~:~l
of Applied Scicncc, 13(4):257-7-76.

Dinwooclie J.M., Iiiggins J.A., Pnxton i3.i-I. ilnd Robsori D.S. (1991). Qt~;lntifying,prcdic~ingand
understanding 111c rncchnnism of crccp in ba;~rdmnterinls. Proc. COST 508. Fnndamcnlnl sspccts on
crccp in wood, 99-118. Lund, Sweden.

hluct, Ch.. Guitard. D. nnd Morlicr, P. (1988). Lc bois cn slructurc. Son cornportemcnt diff6rC.
Annalcs dc I'ITBTP, N" 469 dbccmbre 1988. 33-83. Frnncc.

Rougcr F., 1-c Govic C., Crubilf P.,Sot~hrclR. and l'aquei J. (1990). Crccp lxlchitviour of lrencil
jvood. Proc. Inter. Timbcr Eng.. Vol 2 : 330-36, Tokyo. Japan.

STEPlEUROFOR'l'EC1.1 - ;111 initiative undcr the EU Comcit Progran~mc

 Volume and stress distribution effects

STEP lecture B 1 Ob,jectives

F. Rougcr To explain volume and stress distribution effects as a consequence of the weakest
Cenlrc Technique du Bois finlc theory for brittle materials. To describe the options of Eurocode 5 and CEN
et dc I'Amcublemcnt supporting standards for deriving characteristic values and evaluating design
stresses.

Prerequisites
A7 Solid timber - Strength classes
A8 Glued laminated timber - Production and strength classes
B2 Tension and compression
33 Bending Members
B4 Shear and torsion

Summary
The lecture begins with a presentation of the weakest link theory, for tension in
brittle materials, and explains volume effects. This theory is expanded to other
stress fields, with attention to bending, tension, shear and tension perpendicular to
grain. Research results are summarised. The options of EC5 for bending and tension
perpendicular to grain are explained. Some examples of calcularions are given.

Theory
The weakest link theory has been developed by Pierce (1926), T~lcker(1927) and
Weibull (1939) who studied brittle materials, including concrete. This theory says
that "when subjected to tension, a chain is as strong as its weakest Ijnk". To explain
this theory, consider a reference volume subjected to tension. The probability of
failure P, of this volume is defined by:
(1)
PJ = F(a) = Probability (Strengthso)

where F is the cumulative distribution of the strength, ns illustrated in Figure 1

Figilrc I Cmarflnfir1eprohabilitjl of failr~refor a refel-ettce rrohitite.

Now consider a series assembly of N reference volumes. This system survives if

eacl~of the members survives, i.e.:

STEP/EUROPORTECCI - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programme Bffl

where P, is the probability of survival of the system and P,s(i)is the probability of
survival of an individual element i. Roin Equation (2) and assirrrzirzg llrnt r<fel*ertce
iwlirrttes hcive the same probability of failiac nrtd tlrur tlic events of jiti1lo.e crw
-
irrcle~terlciertrin (ill refer-ence volintie.~,the probability of failure of' the system can
be evaluated:
Pf = 1- P , = 1 -[I -F(~)]N = 1- e N k ( ' - F ( " ) ) , 1 -e -N F ( o f (3)
-
Now, assume that the lower tail of F has been fitted by a power model, i.e.
F(a) = a ( a -a,)" (4) -
The probability of failure is then expressed by:

This inode1 is known as the 3 parameters Weibull rnodel. It is also well known as
the 2 parameters Weibull rnodel when a,,= 0. The paraarneters111 and k can be -
estitnaled from the mean of 0 (E('(o))and the coefficient of variation of a (CV(a}}
by solving the following equations:

where T(s) is the Gamma funclion.

-

The theory can be used to explain the size effect in tension. Consider a volume V,
which has a given probability of failure P,(a,) at level 0,and a volulne V? which
tias a given probability of failure P,(o,) at level 02. IF the characteristic strengths -
of these two volumes are compared, the following is obtained:

This equation is the basic expial~ationof size effect. In the case of stress fields
otller than lension, these equations are modifiecl to take into account the stress
variations:
o(~,YJ)= =
ww(x,y,z) (9)

where o is tlie rnaxin~urnstress in volume V

~tr(x,~;z)is a spatial distribution function (dir-nension-free).

Ttte Weibull model is then written:

-v.$P
P, (a) = 1-e

where I/:':
is defined by:

-
STENEUROFORTECI-I an ir~iliativeunclcr i l ~ eEll Corncit Progranlmc
For example, a si~nplysupported beam with rectangular cross-section and loaded
at the rnidpoir~tby a cot~centratedforce gives the following value for Vk:

This method of calculating the stress distribution effect has been used by Larsen
( 1 986) and Colling (1986) to evaluate the volume and stress distribution effects on
the shear strength nr~dtension perpendicular to grain for- curved, tapered and
calnbered beams. In Larsen's paper, the term "distribution factor" (ktIiJ is used,
where:

Tile kt, factor is used to cillculate the design tension pe~pendicularto grain strength
for different load configurations:

wherej",,,),,,, refers to a reference volurtle V,, under uniforin stress.

In Colling (1986), the following notation is used:

where h, and h, are called "fuI1ness parameters".

Research results
A vast amount of dnra has been published to explain size effect for srructural size
timber. These results are sornetirnes conflicting (Barrett and Lam, 1992; Madsen,
1992), and might be due to the following reasons:

- The sizc effect is jtlslified by a brittle failure theory, whicl~is applicable to

tension parallel and perpcndicuIar to grain (Barrett, 1974; Colling, 1986), and
to shear (Foschi and Barrett, 1976; Foschi, 1985; Colling, 1986). But in the
case of compression, and particularly in bending which is a mixed 111odeof
failure between tension and coll~pression,the use of this theory is debatable.
- The size effect is based on an equal probability of failure of the "reference
volumes". This assumption is nor dways verified for all the species,
especially for pines in which knots are not randomly located.
- For visunlly graded lumber, defect sizes increase with the sizc of the
member. This means that the material changes with the size, which can mask
a pure size effect. In particular, when size effect is investigated in a mixture
of grades, the effect of grading will have an influence on the size effect.
- When tests are conduc~edfor constant span to depth ratios in bending, the
size effect is a combination of n depth effect and a length effect (Barrett and
Fewell, 1990). These effects cannot be identified separately.

The following tables surn~narizethese I-esults.They show some discrepancies, which

have been explained by Bnrrett and Lam (1 992).

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an il~ilintiveundcr the EU Contell Programinc B 113

In Table 1, different factors for bending size effects are recorded:

- a length factor S, (for beams tested at constant depths) which is calculated

from:

a depth factor S, (for beams tested at constant spans) which is calculated

from:

- a "size factor" S, (for beams tested at constant span to depth ratio, i.e. Li =
k Iti), which, according to the combination of equations (16) and (17), is
calculated from:

Author 3,- 8, s,t

Barrett and Larsen, 1992 0,17 0,23 0,40
Madsen, 1992 0,20 0,o 0,20
Ehlbeck and Coiling, 1990 0,15 0,15 0,30

Table I Size fc~ctorsfor henditrg.

Additional results are reported for glulam (Ehlbeck and Colling, 1990), but are
based on a sample size which was much s~lialler.The size effects for glulam are
Iower than for solid timber, probably due to a lamination effect which increases the
strength.

In Table 3, load configuration factors for different bending cases are reported
according to Johnson (1953). These load configuration factors are derived according
to Equations (9), (10) and (1 I ) , and normalized to the reference four points bending
case.

Tension results are slightly different from those for bending. This might be due to
a pure brittle failure mechanism (see Table 2).

Author SL s,, sz,

Barrett and Larsen, 1 992 0,17 023 0,40
Madsen, 1992 0,20 0,lO 0,30

Table 2 Size f i i c t o r ~for rensioir.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initintivc undcr thc EU Comctt Progralnrne

 ToDle 3 Load cor~figrtmtiorr.fnctor-~o.

For compression, results of the different studies are in general agreement:

For tension perpendicular to grain and for shear, a volume factor (S,,)llas been
derived by Colling (1986), who also derived fond configuration factors for tension
perpendicular to grain

These I-esults are subject to different opinions but show m evidence of size effects
for imny stresses, together with a stress distribution effect which can be as
significant as the size effect itself. For code purposes, the approach has been
siinplified, especially in the case of stress distribution effects.

Size and stress distribution effecfs related to EC5

prEN 338: 1991 TIE first application of' size e f t c t s concerns the modification ol' characteristic
strengllts given in prEN338 "Structural Timber - Strength classes". Tile
chariicteristic strengths in bending and in tension are. given for a reference depth of
150 111rrr for solid limber nnci GO0 n!m for glulaln. For depths less tllan these
reference vnlues, Il~esestrengths are multiplied by a size factor, which has a fixed
upper limit. This means tllat size effect is only applied in one direction, as shown
in Figure 2.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-1- an irlilintivc undcr tllc EU Corncri Prognmmc

ECS: Par1 1-1: 3.2.2 For- solid tintlev .

where It is the beam depth in 111rrr.

ECECS: Part 1 - 1 : 3.3.2 For girtlrrltt :

k,, = min. lisr

Figrcr-e 2 ECS size *fcilutu?-jor-suliri tirlrber iir be~~ditlg

or- fension (solid litre), relaled to
~ltenly(rlalaslted line),

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.1.3 For tension perpendicular to grain and for shear, characteristic strengths are also
given for a reference volume. But, for simplicity, a size factor is only proposed for
tension perpendicular in glulam. The designer is then required to verify the
following equation:

where \I,, is a reference volume of 0,01 m3.

EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 5.2.4 For dorrble tapered, curved and pitched cambered beams, an additional requirement
is included to account of the stress distribution effects. The designer must verify the
following equation in the apex zone:

kc,,, is a stress distribution factor which has been fixed for special cases:
/Q, = i,4 for double tapered and curved beams
kJfi,= 1.7 for pitched cambered beams.

For simplicity, other aspects of size and stress distribution effects like compression
size elfect and load configuration factors Iiave not been taken into account.

STEPIEUROI'ORTECI1 - nn initiiltivc undcr thc EU Comctt Prograinmc

 Calculation examples
Exarnple 1: Bending Strength of a solid timber beam of cross-section 40x100 n7m,
strength class C24.
C24 strength class provides .A,,,, = 24 1V11nm'
k,, = (150 1 100)"82= 1,08 < 1,3
j;,,,,(modified) = 26 Nlrl?~n~

Example 2: Design of a double tapered beam. Verification of tensile sll-esses

perpendicular lo grain.

Span: L = 20 111 It = 1 nt h,,, = 1,20 1r1 b = 150 mrt~

prEN+1 194 : 1993 Glulatn Strength Class: GL 36
GL 36 strength class provides A,%,,= 0,45 Nlrnnl'
To calculate n design strength, take k,,,,, = 0,sancl y,, = I ,3
This implies = 0,277 ~ l ~ i m t '
EC5: Part 1- 1: 5.2.4 The volu~neof the apex zone is equal to: I/ = 0,2097 1 1 1 ~
Tlius (V,,l\I)"" = 0,544
For a double tapered beam, k,,,= 1,4

The maximum design stress perpendicular to the grain is equal to :

Concluding sunmary
- Size and stress clisiribution effects are explained by WeibuII theory.

- liesearch results show discrepancy, especially Tor depth effect in bending.

- EC5 provides n sin~plisticapproach to size and stress distribution effects to

aid the designer.

References
Bnrrclt, J.D.. and Fcwcll, A.R. (1090). Size Ctctors Tor the bending 2nd tcnsion s(rcng(h of structural
lumber. Proc, ol' the C1B W18 Mccling, Lisbon, Portug;il, Paper 23-10-3.

Barrctt. J.D.,and L:im. F. (1992). Size crfcc~sin visually grarlcd soltwoad structural lunibcr. Proc. of
(tie CIB WIS Mecling, Ahus. Swcdcn. Papcr 25-6-5.

R;~rrett,J.D. (1974). Efrect of size on tension pcrpendiculnr lo gririn strcngtfr 04' Douglas Fir. Wood
and Fibcr G(2): 126-143.

Colling, F. (1986). lnflucnce of' vofumc ilnd stress dis~ributionon thc sllcar strcngtll i~ndtcnsilc
strcnglh perpendiculiir 10 groin. Proc, ol'thc CIB W18 Mccting, Florence, Italy, Pi~pcr19-12-3.

STENEUROFORTECH - an initiative under Ihc EU Comctt Progmmnic B 117

Ehlbcck, J., and Colling. 1;. (1090). Rending strcngth of glula~nbeams, n dcsign proposal. Proc. ol'
the CIB W18 Meeting, Lisbon. Portugal, Paper 3-3-12-1.

Foschi, R.O.(1385). Longit~~dirinl sllcar dcsign of glued Inminclted hcarns. Proc. of tl~cCIB WI8
Meeting. Beit Orcn, israel, Paper i8-10-2.

Fosclti, R.O., and Barrett, J.D. (1975). Longitudinal shcar strcngtll o l Douglas Fir. Canadian Journal
or Civil Engincering, 3(2): 198-208.

Johnson, A.I. (1953). Strcngtlt, safety iirid cconolnical dimensions of structures. Swcdisii State
Committee for Building Rescarcll, Bulletin n. 22, p. 159.

Larsen, H.J. (1986). Eiirocode 5 and C1B structurnl Limbcr design code. PFOC.of the CIB W18
Meciing, Florence, Italy. Pnpcr 10- 102-2.

Madsen, B. (1902). Slruclurnl Bellnviour oCTimber. Timbcr Engineering Ltd., Nortl~Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.

Pierce, F.T. (1926). Tension tests for cotton yarn. Journal of the TcxLilc Institute, pp, T155-T368.

Tucker, 1. (1927). A study of conlprcssive strenglll dispersion of material with applicirtions. Journal
of the Franklin Iostitute, 304: 751-781.

Weibull, W. (1939). A statistical theory of the strength of rnatcrisls. Roy:il Swcdish lnsiitutc for
Engineering Research, Proceedings, N. 141, p:45.

Weibull, W, (1939). 'rhc phenomenon or rupture in solids. In: Royal Swedish Instiultc for Engineering
Research, Proceeding, N. 153, p:55.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative itndcr the EU Comctt Progri~mtllc

 Tension and com~ression

STEP I C C ~ U ~I32
C Objective
R. Edlund To describe the strength and stiffness of timber loaded in tension and com-
ChaImcrs University pression a1 different angles to the grain.
of Technology
Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
This lectrire deals with tension and compression actions when parallel to the
grain, perpendicular to the grain and at an angle to the grain and considers both
clear wood and structural timber. Each of the four basic cases: tension parallel
and perpendicular to the grain and compression parallel and perpendicular to the
grain are first discussed for clear wood. The influence of different parameters on
the strength and stiffness properties on it small-scale and at macroscopic level is
presented together with examples of failure modes.

The more general case of loading at an angle to the grain is described, noting
wood as an orthotropic material, with the application of different failure theories
such as I-Iankinson's formula. The final section considers tension and
compression actions in structural timber.

Introduction
Wood is an anisotropic material, i.e. it has different properties when loaded in
different directions, e.g, parallel or perpendicular to the grain. A tree trunk may
as an idealisation be regarded as being cylindrically orthotropic ( i s , orthogonally
anisotropic), Figure la. In Figure Ib the directions L, R and T denote the
longitudinal, radial and tangential directions, respectively. The properties in the
R- and T-directions are often treated together as one group, i.e. regarded as
properties perpenciicular to the grain.

Figicre I Prir~cipafases and prirrcipnl plaries in ,r~ood. For a st~tall rectarrgular

block taken out froill the orrfer part of tfie tree trrrltk fire rectalrgtrfar
coor(iiriafesystetn L,R,T, (b), car! be deJtrad.

The following sections deal primarily with both the strength and the stiffness
properties of wood under s h o ~ term
i loading. Unless otherwise stated the values

STEPIEUROFORTECI-1 - nn i~litiativcunclcr the EU Comctt Prograrnmc BY1

 are selected for n typical European softwood with a moisture content of 10 to
15%. -
Structural timber, i.e. ~imberwith normal defects prepared in structural sizes Sor
structural purposes, is inhomogeneous. There is n large variation in the raw
illaterial propeflies (density, strength, rnodulus of elasticity etc.), i.e, over the -
cross section of a log and along the log. Further, there is also a variation in tile
properties between different trees of the same species ilnd, of' course, between
different species. Also within one annual ring tlie properties vary, namely
belween eaclywood and latewood. These variations ;Ire, however, not furti~er
-
discussed in this lecture.

First, the properties of clear* wood (small specimens) will be treated, then sawn
-
timber in structural sizes with defects.

Clear wood in tension and compression 9

Figure 2 Str.c.ss-sf~'rritt
rtrrves for clear wooil lactded parnuel to the S I ~ ~ I(.rolid
I iirlc)
attd perpenrlir~rlc~rro the grcrin (cla.sAc~llirte) crt a cairs~ctttrstritin mtc.
m i c a [ \allresfor sofi,tmooci:J,, = SO to /OO N / V I I.[,,,
~ I= ~ ,10 to 50 N / I ~ I I ~ ,
E,, = 11000 to 15000 ~ h ~ r t t t ? .

Tctlsion pnrcrllel ro file grclirt

When testing sniall wood specimens, selected to be as homogeneous as possible,
and loaded parallel to the grairi, a stress-strain diagram of the type sliown in
Figure 2 (fiiliy drawn curves) is obtained.

It sl~ouldbe noted that the tensile strength .I;,,, i s larger than the compressive
strength A;,,. The stress-strain curve in tension is linear almost up to failure and
the fracture 117ode is sudden and brittle. In compression a more ductile failure is
obtained.

Teltsiort pet-peizdicirlnl. to tlze grclirt

The lowest strength for wood is in tension perpendicular to the grain .f;:x,. It is
roughly of the order of magnitude of I to 2 ~/tturr?,but there is an important
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.1.3 dependence on the stressed voiume, see Table 1 and STEP lecture E l . The
volume effect for the other strength properties is less pronounced. The tensile
strength .I;,, is considerably reduced by defects like fibre disturbances and initial
cracks, especially in the earlywood.

STEP/EUROFORTECII- ;in initiative urlclcr tllc EU Comctt Programme

Also the niodulus of elasticity is tnucli lower perpendicular to tile grain, E9,, =
400 to 500 Nh~rttr" than parallel to the grain.

In the design of timber slructures tensiIe stresses perpendicular to the grain

should be avoided or kept as low as possible. It is iniportant to identify areas of
a structure, where tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain occur and to male
design improvements to reduce their magnitude. Exa~nplesare ~iiemberslike
curved beams and fraine corners in glula~astructures, notched beams at the
support or beams with holes, certain connections, see STEP lectures B5 and C2.

Coi~tpt-cssionpal-ciflel to the groin

The compression test specimens have Lo be short enough to avoid overall
(column) buckling. As can be seen from the curve in Figure 2, the fibres will
s~~ccessivelyyield unlil a maximum load is reached. The failure mode is by
buckling of n row of fibres, see Figure 3. It is a kind of local instability due to
shear along a sloping plane.

(0) fb)
Figrrt-e 3 fnilrire nt A,, Br~cklitrg of jiblzts. (Hoflt?teycr, 1990). LW
Cot?~prz..ssio~i
Ia~eiclood,EU' earlj~~r~ood,
il R at11trial rings, CC cot~iprrs~siott
crc~u.ses.

The modulus of elasticity is E,.,, = 11000 to 15000 Nhrn~' as in tension, but the
stress-strain-curve levels off earlier, so the limit of proportionality is also of
interest.

Con~pressionperl3etldiclclnt- to tlze grain

It1 the case where the whole specin~enis loaded (case ( ( I ) in Figure 4), the fibres
are just squeezed together like a bundle of tubes until a kind of squash load is
reached, where the tangent modulus beconles very low. At the maximum load
the strairi is very large.

W1.1en just a portion of the upper wood surface is loaded, the stiffness is higher
and the change in stiffness will occur aL a higher stress than for case (a), and
this stiffness change will be less pronounced than for case ( a )and corresponds to
a bend in the stress-strain-curve, see Figure 4. The reason for this is that the
concentrated load will be carried over by the fibres to the neighbouring unloaded
parts. In case (b) these unloaded parts are too short so ;I maximum load is
reached just above tlie bend.

For cases (c), ((1). and ( e ) tlie loading lest can be continued to a higher strain
than that in Figure 4 without any pronounced failure. However, tlie deformations
will be considerable. Therefore, it is practical to limit tile strains to a certain
value, say I%, and to use tlie corresponding stress as a kind of strength (or
"proof stress") value. In this case A,,,, = 2 to 4 ~h1ttn'. However, the values will

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - MI initiotivc undcr ihc EU Con~cttProgramme B2/3

atso depend on the orientation of the annual rings in the cross sections of the
loaded bar, see Figure 5.
-

Applied stress pcrporclilicrrlar to [Ire graiti IT. rfer~icnlcnt~rptr,s.sirtesrrairr

.frottl tesls or1 tirtlbet. 15 s 15 crti'. Srreriso~~
(1938).

--.
-
p&

4 0,8 T+,,
--
-2.E:
$ --
\
2
-3
0

- -1-
', -
\

.....

-
Figrrre 5 Woad ill cbotrij)ressionpcrpendicttlar in the groitr. Moti~tl~rs q/' elcisficity mrd -
srrrss lirrrir. Here i;, = /it,,,, is 11re liniif of propat.tionolitj: Vulrres fi.orti
Siirrles cltld Liil-i (1952) nricl G ~ b e (1940).
r
-
Lociding ot an ntrgle to tile gr~zin
Let a be the angle between the load direction and the grain direction.
Hankinson (1921) proposed the following equation for the failure stress .f;.<,
in --.
compression.

which gives good agreetnent with test results. For the strength under te~lsiIeload
at an angle to ltle grain an analogous expression can be used, i.e. with .A. being
9

replaced by .f;, coinpnrc Figure 6a and Gb.

-
STBP1EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative uridcr ~ h cEU Cornctt Progr;lmnie
It is seen in Figu~e6, that for small angles a the strength is very sensitive to
changes in a, i.e. srnall deviations in slope of grain will cause a significant
strength ~.eduction,especially for tensile load. On the other hand, for a = 90".
i.e. near j;,,, and f;:,,, there is praciically no cllange in tensile and co~npressive
strength when the angle is changed by 10 to 12 degrees. It may be sl~own
(Edlund, 1982) that, for the case of a symmetric orlhotropic material, Equation
( I ) is (1 real linear approxinlaiion Lo the more general Tsai-Wu failure criterion
for orthotropic materials.

Figtrrr 6 hilitre drtr to load nr otr arlgie to tire grniri. (CL) t,ctl.sio~z;(bj corrtpres+siorz.
Tlrc jid!). drnlrltr crtt-ves are nccorciing ro Hatlkirrson, Eqiialiotr ( I ) ; rile
daslzd atn1e.s fire ~vlrefr rlre .fo'nil~ita of otie ptrre srrc?ssA:,, ./;,,,or
c~ot~dirion
f,,is nrmiticd.

For uniaxial lension or co~npressionwith an angle a to lfte 1-axis (the natural

axes of ortl~orropic materials are I and 2), Figure Gc, 6d, ihe equilibrium
equations are:
(T, = CT,COS'~
o2 - 0;, s i n k
f,z -- sina cosa
CT,,

For coinparison, the limit curves for the 1111-eeseparate failure conditions o, 5
.frsl, CT. and zlZ<.I;, are also plotted in Figure 6b (dashed curves).
-<j;.I..m

Structural timber under tension and compression

Gerterczl
For timber in strucrural sizes used in load-carrying structures the effect of
different inherent defects such as knots and slope of grain must be considered. A
knot of "ordinary" size reduces the effective cross-section of a board and is
associated with local fibre disturbances. This ofien results in load eccentricities
and high local stresses. Further, where the fibres change direction around a knot
in a tiniaxially loaded board slresses perpendicular to the grain will be induced.
This is especially imporrant l'or titi-iber loaded in retlsion parallel lo the grain.

Although the tensile strength for cleat. wood loaded pari~llelto the grain is mucli
Iligher ihan in compression, the reverse is true for sti-uct~~ral Limber. This is

STEP/EUROFORTBCI.I - an iniliotivc t~ndcrllic EU Comelt Progrilmmc B2/5

 partly due to the sensitivity to slope of grain mentioned above in colinection
with Figure 6, partly to the brittle type of failure and the size effect (see STEP
lecture B l ) , which comprises all other types of defect as well. -
With regard to important inl'luences of load duration (creep) and ~noistilresee
STEP lectures A4 and A19. -
Tensioil
The inhornogeneities and other deviations from an ideal orfhot~~opicmaterial,
which arc typical for structural timber, are often called defects. As just
mentioned, these defects will cause a fairly large strength reduction in tension
parallel to the grain. For nordic softwood (spruce, fir) typical average values are
in the range of J;,, = 10 to 35 N/tnn12. In several investigations the luean off;,,
was fbund to decrease proportionally with the increase in size of the largest knot
diameter. However, the scatter is large and the correlation poor. The values
obtained also depend on t!ie test method, since failure [nay be induced by the
stress concentrations at the end grip devices.

EC5: Part 1-1: 3 2 . 2 In EC5 the ~Ilaracteristicstrength values of solid timber are related to a width in
tension parallel to the grain of I50 ttzm and to a volume of 45 x I80 x 70 rtznz"
-
5,67 . 10.'' t ~ ? f o r the
. tensile strength perpendici~larto the grain. For- widrlls in
tension of solid timber less 1ha1.r 150 nzni the characteristic villues !nay be -
increased by a factor k,, which is the smallest of (150//1)",' and 1,3.

For plulc~$rlthe reference width is 600 IIIIII and, a~~alogously,

for widths s111aller
EC5: Part 1-1: 3.3.2
than 600 r~rlna factor I<,, should be applied wiiicli is given as tlie s~nallestof
-
(GOO/h)"-?and 1 , I 5.

Tests by Johansson (1976) on 296 spruce (Picen cii~ics)laminations 33,3 x 155 -

irnn stlow that there is also poor correlation, jrl = 0,5 to 0,6, between the
tensile strength on one hand and density and ring width on the other. But, if
knot data and density are cotnbined into one parameter a considerably better
prediction of the tensile strength may be actiicved (coefficient of correfatioit r =
-
O,SO). The modulus of elitsticity measured near the location of failure (called
ESF) is tlie single parameter, measured by Johansson (1976), that gives the best
correlation with the tensile strength ( r = 0,86). Some improvernent was obtained
-
if the parameters ESF and knot data were combined (rA = U,S9). Similar
conclusious are drawn in an investigatiori by Glos (1982).
-
For long boards under uniaxial lension due consideration should be laken both of
the size effect (Iengtlt effect) and of the lengthwise variation of the tensile
strength, see, for example Barrett (1974) and Larn and Varoglu (1991). -

For tension perpendicular to the grain the size effect is especially iinportant, see
Table I . -

STEMEUROFORTECI.1 - an initialivc under the EU Cornc~tPro_~r:~rnrnc

 Conipl-c.ssio12
T l ~ estrength in compression par-nllcl to the grain will be somewhat reduced by
the growth defects to f;.,, = 25 to 40 iV/rrnlr2. Vie reduction in strength depends
on the testing method. If the specimen is cotnpressed between two stiFf end
plates, which are restrained from rotation, a local failure of some fibres will lead
to stress redistribution over the rest of the cross section. This will result in a
higl~eraverage stress than if the specinien had been loaded via n hinged end-
plate.

The influence of growth defects on the strength perpendicular to t l ~ cgrain is

I.
s~nal

Concc.i7iratecl loarli~tgpet-pendiculm to [he grni17

As mentioned above and demonstrated in Figure 4 the stress o,, a1 the bend of
tlie stress-strain curve is much higher when the distribution length of o
(co~~~pressive) load becotnes smaller, provided that there is enough unloaded
length n from the load to the end of the loaded mernbel-, see Fig~u-e7.

0 15 100 2tH) I I I I I I
Figwe 7 Conipressive "yield" stirsses for pcrtclr loadirirlg wiflr ietgtlr I or1 n ttxwdx?r-
nippo~ierlalnrrg its .vi~lioleler~gth(botiorrr Ike) cotlrpared 1vit11str-engtlr
llafites fizr cI$et-er~t strctzgrh cirrsses occortlirig to EC5 (cz 2 100 nz~ir).
k"lrrcs fro111Barttrrnnrt attd Larrg f 1927) arrd Bnckscll (1966).

In stri~cturaicodes tlris effect is usually taken into account by tlie coefficient k,.jm
in a condition of the type
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 5.1.5 GV!II~,~,5 kt.!~o .L>>oJ, (5)

In EC5 there will be no increase it1 bearing strength for I 2 150 ntnl, see Figure
7 . If n 2 I00 tam a linear increase may be assunxed for the coefficient kc,,,,, in the
interval 15 5 I I150 r l i r t ~ up to a value A,:,,, = 1,S for i I 15 n ~ a t For
. smaller
edge distances, i.e. a c I00 mni, the increase will be smaller, see Table 2.

Tcrble 2 \f(rlnes of kt:,, irr Eqircifinn (5) gil~c~trIJJ EC5 ,for rlte case si~oir~rri l l
Figure 7.
References
Backsell, G. (1966). Expcrirncnt;~l investigations into deformations resulting from strcsscs
pcrpcndiculnr to grain in Swcdish whitewood arld rcdwood in rcspcct of thc dimensioning of
concrctc forn~work.Stetcns rid fijr hyggnndsforskning. Rapport 12: 1966, Stockholm. Swcdcri.

Barrctt, J.D. (1974). El'l'cct of size on tcnsion pcrpcndicular-to-grain strength ol' Douglas-fir. Wood
and fibcr G(2): 126-143.

Baumann, R. and Lang, (1927). Das tlolz als UaustoSf. Munchcn, Ccrmany.

13odig. I. and Jaync, B. (1981). Mcch:inics of Wood nnd Wood Compositcs. Van Nostr;md, Ncw
York, N.Y.. USA.

Edlund, B. (1982). Bruchhypothcscn fiir orthotropcs Mntcrial. In: Ingcnieurholzbau in Forschung

~indPraxis. (Bundcsvcring K. MBl~icr).Karisruhc, Gcrmay. p. 17-21.

ather, E. (1940). Druckvcrsuchc qucr zur Fascr an Nadcl- ur~dLaubh6I'rcrn, Holz als Roh- und
Wcrkstoff 3: 222-226.

Glos, P. (1982). Fcstigkcitsvcrhaltcn \!on Urcttscliicl~tliolz hci Zughca~rspruchurrg unri scinc

Abhlngigkcit von Wcrkstoff- und Einwirkungskcnngrijsscn. Bcrichtc zur Zuvcrl~ssigkcitstl~corie
dcr Bouwcrkc, 1163, Tcchn. Univ. Miinchen, Gcrmany.

Hankinson, R.L. (1921). lnvcstig~~tion of crtislling strcngth of sprucc varying anglcs of grain.
Air Scrvicc Inform. Circular III, No. 259. US Air Scrvicc. Washington DC, USA.

I-lofincyer, P. (1990). Failure of wood as influcnccd by rnoisturc and duration of load. Ph.D.
Thesis, S\r\\c Univ. of Ncw York. Syracuse. N.Y., USA. Scction 4.2.1.

Johonsson, C-J, (1976). Dmgl~AllSastl~cthos lirntriilamcllcr. (Tcnsilc strcngth of laminations for

glu1;im. In Swcdisl~), Chalmcrs Tckniskn I-logskola. St& och triibyggl~nd, Int.slir. S76:18.
GBtchorg, Swcdcn.

Kollmnnn, F, and CBtf, A. (1968). Principles of Wood Scicncc ;~ndTechnology. f)arl 1. Solid
Wood. Springcr-Vcrlag, Bcrlin, Gcrmany.

Lam. F. and Varoglu, E. (1991). V;iriatian of tcnsilc strcngth along the length of lumhcr. Part 1.
Expcrimcntnl. Wood Sci. Tcchnol. 25(5): 35 1-359.

Larscn. 14. and Ribcrhalt. H. (1981). Strength of glued lamit~atcdbcams. Part 4. Tensilc strcngth
perpcndiculnr to grain. Aiilhorg Univcrsitctsccntcr. Inst. for Bygningstcknik. Rcport 81 10, Aalborg,
Dcnmark.

Siimcs, F. and Liiri, 0.(1952). lnvcstigatioris of tlic strcngtti properties ol' wood I. Tcsts on small
clcar spccimcns ol' Finnish Pinc (Pit~~csSy1~~c.sfr'i.s).(In Finnish). Valtion Tcknillincn
Tutkimuslailos, Ticdotus 103, I-lclsinki, Finland.

Sucnson, E. (1938). Zuliissigcr Druck auf Querholz. Hoiz als Roh- und Wcrksrolf l(6): 213-216.

STEP/EUROFOR'TECi-1- initiatiuc under the EU Comctt Progammc

 Bending

STEP lecture B3 Objectives

- B.S. Choo
University of Nottinghnm
To develop an understanding of the behaviour of tiinber beams, including lateral
torsional buckling and to illustrate the procedures for the design of simple beams
to EC5 by way of examples.

Summary
This lecture begins with an introduction to the bel~aviourand design of simple,
solid timber or glularn beams in accordance with the requirements of EC5. It goes
on to describe the factors whicl~influence the lateral torsional bucklinglinstability
behaviour of beams. The principles described are illustrated by a design example.

Introduction
Beams, in general, are horizontal structural elements whicli span at least two
supports and transmit loads principally by bending action. The bending moments
on the beam are due to loads which act in the plane of bending of the beam. The
standard design procedure for timber beams, where the direction of grain in the
wood is parallel lo the span, is to ensure tllal:

- the design bending strength is not reached or exceeded and that the bending
stresses do not cause lateral torsional bucl<ling of' the beam leading to a
premature instability lailure
- the design shear strength, (see STEP lecture B4), is not reached or exceeded
- the design compression strength perpendicular to Lhe grain (bearing strength)
is not reached or exceeded at supports and at concentrated load points
- the beam's deflection ineets the serviceability deflection criteria (see STEP
lecture A I 7)
- vibration (see STEP lecture A18) would not be a problem.

This lecture is concerned primarily with sirnple beams, i.e, beains without notches,
tapers or curves. The effects of notches in beams and strength reduction in curved
and tapered glularn beams are covered in STEP lectures B5 and B8, respectively.
In so far as bending stresses are concerned, it is necessary to check tirat there is
adequate capacity at the critical cross section (whicli may e.g. be rectangular, T or
L shaped) which for a simple beam will be at the point of rnaximum bending
moment in the beam. EC5 also requires that the influence of initial curvature,
eccentricities and induced deflections are taken into account.

Simple beams
If t;lte dimensions and support conditions of the beam are adequate to prevent
instability i.e. deflections occur only in the loading plane, then it can be shown
according to the theory of eiasticity that the bending stresses in the beam are given
by

where n/l is the bending moment acting on the beam,

STEP/EUROliORTEClf - an initintive undcr the EU Comett Propr;lmmc I3311

 I is the second moment of area of the beam cross-section,
is a distance from the neutral axis, and
o is the stress at distance y.

In general, this equation may be used to describe tlie behaviour of beams if

- the section is bent only about its minor*principal axis or,

- when bent about its major principal axis, where closely spaced, discrete
bracing is provided so that the slenderness is low.
-
Since EC5 allows the design of timber structures to be carried out on the assumption
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 3.1.4

ECS:Pnrt 1 1: 2.2.3.7
that they behave elastically, the above expression [nay be used lor
design purposes. The design bending strength , x,,,,,,
of a beam is defined as
-

wliele ,
,
is the characteristic bending strer~gth,
is tlie partial safety factor for inaterial properties, and
-
k,,,,,,, is a ~nodificationfactor which takes into account the influence
of load duration, service class arid material type.
-
In addition to the k,,, factor, it is necessary to consider other factors which affect
beam strength. For example, the influence ot'bearu size on ihe bending strength is
taken account of by the size factor k,(see STEP lecture B I ) and, if the beam is part -
of's load sharing system, its bending strength may be increased by the Factor k,, (see
STEP lecture B 16).

Combined stresses
The most common use of a beam is to resist loads by bending about its major
principal axis. I-Towever, tlie introduction of forces, which are not in the plane of
bending, on the bean1 results in bi-axial bending ( i t . bending about both the rnajor
and rninor principal axes). Additionally, tile introduction of axial loads in tension
or cotnpression results in a further combined stress effect. For beams which are
subjected to bi-axial bending, the following conditions bot11 need to be satisfied:

JnrJ,d Jm,z,d
where the symbols are defined as follows:

om,.ZI is the bending stress due to ~noritentsabout tlie y axis,

.L8.,.‘1 is the bending strength due to moments about the y axis,
(3,r,.L11 is the bending stress due to moments about the z axis,
fnl,;,, is the bending strengtli due to moments about the z axis, and
km is the combined bending strength Factor, which allows for the effects
of biaxial hending stresses and the fact that the load-carrying capacity
of the beam is not exhausted just because the stresses (obtained from
tile theory of elasticity) have reached the respective bending strengths
at orie corner of the beam's cross-section.
Similar equalions are given in EC5 for combined bending with axial tension or
compression. For a more detailed description of the design of columns i.e. structural
elements subjected to both bending and axial compression see STEP lecture BG.

Beam instability
When designing bearns, tlic prime concern is to provide adequate load carrying
capacity and stiffness against bending about its major principal axis, usually in the
verlical plane. This leads to a cross-sectional shape in which the stiffness in the
vertical plane is often much greater than that in the horizontal plane. IL is shown in
STEP lecture B6 on columns that whenever a slender structural element is loaded
in its stiff plane (axially in the case of the column) there is a tendency for it to fail
by buckling in a more flexible plane (by deflecting sideways in the case of the
cotumn). Figure I illustrates the response of a slender simply supported beam,
subjected to bending moments in the vertical plane; the pl~eno~nenon is terrned
lateral-torsional buckling as it involves both lateral deflection and twisting. This
type of instability is sir~iilarto the si~nplerflexural buckling of axially loaded
colurnns in that loading the bean1 in its stiffer vertical plane has induced a failure
by buckling in a less stiff direction.

The bending lnornent 31 which such instability takes place is tenned the critical
moment. The fornlulae for critical moments for beams are given in standard text
boolcs such as that by Ti~nosiienkoand &re (1961). It is usually assumed that the
beam inaterial has ideal elastic isotropic properties. Nevertlteless, it was shown by
Hooley and Madsen (1964) that tiie theory is also applicable to timber beams where
tile material is not isotropic.

The critical lnornent For the bent11 shown in Figure I which is sinipty srrpported at
both ends in both the )I and z axes, and is torsionally restmined about the x axis at
the supports is given by

where I,, and 1, are thc second moments of area about the respective axes,
E is [lie ~nodulusof elasticity of the material,
G is tiie shear modulus of the material,
I,,,, is the torsional second rnoment of arca for the beam cross-section,
and
I, is the unrestrained length.

For a beam OF rectangular cross-section b s / I , the correspo~~ding

simplified CI-iticd
bending stress is given by

It should be noted that the right hand square root tenn varies from 0,94 to 1.05 for
l~/'ll ratios of O,I and 0,7, respectively, which represent the realistic range of
rAectanguIartimber beams. It is therefore conservative to replace the square root with
0,94.
Figure I Latoal-fur.sior~uiI~ccklirigo f a sitt111iy.sup~~otled becrni sllnlvitrg cIi.\-~~lncettteti~ -
at cerrtre of beam ~rrlc/crr t t ~ i f o l mrnorticnr. ([I) sinlply s~rpparfedbeatrr, (I))
btrcklecl bemr~.

For a liomogeneo~~s material there is only one value for E and G. In wood, the
-
values of E and G depend on the angle between the direction of stress and the
grain. In general, tlie E value (parallel to the grain) should be used and G is
conservatively taken as EIl6. This results in a critical stress of
-

Similar expressions for the critical stress niay be obtained for a variety of load
cases, load positions and support conditions. The expression Sor Ad,,, given in
Equation (5) is for the basic case wlierc a simply supported beam is subjected to -
constant in-planc moments. If the beam is subjected to a central load acting at the
level of the centroidal axis of the beam, a similar expression is obtained in which
thc terrn n is replaced by a constant 424. The ratio of 7d4,24 is often referred to -
as the "equivalent uniform moment or m factor" and is a measure of the severity
of a particular pattern of moments relative to the basic case. The values of' the In
factor for a number of load cases are given in Table I . In general, lateral stability
improves as the molnent pattern becomes less uniform. -

-
The location of the load is important loads localed at the top of a slender bea13-r
have a destabilising effect on its behaviour whilsr loads located at the bottom of a -
beam have il stabilising effect. Clearly, support conditions are also i~nportant,in that
lateral support conditions which inhibit tlie developn~entOF buckling deformations,
i.e. against twisting of tlle bean? at the supports in both the s and y axes, will -
improve a beam's lateral slability. The irnprovernent in stability due to si~pport
conditions is generally reflected i n smaller values of effective lengths. Lateral
torsional buckling of beams is a cotnplex subject outside the scope of this lecture
and reference should be made to standard textbooks such as Timoshenko and Gere
(1961).

Summarising the above details the main factoras which influence lateral stability
include:

- the ~tnbracedspan of' tile compressive portion of the beam (i.e. the distance
between points at which lateral deflection is prevented,
- tlie beam's lateral bending stiffness (El7),
..
- the beam's torsional stiffness (GI1,,.), and
- the restraints at the beam ends.

STBP/EUROFORTECI-I- an initiative undcr [hc EU Colnctt Progrannie

Tobit I Eqrrivc~lct~t factors (rake11f i t 1 1 Kirl~yc~tidNethercot, 1979)
rttiifon~it~~oliletlt

The load carrying capacily of a beam which is liable to lateral-torsional instabiIity

nlay be improved by the provision of' bracing members. The milin requirenients are
that the bracing members are sufficiently stiff to fiold tile beam effectively against
lateral ~novementand that they are sufficiently strong La witl~stand the forces
transmitted by the beam (see STEP lectures B15 and R7).

EC5 requires thar a chcck is cat-ried out for the instability condition and timi t11e
bending capacity is rnodif?ed by the factor K,.,, sucli that
' Lr,z,d
' ~ I I J . ~kcri~ (8)

k,,,, = 1 (for. A 2 0,751

and ~vl~el-e
the relative slenderness ratio h , . , , , for- bending is given by:
 The critical bending stress q,,,,for Equation (12) is obtained using the 5-percentile
stiffness value E,+,. Variation of k,,,, with A,,,,,,, is shown in Figure 2. The similarity -
to the buckling strength-slendec~iessratio curves for columns as described in STEP
lecture BG should be noted.

0 I 2 3 4 5
hr,l. ,I, -
Figitre 2 \fctriatiorr qf kc,, (or k,,,,,) ivith reicttive .sle~rder~ievs
ratio A,,.,.
Design example -
A simply supported rectangular solid timber floor beam of cross section 50 x 200
r l t t ~ t ,with a clear unsuppol-led span of 3500 rrrtll is required Lo support a design
medium-term load of 2 k N / r ~uniformly distributed, in service class I conditions.
Check that the bending strength of the beam satisfies the requirements of EC5.
-

prEN 338: 199 1 Assume the following characteristic values for bending strength and rnodtil~~s
of
elasticity taken from prEN 338 "Structural tin~ber- Strength classest'. -

Mociijicarion jbctors
-
For service class I (medium-term), k,,,,,,=0,8. If the floor beam may be assumed
to be laterally restrained throughout the length of its compression edge (e.g. by
floor boards) with torsional restraints at its supports (e.g. by suitable hangers) then -
k,,, = 1,O. Since the floor beams do not span inore than 6m, and assuming the
attached declcirig is continuous over at least two spans and the joints are staggered,
they may be treated as a load-sharing system, hence k,., nmay be taken as 1,1
Finally, since the beam depth is greater than 150 mm, the size factor, k,, is 1.0.

EC5: Pnrt 1 - 1 : 2.2.3.2 Hence, the design value of the bending strength is:

The design bending stress is:

STENEUROFOR'I'ECtl - ;in initiative utidcr thc EU Comctt Programnlc

EC5: ]'art 1-1: 2.3.2.Ib of EC5 as the calculated bending
Thus tlie beam satisfies the bending req~iire~nents
stress is less than the corresponding design value. It would also be necessary io
check tl~atthe beam's shear stress and bearing stresses at the supports, as well as
the mid-span deflection, are witl.~inEC5 limits.

-
ECS: Par1 1 1: 7.2 It should be noted that EC5 liniits the deviation from straightness measured mid-
way between supports to 11300 and 11500 of the length of structural tinlber and
glued laminated beams and columns, respectively. Deviations of cross-sections from
target sizes we limited by tolerance class I in prEN 336 for struclural timber and
by prEN 390 for glued Iaininaled timber.

If tlle floor boards cannot be relied upon to provide tlte necessary lateral restraints
to the colnpression region of the beam, the bending design strength would have to
be cliecked for possible reduction due to lateral instability.

Fro111Equation (7), o,,,.,., is

A I I ~from Table I , the unifoim ttloment factor for a unifor~nly loaded silnply
supported beam is 0,88. Thus using Equation ( 1 2), the relative slenderness ratio is

And frorn Figure 2, or using Equation (10) the instability factor kc,, is 0,52. Thus
fn,,'! = kcrir 10,s = 0,82 * 10,8 = 8,86 ~ l l n ~ t z ' .
Since the actual bending stress is 9,2 ~/l,rnr', the beam would have to be enlarged
or lateral restraints would Ilave to be provided.

Concluding summary
- The "siinpIe" beam, i.e. that which deflects only in the plane of bending,
represents die great majority of bealns which the engineer has to design.

- Tile rnain design requirement for simple beams is to ensure that the values
of the design strengths exceed the applied stress levels as obtained using the
elastic theory and that the actual deflections are wilhin EC5 limits.

- Tlte design strength values are obtained by applying various modification nnd
partial safety factors on tlie appropriate characteristic strengths.

References
Tinloshcnko, S. and Gere, J.M. (1961). Theory or' Elas~icStnhility, McGr;~w-MillBook Co. Inc. New
York, NY., 2nd Edition.

Noolcy, R.P., ;ind Madscn, 8. (1964). kltcral Stability or' Clue Ltminntcd Bmms. Journal of' thc
Slrucluri~lDivision. ASCE, ST3: 201 - 218.

Kirby, P.A. and Netllercot, D.A. (1979). Design for Structural Stnhility, Constrado Monogr;ipi~s.
Crosby Lockwood Stoplcs. Gran:idn Pubtisi~ing.

-
STEP/EUROFORTECl-I nn inirintive under Lllc EU Comcll Progrnmmc
 Shear and torsion

STEP lecture B4 Objectives

P. Aunc To explain the two pheno~nenashear and torsion on b e a m with rectangular or
Uaiversity ol'T~.ondtlcim circular cross-sections. To present the design methods given in EC5 and the
governing conditions.

Summary
The presence of vertical and horizontal shear in a horizontal beam subjected to
verticaI loading is stated. The shear stress distribution over the cross-section is
presented and also the governing shear strength (shear paralIeI to the grain).

An introduction to torsional stresses caused by torsional loading is given. Tile

governing criteria and the EC5 design method are presented. Shear stresses and
torsional stresses may well occur si~nultaneously.The combined action which is
nor covered in the EC5 is, nevertheless, briefly commented upon.

Design methods are illustrated by examples.

Introduction
When bending is produced by transverse loading, shear stresses will be present
according to the theory of elasticity. Shear stresses transverse to the beam axis
will always be accompanied by equal shear stresses parallel to the beatn axis.

In glued thin-webbed I-beams and box beams there will be shear stresses in the
web (panel shear) and in the contact surface between the web and the flanges
(planar shear). The planar shear strength is normally less than the panel shear
strength, but either one may be critical and have to be considered. Similar
considerations have to be made in the case of glued thin-flanged beams. Shear
also has an effect on the bucicling of the web or panel (see STEP lecture B9).

For timber (and glulam) the shear strength parallel to the grain is considerabiy
lower than the shear strength across the grain (cutting off the fibres), thus the
fornler is critical and has to be considered in the design of solid timber and
glularn beams.

Research has indicated that the shear strength depends on the stressed volu~ne
(Barrett and Foscl.~i,1980), but so far a possible volume effect concerning sliear
has not been introduced in EC5 (see aIso STEP lecture BI).

This lecture only deals with solid timber and glulam beams with regard to shear.

Torsional stresses are introduced when the applied loild tends to lwist a member.
This will occur when a beam supports a load which is applied eccentric to the
principal cross sectional axis. A transmission mast may be subjected to an
eccentric horizontal Ioad, resulting in il combination of shear and torsion.

Shear
From elastic beam theory it might be recalled that the shear stress at any point in

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the cross section of a beam can be written, in general, as:
vs
TI.=-
I b

where 2, is the shear stress, V is the shear force, 1 is the second tno!nerit of the
area about the neutral axis, 6 is the width of the shear plane at tile level of -
consideration and S is tile first moment of the area above the sllear plane taken
about the neutral axis.
-
For a rectangular section the rnaxin~umvalue is:

The shear stress distribution is parabolic as shown in Figure 1 for a rectangular

section with the rnaximurn value at the neutral axis.
-
For a circular section tile maxiinu~nvalue is:

where A is the area of the cross-section.

It has been found by several researchers (e.g. Keenan, 1978) that the shear
stresses due to point loads near the supports are less than those calcuiated
according to elastic beain theory. This has led to the introduction of the so called
reduced shear force.

The contribution to the total shear force of a point Ioad F within a distance 211 of'
the support car1 be reduced according to the influence line given in Figure 2.

2
Figr~~.e Redrrced ir!flrrcrlce lir~c.fir. poi~itlocrrls.

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 The shear stress should satisfy the following condition:
EC5: Part 1- 1: 5.1.7.1
'1:d ' 85d

.f;',,,, is the design value of the shear strength.

Design example
Glulam beam will1 span 1 = 16 n r and cross-section b x 11 = 190 x 655 rz111t with
solid timber decking nailed to top suface of the beam. Strength class GL32
according to prEN 1194 "Timber stnlctures - Glued laminated timber - Strength
classes and determination of charncteristic values", with loading as shown in
Figure 3.

Design values for the governing toad case:

Dead load: g, = 3 kN/ijt (permanent)
Variable lond: 1;,= 20 kN (short term)

EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7 Service class 3: k,,,,,, = 0,7 (short term)
21~=2.655=1310nznt=1,31rtz say1,3,n

Maxin~u~n V, by using the so called reduced influence line, when the one point
lond is placed 1,3 to the right of the support (see Figure 3).

Figlire 3 C~.iticallond ~rrangenre~zw.

Left support:

Maximum M at the point wl~ereV = 0, i.e. at a distance 7,s itr from the left
support A,.

Maximum h1,:
3 .7,s2 -20 .(7,5 -7,4) =232fdVIrz
Md =42,5 - 7 3- -
2
Area:
-
A = 124 lo3trtltl'

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 Section modulus:
W =13,6 10%r1rrt3

Characteristic material properties:

The characteristic values are taken from prEN I 194:

The design strength values are:

Vet-if'ication of failure condition:

G,,,.,t 2 k,T,I ./;,,,,I

I3CS: P~III1 - 1 : 5.1.2 k,.,,, = 1 .O since the beatn is psevenled from bucltling laterally by the decking.
17,l c 17,2 N/ltwi2

Verificalion of hilure condition:

ECS:Park 1 - 1 : 5.1.7.1 'i:,, .Ls.r/

0,70 < 1,88 Nhnm'

Torsion
According to commonly accepted elastic theory ttie maximum torsional slress for
solid members can be written:

Circular cross-section:
- 2T
',or - -
TT r 3

where T,,, is tlle maximum torsional stress, T is the torsional monienl and r is
the radius of the section.

where 11 2 b and a are numerical factors depending on the ratio /I//>.Tirnoshenko

(1955) gives the following table:

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 The iorsional stress distribution alo~lgthe principal axis for a rectangular section
is shown in Figure 4. The maximum stress value occurs at mid point of each
longer side.

EC5: part I-!: 5.1.8 The torsional slress shall satisfy the following condition:
tf0r.d <f;:d

According to Mohler and Hemmer (1977) the above mentioned criterion is on

tile safe side.

Shear and torsion in combination

A combined action may occur in some cases. Little research Iias been carried
out, and limited information is available. EC5 provides no guidence for this
situation. Mohier and Hemrner (1977). however, have suggested the following
governing condition:

where is the design torsional strength, which is considered to be different

fro111(and higher than) the design sliear strength, .L,,,,.

Design example
GIulam colun~n(pole) with cross-section b s h = 140 x 300 n r t ~ r .Strength class
GL32 according to prEN 1 194.

Design values for the governing load case:

Shear force: \I,, = 18 kN (shoit term)
Torsional moment: T,, = 2,4 kNt11 (short: tertn)

ECS: Ptlri 1 - 1: 3.1.7 Service class 3: krrrrd= 0,7 (short term)

Area:
A =42.10~mar'

-"--- 300 = 2,14 and u = 0,249 (Table 1)

b 140

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 Characteristic material properties:
The characteristic value is taken from prEN 1194:

The design strength value is:

EC5: Pi\rL I-!: 5.1.7.1 Verification of failure condition:

E C ~ h: r t 1-1: 5.1 .S Verit'ication of failure condition:

According to Mohler and Hemmer (1977) the governing condition for the
combined action is:

There is no design (or characteristic) value, A,,, given, and so the.f,,-value is used,
which is on the safe side (Mohler and Hen~mer,1977).

Concluding summary
- Shear is rarely a governing condition in beam design.

- For beams of sinall span-depth ratios, or subjected to concentrated loads

close to the supports, the shear co~ltrolmight still be critical.

- It is permissible to reduce the shear force due to point loads which are
located close to supports.

- For poles or masts embedded in the ground (and thus cantilevered) the
shear force may be high and therefore critical.

- Coilcerr~ing torsion tnase research is needed to confirm the torsional

strength value.

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- Further investigation Ilas to be carried out in order to establish a reliable
basis for design criteria in the case of co~nbinedshear and torsion.

References
Barreit, S.D. and Foschi, R.O. (1980). Consider:lrion or size cfrccts in iongi!udinel shear strength.
In: Proc. of thc Cll3 W18 Meeting Otanicmi, Rnlnrtd Pnper 13-6-7.

Kecnan, F.J. (1978). 'Il~cdis~ributionol' shear stresses in timber benms. In: Proc, of the C1B WIX
Meelins Perth, Scotland Paper 9-10-1.

MBhler, I(, and Hemmer, K. (1977). Vcrrormungs- und FestigkeitsvcrhnIten von Nadclvoll- und
Rre~tschichtholzbci Torsionsbeanspructiung. Holz 81s Roh- und Wcrkstoff (35): 473-478.

Tirnoslrcnko, S. (1955). Srrength of materials - Par1 I, D,Ven Nostrand Company, Inc. Princeton,
Ncw Jersey, Third Edition.
 Notched beams and holes
in glulam beams
STEP iecturc BS Objectives
P.J. Guslnfsson To develop an understanding of strength and fracture of' notched beams, and beams
Lund University wit11 a hole, and to review concepts of fracture mechanics, forming the theoretical
basis for the notched beam strength equation in EC 5.

Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building Inalerial

Summary
The lecture begins with a general introduction to the performance of beams with a
notch or a hole. Then, a brief review of the concepts of frachlre mechanics is given.
For end-notched beams a strength equation from EC 5 is included and for glularn
beams with a hole an equation from literature is included. Some typical test results
are indicated. Methods for reillforcement are mentioned.

Introduction
In Figure 1 beatns with various types of notches or holes are shown. A notch or a
hole may very significantly reduce the load bearing capacity of a beam and should
preferably be avoided in design. Thougll not to be desired, a notch may be needed
in order to bring floors to desired levels, to give clearance or to enable fit between
structural members. In particular in very old timber construction, various types of
notches can be observed to have been e~uployedin the detailing of sti-ucturai joints.
Large holes in glulam beams can be required, for instance, for accommodating of
ventilation pipes.

Fignrc I Norclled bearirs utrd beartis 119i1h0 Itole. Brokol li~icir~rlicatesprobable crack
pi.ol~ngaiionpntlr.

Fracture may develop from a notch or a hole as indicated by the broken lines in
Figure 1. The fracture is often of a very sudden and brittle nature, taking place
without being preceded by any large deformation or after visible warning.
Depending on the geometry of the beam, the rapid crack propagation along the
beam may or may not lead to a complete collapse of the beam.

The initiation of crack growth is due to perpendicular to grain tensiIe stress or shear
stress or a combination of the two. At the tip of a notch these stresses may become
v e ~ yhigh. According to linear elastic stress analysis the stress at the tip of a sharp

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notch even approacl~esinfinity, Figure 2. In suck cases the magnitude of stress
cannot be defined and the stress is then denoted as singular. Due to the limited
strength of the material the stress at the tip of the notch does, in reality, not
approach infinity. Instead, due to local damage of the material the stress distribution
at the instant the crack starts to propagate may be as indicated by the broken curve
in Figure 2.

Figtrre 2 Stress ar rlrc lip cfcr ~rotchcrccordir~gro litleur elcisric rlicory citrcl CIS cstir~tcited
it! prc'ctice, ~u.specrii~ely.

Drying of the wood can give a very significant addition to the local high stress and
also itself cause the development of a crack at a notch or a hole. The effect of
drying is twofold. As end-grain is exposed bare at a notch or hole, the rate of
drying may locally become high. Moreover, the non-uniform cfiaracter of' the
geometry at a hole or a notch adds to the magnitude of the moisture gradients and
to tile prevention of free shrinkage of the material. To reduce the risk of fracture
caused by drying it is stated in design recorn~nendationsthat end-grain surfaces at
a notch or hole must be painted, or finished in some other way, so that moisture
transfer is prevented. The general recommendation to avoid notches and holes is of
particular relevance if the climate and relative humidity may vary.

Concepts of fracture mechanics

Bcickground
As the very high stress is often concentrated in a very srnatl region it is difficult,
and in the case of theoretically i~~finitestress even meaningless, to try to determine
by any conventional stress criterion the load bearing capacity of a beam with n hole
or a notch. According to a conventional failure criterion the magnitude of stress in
the [nost highly stressed point is compared to the fracture stress, i.e. the strength of
the material. To determine load carrying capacity one has instead to rely either
soIely on tests or else, in addition to tests, on concepts of fracture mechanics other
than conventional stress criteria.

Frcictc~~-e
rlzecha~rics- geneml
Fracture mechanics is a part of the science of the strength of materials. A solid
body responds to extreme loading by undergoing large deformation or fracture. The
phenomenon of fracture, i.e. separation, loss of contact, between parts of the body,
is the topic of primary interest in fracture mechanics. From an engineering point of
view, the calculation of the magnitude of load that causes fracture is of the lnost
interest.

In cases when there is no or only minor stress concentration, e.g. in the case of a
structural member in homogeneous tension or bending, the calculation of the
fracture load can be carried out by a conventional stress criterion. On the other hand
in the case of a very high stress concentration, e.g. at the tip OF a sharp notch or
crack, some other approach is needed. Then, within the framework of linear elastic

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theory, a rational calculatior~of fracture load can be based on either analysis of the
.stress i~ite~tsit),
at the tip of the notch or else on analysis of the energy relense rate
when a crack is propagating. Although these two alternatives are fonnally different,
they are basically quite analogous. Here only the latter approach will be furtl~er
discussed.

Analysis of cracks within the framework of linear elastic theory is often called
lirreor elcrstic .fincrrrre rneclianics. B y other lnodels attelnpts are inade to consider
explicitly the non-linear performance of the material in the vicinity of the tip of the
crack. This refers in particular to the fracture softening and damage that talces place
in the .fr.rrcirire process regi011 in front of the open crack. In linear elastic fracture
mechanics this energy dissipating fracture process region is assulned to be very
small when colnpared with the size of the actual structural detail and is
lnathe~~iatica~ly regarded as a point, i.e. a region of zero size.

A beam with a considerable longitudinal crack and loaded according to Figure 3 is

considered. It is assumed that stress and strain within the bealn are zero when the
external load, F, is zero. According to linear eiastic theory the potential energy of
the actual system, consisting of the beam and the load, is

where rr is the displacement of the point OF loading. By elementary theory of

bending of beams

where E is the tnodulus of elasticity and I = b(i1/2)~/12the second lnoment of area

of the cross-section of each cantilever part. Wiih 11 from Equation (3,Equation (1)
gives

The change of the potential energy, dW, during a srnail propagation, dci, of the
crack is then obtained by dcriv~t'
lon:

This decrease of the potential energy corresponds to a positive energy release, - (IIV,
and to a simullnneous increase of the fractured area by b cl a. The energy release,
-dW, pel- frncture area, b d o, is usually denoted C (after A.A. Griffith, who in the
1920s presented pioneering works on fracture mechanics)

STEP/EUROFORTECH - at1 initiiuivc unclcr ~ h EU

c Comctt Progmmrnc B 513
G = =-dW - F"~
bda bEl
When the load F is so large that the crack starts to propagate, G has reached its
critical value, G,. This value corresponds to the energy dissipating ability of the
material and is regarded as a matcrial property. For European softwoods, depending
on the de~isityof d ~ ewood, G,. is roughly in the order of 150 - 600 .1/Itr2 for
perpendicular to grain tensile fracture (Larsen and Gustafsson, 1990). Thus, the
fracture criterion is
G = Gc (6)

wl~iclltogether with the expression for G, Equation (S),gives the fracture load PC:

In this equation two general and importatlt principles should be noted:

a) The material properties that are decisive for resistance to crack propagation
are stiffness, here denoted by E, and fracture energy, here denoted by C,..The
perpendicular to grain terlsile strength of the material is not predicted to
i~ifluencePC,at least not directly.

b) The load bearing capacity, is strorlgly size-dependent in the sense that the
magnitude of some forn~alstress at failure, e.g. I;;. /(bh), decreases if the
absolute size of the specimen is increased.

I11the above exarliple it has tacitly bcen assumed, by using Equation (2), that the
speciruen is sle~ider,i.e. that nicio I~/ciis small. The above method of calculntion can
be applied to other cracked geometries. Then Equation (2) lnust of course be
replaced by an equation relevant to the co~nplianceof the actual geometry.

End-notched beams; theoretical and experimental results

By the above method of tlleoretical analysis, for a beam loaded and with an end-
crack according to Figure 4a) (Guslafsson, 1988) the load at crack propagation is

a and p are geometric ratios as defined in the figure. G,, and E,, are the n~odulus
of shear stiffness and the ~nodulusof elasticity parallel to grain, respectively. The

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same equation is valid for a square shaped end-notch, Figure 4b), and also for the
various types of notch indicated in Figures I g), 11) and i). For small notch depth,
i.e. for a close to 1,0,the resistance to notch failure is high. In that case also the
risks for ordinary shear failure and bending failure of the net cross-section, altb,
must be considered.

In Table 1 a few examples of various experimental results regarding short term load
bearing capacity are given. (From compilation of literature and tests: (Guslafsson,
1988) and (Riberholt et al., 1991).) The values indicated are mean values and they
were obtained for dried timber with a homogeneous moisture content. The
coefficient of variation for a test series is typically in the order of 20 %. Table 1
aims to illustrate the achral and low strength of notched beams even at the current
favourable conditions and how various parnmeters infiuence. It is interesting that
the mean value as well as the 5-percentile value of V, has been found to be higher
for specimens with a knot in the vicinity of the notch than for those without any
ltnot (Larsen and Riber-holt, 1972) and (Mtjhler and Mistler, 1978).

Pine 50 44 0,75 0.5 0 4,04

200 1,9L
Clulam 300 90 0,50 0,1S 0 2,16
567 160 1.41
Spruce 120 32 0,83 0,25 0 2,90
0,75 2,52
0,50 2,39
0,33 122
Gldnm 600 100 0,92 0,42 0 380
0,75 I ,32
0,50 [,I3
Spruce 95 45 0,75 0.33 0 3,33
O,G6 2,94
GIuinm 305 79 0,70 2,5 0 0,69
5,5 0,36
Spruce 95 45 0,75 0,33 0 3,33
I 3,44
3 4,7 1
GIulnnl 300 90 0,50 0,15 0 2,16
2 2,76
8 4.16

Tablc I Test rcsrilrs. Strerigrll (rltea~tvnl~rcjof va~.ionsetrcl-t~otchsdbeorlrs.

EC5 equation for end-notched beams and its background

Before the development of the EC5 equation, n few simplifying modifications of
Equation (8) were made (Larsen, 1992). The ratio E,IG,, was throughout set equal
10 16. Secondly, the introduction of the "new" material parameter G, was avoided
by assuming that is proportional to the shear strength of the material, .fir.
The constant of proportionality was found fro111test results. Solid wood and gIulam
were assigned somewhat different constants. Moreover, from test results (Riberholt
et al., 199 1) a factor that considers the effect of a taper, Figure 4c), was developed.

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c Co~ncriProgramme B5/5
ECj: part 1.7.2 From the above the risk of crack propagation from a notch is taken into account in
EC5 through a formal reduction by a factor k,,of the design shear strength,j;.,,,, of
the net cross-section ball:

where the reduction factor k,.(6 1,O ) is

For solid Limber k,, is set equal to 5,O and for glulam k,,is set equal to 6 5 . Note that
the beam depth, h, 111ustbe in urn?.To avoid the risk of the deveiop~~~ent of another
mode of failure, shear failure in the net cross-section, a value of k,,greater rhan I ,O
may not be used in Equation (9). If the notch is located on the compression side of
the beam, Figure lc), k,. Inay be set equal to 1,O. Figure 5 illustrates how li,, is
affected by a, P, i and 11.

The EC5 equation refers to beams of stnlctural size. For very s~nnllrnembcrs the
non-zero size of thc fracture process region can be of importance, To consider this
ill an iipproxi~nateInanner the distance P h may in the calculations be assigned i1
somewhat increased value, e.g. increased by 10 I ~ I ~ SuchI . a consideration is of
particular significance if parameters a, P iuld It are all small.

Figrrre 5 Factor I;,. versits .fur solid finlber-beants with variorr.s 11, artd i.

Glulanl beams with a hole

In EC5 no strength equation is incIuded for beams with a llole. Therefore, the
design of such a beail1 will involve specific consideration in each case. In the
following some guidance for i? preliminary estimate of the effect of a hole is given.

In design recommendations the risk of crack development as shown in Figure 1, d)

and e) is often considered by a reduction analogous to Equation (9) of the design
shear strength:

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Various proposals for the calculation of the reduction factor lih,,J,can be found.
Based on test results, according to a Swedish glulam design manual (Carling and
Johannesson, 1958):
For Dllr 5 0,1 : k,*,,= 1 - 5 5 5 ( ~ / k ) ~ ( I 2a)

For D / h > 0,l : k,,, = 1,62/(1,8+ ~ l h ) ~ (12b)

For circular holes D represents the diameter of the hole and for square and
rectangular holes D is the length of the diagonal. The hole is assumed to be placed
symmetricaily wit11 respect to the depth of the beam. Comers of the hole must be
rounded with a radius of curvature 2 25 ~ m l i ,the side lengtit ratio of rectangular
holes rnay not be greater than 3,O and a, see Figure 6, rnay not be less than 0,5.
Moreover, measures to reduce moisture variations in the timber are required.

Figlire 6 Nnri~irtalslrcar stress at o-ncking. T, ~crstrsltolr size ratio D/Ii. For tlte
square arrcl rec~mrgrrlarIro1e.v D is tlre dictgorial.

Equation (12) is based on several sets of lests,of glulaln beams of one size: Iz = 90
Intti and h = 500 1 2 1 ~ 1 (Johannesson, 1983). According to the actual design
recommendation, if 6 > 90 nrmt k,,,,,shall be multiplied by the furlher reduction
factor (90/b)"' before inserted in Equation (1 1).

In Equntion (12) there is no explicit consideration of bending. In the case of pure

bending, cracks have been found to develop as shown in Figure I I'). According to
the actual reconimendation, if less than 8 lamination boards remain in the net cross-
section, the design bending strength shall be reduced by 25 %.

In Figure G a set of the shear loading test. results is sltown. The centre of each mark
represents the mean value of 4 tests. Maximum and minimum of the individual
values are indicated by the vertical bars. The quality of glulam tested was for D/lr
= 0 estimated to have mean shear srrength.f;, = 5,2 N/rnm2. The corners of square
and rectangular holes were rounded to r = 25 mnt, the beam size was 88 x 495
mm', the distance from supporl to centre of the hole was 1250 nrrrr and the side
length ratio of the rectangular holes was 3,0.To be perfect the curve in Figure 6,
representing Equation (12), should coincide with tlte mean value marks. Current
deviations are on tlte safe side,

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Methods of reinforcement

Some conceivable methods of reinforcement at an end-notch are shown in Figure

7 (Mtihler a ~ i dMistler, 1978). Principles of reinforcement to prevent failure at a
hole are similar. Depending on the stiffness of the reinforcanlent and its attachment
-
to the gfulam, the reinforcement may act together with the wood and significantly
increase the load at cracking, or else the reinforcement inay become active only
when the wood has cracked.
-
Using a bolt as indicated in Figure 7a) it is normally required that the screw nut ---.
must be re-tightened to avoid loss of stress due to creep and shrinkage. The method
according to Figure 7a) should in general be avoided. With a rod, bolt or screw
glued into a drilled hofe, Figure 7b), a reinforcement with high stiffness is achieved.
It must be noted that this arrangement prevents shrinkage of the wood and may -
therefore cause cracking if the wood is dried. A steel plate nailed to the wood,
Figure 7c), may not be expected to have any very significant effect until tile wood
has cracked. Gluing and nailing plywood to the sides of the beam, Figure 7d) and --
e), is from the technical point of view probably one of the best ways to reinforce
glulam at a hole or a notch. The giue is normally designed to be the active part, the
main purpose of the nails is to give pressure during hardening of the glue. Glass- .-
fibre reinforcement, Figure 7e) and f), acts in a similar way (Larsen et a]., 1994).
An advantage of glass-fibre reinforcement is its appearance: it is transparent and
looks like a thick lacquer. A disadvantage is that practical experience is as yet very
limited. -

Other strength and safety improving measures are by tapering, Figure 4c), and
rounding off. To achieve a proper effect by rounding off a notch, the radius of -
curvature must be large, say at least 25 tntn.

Concluding summary
- Notches and holes should preferably be avoided. They often give locally very
high perpendicular to grain tensile and shear stress that may cause crack
propagation. The fracture can be very sudcien and rapid. Moisture change
increases the risk of fracture.

- In the case of very local and concentrated stressing conventional stress

criteria are not applicable. Rational analysis can instead be carried out by
fracture mechanics. Such an analysis based on energy release considerations
shows that there is a size-effect in the strength. Moreover, the stiffness and
fracture energy, together forming the fracture toughness, are found to be the
decisive material properties.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initinlive under the EU Cornell Prograrnrnc

- For end-notched beams a strength equation is included in EC5. For simplicity
it assumes that the fracture toughness of the material is proportional to its
shear strength.

- Beams with a hoIe or a notch can be reinforced by a bolt tightened by a nut,

by a rod or a screw glued into the beam, or by nailing or gluing a steel plate,
plywood or a layer of glass-fibre to the sides of the beam.

References
Carling, 0. and Johanncsson, B. (1988). Limtfihandboken (Glulnm manual). Svenskt limtrY,
Siockholm.

Gustaf'sson, P.J. (1988). A study of slrcngtti of notched beams. In: Proc. of CIB-W18A Meeting 21,
Parksville, Canada, Paper 2 1- 10-1.

Johanncsson, R. (1983). Design problems for glulam beams with holes, Thesis, Clialmers University
oTTecRnology, Swcden, 73 pp.. ISBN 91-7032-2.

Larsen, H.1, and Riberl~olt,H. (1972). Tests with not classified stmc(ttral timbcr. Rapport nr R 31 (in
Danish), Technical University of Denmark.

Larscn. N.1. and Gustnfsson. P.J. (1990). The fracture energy o l wood in lension perpenlficulnr to thc
grain - results from a joint tating project. In: Proc. of CIB-WISA Meeling 23. Lisbon, Portugal, Paper
23- 19-7.

Larsen, 1-1.3. (1 992). Latest development of Eurocode 5. In: Proc. or CIB W l8A Meeting 2.5, AIIUS,
Sweden, Paper 25-102-1.

Larscn, H.J., Guslafsson, P.J. and Traberg, S.(1994). Glass fibre rciniorcernenl pcrpcndicular to grain.
In: Proc. of t l ~ cPacific Timber Eng. ConT. 1994, Surfers Paradisc, Austnlia.

MBhtcr, K. and Mistlcr, ILL. (1978). Untersuchungcn uber den Einilui3 von Ausklinkungen im
Auflagcrbereich von Hofzbiegctdgern auf' die Tragi'estigkeit. Report, Lehrstuhl for Ingcnieurholzbau
und Baukonstruktionen, Univcrsitiit Karlsruhe, Germany.

Ribcrholt, I-I., Enquist, 9.. Guslnfsson. P.J. and fcnsen, R.B. (1991). Timber beams notched at the
supporl. Rcpoti TVSM-707 I , Lund University, Sweden.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr the EU Come(( Progralnmc

 Columns

STEP ~ccturcBG Objectives

I-I.J. Blass To develop an understanding of the ptlenolnenon of in-plane buckling, to identify
Delli University the governing parameters and to present the procedures of EC5 as a design method.
o l Technology
Prerequisites
A7 Solid timber - Strength classes
A8 GIued laminated tinlber - Production and strength classes

Summary
The lecture begins with a non-mathematical introduction of flexural buckling. It
presents the principal factors influencing the stability of colunins and shows how
the buckling curves in ECS Ilave been derived. A practical example of the design
of an eccentrically loaded column cornplclne~ttsthe lecture.

Introduction
When a slender colun~nis loaded axially, there exists a tendency for it to clef-lect
sideways. This type of instability is called flexurai buckling. The strength of slender
mernbcrs depends not onIy 011 the strength of the material but also on the stiffness,
in the case of timber colurnns rnainly on the bending stiffness. Therefore, apart
from the colnpression and bending strength, the modulus of elasticity is an
important inaterial property influencing the load-bearing capacity of slender
columns. The additional bending stresses caused by lateral deflections are taken into
account in a stability desigrt.

There are two principal ways to design a con~pressioninember: tile first involves
n second order analysis whereby the equilibrium of' monxnts and forces is
calculitted by considering tile deformed sl~apeof the respective member or stixcture.
The secorld approacl~uses buckling clrrves to account for the decrease in strength
of n real column compared to a compression member which is inlinitely stiff in
bending. Here, the stability design is ci~rriedout as a compression design with
~nodifiedco~npressionstrength. The decrease in load-bearing capacity depends on
the slenderness ratio of [he Inember in question and is based on the behnviour of
a two-hinged colu~nn(see Figure 1). For single metnbers or compression rnembers

STEP/BUROFORTECl-I- an initintivc u~ldcrthe EU Conlctt Programme 13611

 forn~ingpart of a framework, this method can be used by First determining the
respective buckling (effective) length (see STEP lecture B7) and subsequently
treating the structure as a two-hinged column of the same length. This lecture only
-
deals with column design based on btickling curves.

Factors influencing column strength

The Fdctors influencing the ioad-bearing capacity of a timber column may be
-
divided into two groups. The first group involves the nominal geometry of the
compressiot~member such as its cross-section and length, its support conditions and
the material properties which are dete~minedby the choice of the strength class, the
-
surrounding climate and the load duration class of the governing load case. The
factors belonging to this first group are either determined by or known to the design
engineer. The engineer is able to influence the Ioad-bearing capacity and hence
-
meet the design requirements by adjusting these factors.

A second group of factors also influencing column strength involves geometric and -
material imperfections and variations. Since real structures are never perfect, these
factors have to be considered during the design of columns. However, because the
design engineer in general has no information regarding these factors, their
influence has to be taken into account implicitly. The influence of these factors on
the Ioad-bearing capacity of timber columr~sis included in the design rules in EC5.

Figrire 2 clrwc. of tittlber accorclittg to Glos (1978). A,, is t11ea.sy~t~ptotic

Stress-s~rrrit~
value of contpressiorl s~rettgtltcind E , , , i~ the con~prcsssivestrair~at fiiil~crc.

The most important geometric i~nperfectionsof timber compression members are

initiaI curvature, inclination of the member axis and deviations of cross-sectional
ECS: Part 1-1: 7.1 dimensions from the nominal values. Deviation from straightness is limited to 11500
of the length for glued laminated members and to 1/300 of the length for structural
timber. Deviations in cross-sectional dimensions from target sizes are limited by
values for tolerance class 1 in prEN 336 "Structunl timber. Coniferous and poplar -
timber sizes - permissible deviations" for structural timber and by prEN 390 "Glued
laminated timber. Sizes. Permissible deviations" for glued laminated timber.

Material imperFections include growth characteristics and other factors which

influence the stress-strain behaviour of timber. GeneraIly, the stress-strain curve is
Iinear elastic until failure, for timber subjected to tensile stresses, and non-linear
with considerable plastic deformations, under compression stresses (see Figure 2).
The shape of the stress-strain curve of European softwoods depends mainly on the
fotlowing properties (GIos, 1978): density, knot size (knot area ratio), content of
compression wood and moisture content. GIos (1978) derived reIationships between

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an irlitiativc uridcr the EU Comctt Programme

 these properties and the shape of the stress-strain curve for both sawn timber and
laminations for glued laminated timber. From a knowledge of the density, the knot
size, the content of compressio~lwood and the moisture content it is possible to
calculate the stress-strain curve for a piece of timber.

Baclcground to the buckling curves of Eurocode 5

Buclcling curves generally describe the influence of slenderness on the characteristic
load-bearing capacity of two-hinged columns. Each value on a buckling curve
consequently represents the characteristic load-bearing capacity of columns with the
corresponding slenderness ratio. The slenderness ratio is defined as the largest ratio
of the unbraced length to the radius of gyration. There are several possibilities for
EC5:Pan 1.1: 7.2.3.2 deriving characteristic colun~nstrength values. One possibility is to determine
ctlaracteristic values 13, from tests. However, because of the vast amount of
necessary tests, this procedure is too expensive to be justified.

To derive the buckling curves for ECS a different method was chosen (Blass, 1986;
Blass, 1987 and Blass, 1988). This method is based on the simulation of tests by
computer. Here, columns are nod el led by assigning them material properties and
geometric imperfections based on observations of real columns. This means that
strength and stiffness values as well as initial curvature or deviations from target
sizes are cl~osenrandomly for a certain column. Of course, the assigned properties
have to be realistic and the correlation between the different properties llas to be
talcen into account during the simulation process. Like a real column, a simulated
column is then characterised by a set of properties determining its load-canying
capacity.

0 40 80 120 I GO 200
h
Figitre 3 Disrr-ibrrtiatrof bitckiirtg sfr-crtg~f~
nrtd c/rorc~c~er-istic
irrrlriesfor hilo sletrdertres.r
mrios.

Si~nulatillga Iarge number of columns of the same slenderness ratio and strength
class, and subsequently calculating their ultimate loads, results in a distribution of
ultimate load values. The variation in the resulting column strength values is
determined by the variation in strength and stiffness properties as well as the
geometric imperfections. Frorn the distribution of ultimate load values, the 5-
percentile as the characteristic value is determined. This characteristic value then
represents one point on the buckling curve (see Figure 3).

Such simulations and ultirnate load calculations may be performed for a range of
slenderness ratios, resulting in a series of characteristic load-carrying capacities, or
buckling strengths. Characteristic buckling strengths for a range of slenderness

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an inili:~tive~inder11tc EU Comctl Programme R6/3

ratios, obtained by such simulations, are shown in Figure 4. Since a diagrnm is
inore difficult to manipulate mathematically than an equation, approximate curves
have been fitted to a series OF buckling simulations like those shown in Figure 4.
-
The form of the equations corresponds to tl~oseused in Eurocode 3 for the design
of steel coiurnns. Figure 5 shows an example of a series of characteristic buckling
strengths determined by sirnulation, together with the corresponding fitted curve. -

0 40 80 120 160 200

h
figure 4 Clroracteristic bccdlitig .strcrrgtl~vn1rce.s for rl#ireirf slerrc1crtre.s.s rutins.

The calculation of the ultinlatc loads of the sitrtulated columns is based on a second
order plastic analysis, using the plastic defonuation potential of timber subjected to
compressive stresses. This method - although requiring a comprualiveiy long
calculation time, caused by the necessary iteration procedures - leads to higher
i~ltimateloads coltlpared with results based on an elastic solution, where the
ultimate load is defined as reaching the material strength in the most stressed fibre
in the critical cross-section. The plastic approach results in an increase in the
perforn~anceunder combined axial compression forces and bending moments.

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 Figurn 6 Baidittg raonrent-osic~lforce irrte,nctio~lcrin~cs.

Figure 6 shows a bending moment-axial force interaction diagram of a rectangular

cross-section, where the linear interaction represents elastic behaviour and the solid
curve the characteristic strength of the cross-section when the plastic behaviour of
E C ~Part
: 1-1: 5.1.10 the timber is considered. The dashed line shows the EC5 design rule for combined
uni-axiai bending and axial colnpression when no instability condition is to be
considered or when the internal forces and moments Ilave been determined using
a second order analysis.

For members under combined coinpression and bending, which are able to deflect
sideways, the interaction curve changes from the shape sliown in Figure 6 for very
stocky members into a nearly linear interaction for niembers with a high slenderness
ratio. For the design of stocky members, the dashed line is valid for slenderness
ratios h up to about 30 (correspondi~~g to A,",= 0,5)and a si~nplelinear interaction
was chosen for all members with a slenderness ratio exceeding this thresl~oldvalue.

Buckling curves
ECS: port 1-1: 5.2.1 In the following, the buckling curves of EC5 are presented.

The relative slenderness ratios are defined by:

and

where

A, and h,,,, correspond lo bending about the y-axis (deflection in the z-direction),
hZand A,.,,, correspond to bending about the z-axis (deflection in the y-direction).
For both h,,,., 5 0,5 and 5 0,5 the stresses should satisfy the following
conditions:

where oc,osd is the design compressive stress and Lf;,,is the design coinpressive
,
strength. on,,:,,and or are the respective design bending stresses andf,+?, , and-f,,,,,,
the design bending strengths. k,,, is 0,7 for rectangular sections (see STEP lecture
B3) and 1,O for other cross-sections.

In all other cases the stresses should satisfy the following conditions:

where the symbols are defined as follows:

cs,,, bending stress due to any lateral loads

(similarly for k,;:) (9)

(similarly for k:) (10)

p, is a factor for members within the straightness limits mentioned above:

- for solid timber: P, = O,:!
- for glued laminated timber: PC = 0,l

The difference between solid timber and glued laminated timber is mainly caused
by the smaller initial curvature of glued laminated timber members and their smaller
deviations from target sizes. Moreover, the mean value, as well as the variation of
the moisture content, is lower in glued laminated timber columns compared with
solid timber columns. A higher moisture content causes a decrease in compression
strength of the timber and consequently a decrease in coIumn strength for low and
medium slenderness ratios whereas the modulus of elasticity, which mainly
determines the load-bearing capacity of slender columns, is hardly affected by a
change in moisture content.

Design example
Timber column with square cross-section 200 x 200 ~ ~ I Nbuclcling
Z, length I s 4,O m.
Strength class C24 according to prEN 338 "Structural timber. Strength classes".

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 Design values of permanent and variable load for the governing load case:
permanent load: Gd = 162 kN (axial ioad, permanent)
variable load: Q,, = 5 2 5 kNhr (line load, short-term)

EC5: Pert 1-1: 3.1.7 Service class I : k ,,, = 0,9

-
Design compressive stress:

Design bending stress:

Characteristic material properties:

The characteristic vaiues of bending and compression strength as well as the
modulus of elasticity are taken from prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength
classes". For the modulus of elasticity, tile 5-percentile value is used in tlte design
since an ultimate limit state is considered.

EC5: Pert 1-1 : 2.2.3.2 The design values of the bending and con~pressionstrength are:
A

8, = 0.2 (soIid limber) The design value of the member buckling resistance is calculated using the buckling
curves for solid timber:

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EC5: Part 1-1: 2.3.2.1b Verification of faiiure condition:

Concluding summary
- Timber columns that are not adequately restrained along their length are
subject to flexural buckling. -
- Buckling length, slenderness ratio, cornpression strength and rnodulus of
elasticity as well as geometric and stluctural i~nperfectionsare the primary
influences on buckling resistance.
-
- The buckling curves of ECS are based on a second order analysis where tile
plastic behaviour of timber under co~npressionstress was tilken into account.
-
- The design of columns with A > 30 and subjected to bending stresses due to
lateral loads and eccentric axial load is based on a linear interaction of -
buckling strengtll and bending strength.

References -
Blass, I.I.J. (1986). Strcngtl~modcl for giularn colunms. In: Proc. ol' thc Joint Meeting CIB
W18IIUFRO S 5.02, Florence, [taly, Papcr 19-12-2.

Blass, 1I.J. (1987). Dcsign of timbcr colurnns. In: Proc, of [tic CIB W18 Mcaing, Dublin. Ireland,
Paper 20-2-2.
-
Blass, N.J. (1988). Tlic influence of creep and duration of load on thc design of timber colunms. In;
Proc, of tl~c1988 In[. ConC on Tirnbcr Eng. Scnttlc, U.S.A. -
Glos. P. (1978). Zur Bcs[irnmung dcs Festigkcitsucrhaltcns von Rrcttschichtholz hi
Druckbcanspr~~chungaus Wcrkstoff- und Eit~wirkunyslrcnngriiucn.
Dissertation, Tcchniscllc UnivcrsitYt
Mlinchcn, Germany.

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 Buclding lengths

STEP lecture R7 Objective

11.1. Blnss To describe the concept: of buckling (effective) length and its application in design
Dclft Universily to practical colun?ns and frames.
of Technology
Prerequisite
B6 Columns

Summary
The concept of the effective or buckling length is described. The principal factors
influencing the buckling lengtl~sof columns and frames as well as simple
approximations for practical cases are given. An example of n three-hinged frame
with semi-rigid comer connections complen~enfsthe lecture.

Introduction
Buckling curves for the design of timber colulnns are generally based on the load
bearing capacity of columns where both ends are simply supported (see Figure 1).
The support conditions of cornpression members in actual timber struchxres often
differ from those shown in Figure 1 . In order to be able to employ the buckling
curves in EC5 for these more practical cases, tile concept of an effective length is
used.

One example of the difference between real length and buckling length can be
found in the internal member of a truss. In practice, t l ~ eexternal members (chords)
are often braced at the outer edges of the top and bottom chord, respectively. In this
case, the buckling lengths of the internal members car1 be assumed to correspond
to tile distance between the braces and hence are larger than the distance between
the ~nembernodes.

The effective or buckling length of a con~pressionmember is defined as the length

of a hypothetical two-hinged column with the same elastic critical buckling load as
the member in question. Thc effective length can be visualised as the distance

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 between two cor~secutivepoints of contraflexure of the actual cotnpression member
(see Figure 2). In practice, an effective length factor P is used which denotes the
ratio of the effective length to the real length of the member. Figure 3 shows the
-
four EuIer cases where the buckling length is given for different idealised support
conditions of the column.
-

&tire 2 Effective lerlgth qf ci clcrn~pcdcohrn~rt1vitl1rr ser~ri-r'igiclbase corr~reciiorr. -

In this lecture, approximate solutions for the buckling lengths of different systems
are given. Where the approximate solutions do not apply, a second order analysis
shouid be carried out, calculating the equilibrium of moments and forces and
--
considering the deformed shape of the respective member or structure.

Figure 3 Btlcklirrg lcrrgrhs for iilealisecl sttpport co~rdiriolls( E ~ ~ lcases

e r I to IV).

Influence of rotations in semi-rigid connections

Since completely rigid connections are almost impossible in timber structures, the --
rotations in semi-rigid joints should be taken into account when determining
buckling lengths. The rotational stiffness K, of a semi-rigid connection is defined
Part
133: I-]: 6.1 as the moment necessary to cause an angle of rotation of one radian. With tile slip
modulus K,,of the fastener, the rotational stiffness of a setni-rigid connection is
-
calculated as:

-
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where I ; denotes the distance between the single fastener and [he centre of the
conr~ection.As an example, the buckling length of the column in Figure 2 is
derived considering the influence of the rotation in the semi-rigid joint at tbe base
of the colurnn.

The approximate solutions for buckling lengths, ldcing into account the influence
of the rotation in semi-rigid joints, are valid in those cases wltere this influence
decreases the critical elastic buckling load by not more than about 20%.

Using the notation of Figure 4, the bending moment M is:

M(x) = N yCy) (2)

This results in the follotving differential equation

with the solution

y = A sin(p .v)

where
p = {mi
Using the condition
M(x=l) = N y(x=I) = K, yl(x=l)
yields

An nnalytic~tlsotution of equation (8) does not exist. However, for

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Substituting for tan (p 1) using the approximation in equa~ion(lo), the critical
elastic buckling load becomes:

Compared to the critical elastic buckling load of a two-hinged coiulnn (Euler case
11)

lCJ

the effective length factor is giveti by

Interconnected colrrrnns

IF LWO-hingedcolumns are braced by a coIulnn clamped at its base (see Figure 5),
the critical buckling load of the cla~npedcolurnn decreases due to the additional
forces Ni which cause r\ horizontal force in the deformed system. Considering the
effect of the rotation in the serni-rigid joint at the columli base, the effective length
factor for the systein shown in Figure 5 (buckling in tlie systein plane) i s
approximately:

witti a as defined as in Figure 5. The two-hinged columns braced by the clarnped

column are of course to be designed with a buckling length corresponding to their
real length,

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Arches
For three- and two-hinged arches (see Figure 6) with a ratio IT/[ between 0,15 and
0,5and essentially uniform cross-section the effective length for buckling in the
arch plane may be assumed to be
Lg = 1,25 s (15)
where s equals half the arch length. The normal h r c e at the quarter point should
be used in the buckling design.

Two- and three-hinged frames

For two- and three-hinged frames with an angle of inclination of the columns of
Iess than about 15" (see Figure 7), the following equation for the buckling length
of the colunln applies:

Figat-e 7 The-lrirrgeclf1'ff111~.

The respective buckling length of the rafter is:

where N and No denote the axial forces in the column and the rafter, respectively.
For tapered rafters or columns equations (16) and (17) may be used provided the
second ~nomentsof area of the nfter and the colulnn are taken at 0,65sand 0,6511,
respectively (see Figure 7). These second moments of area are also used to
determine the slenderness ratios.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comelt Progmmlnc B 7/5

Columns or rafters with knee bracing
The buckling lengths of the colulnns of portal frames as shown in Figure 8 (left)
and the buckling lengths of the rafters in Figure 8 (right) for buckling in the frame
-
plane can be estimated as:
lef = 2 s, + 0,7 so (18)

Figwe 8 Bor-tul frorile (left) N I I fltrec-hingedficltt~c

~ bclitll V-slrriped colitn~trs(right).

Torsional buckling of spatial frames

For axi-symmetrical structures two types of buckling may occur: the first is the
buckling within the plane of the half-frame, the second is the rotational buckling
of the spatial structure (see Figure 9). The latter is characterised by rotation OF the -
compression ring about the verticaI axis of symmetry. For 1 < P < 2 and ~ l / s< 0,2
the following approximate solution for the effective length factor for tile rdfter P
of the half-frame exists: -

Here, El is the bending stiffness of the rafter for bending about the vertical axis and
K, is the rotational stiffness of the connection between the rafter and the com-
pression ring, also for bending about the vertical axis. For tapered rafters, the
-7

bending stiffrtess is taken at a distance of 0,65 s from the semi-rigid rafter-com-

pression-ring cor~nectionsimilar to the procedure for two- and three-hinged fratnes.
-
Example
In the following example, the buckling lengths of the column and rafter of the
tbree-hinged frame shown iri Figure 10 are calculated. The influence of the semi- -
rigid conrlections in the frame corners is taken into account.

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-
 Fig1tr.e 10 Tltree-hitiger1 fratttc rclitit semi-rigid frart~c corners. I?: Rafter, C: Collln~rt.
Oarer- circle: 20 cfoio,c~els p> 24 rnn~,inlzcrr circle: 16 clowels 0 24 nufz.

prEN I 193: 1993 Glued laminated timber strength class Gt28.

E,, = 9600 N/IIII~'

p, = 410 kghi3
EC5: Part 1- 1: 4.2 K,,, = pkl" d / 20 = 410'" ' 24 1 20 = 9960 N/n~nz
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.1 K,, = 2 KT,,/ 3 = 6640 N/mut
Equation (1 ) K, = 2 - 6640 . (20 . 550% 16 . 330') = 76,9 . 10' Nntnr

Equation ( 1 6 ) Column:

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c Cornctt Progmmmc
Equation (17) Rafter:

Concluding summary
- The concept of effective length enables buckling curves for two-hinged
colutnns to be used for the practical desig1.r of con~pressionn~emberswith -
different support conditions.

- Rotations in semi-rigid connections generally decrease the elastic critical

buckling load of timber coinpression members.
-
- Where the approxitnate solutior~sgiven here do not apply, a second order
analysis should be carried out, calculating the equilibrium of momelzts and -
forces considering the deformed shape of the respective meit~beror structure.

References -
Briininghofl, H. ct 81. (1989). I-lolzbauwcrke - cine ousfilhrlicl~cErliutcrung zu DIN 1052 Tcil 1 bis
Teil 3. Beutii. Berlin Kiiln, Germany, 238 pp.

tleimesf~ori',R. (1979). Be~ncssungvon l-iolzstiir~cnmit nachgicbigcm FuOanschluU. Holzbau Statik -

Aktuell No. 3, Arbeitsgerneinsci~aitFlolz, Diisscidori, Germany.

Additional Notation -
K, Rotational stiffness of a semi-rigid connection
r, Distance between a single fastener and the centre of a connection
p Effective length factor

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 Tapered, curved and pitched
cambered beams
STEP lccture 88 Objectives
J. Elilbccl~J. Iciirth To describe tile special aspects of tapered, curved and pitched calnbered beams a i d
Univcrsit%tICi~rIsruI~c to present tlte design methods of EC5.

Prerequisites
A8 Glued laminated timber - Production and strength classes
B1 Volutne and stress distribution effects

Summary
Tile lecture starts with basic information relatecl lo stress calculations for tapered,
curved and pitched cambered beams and explains the parameters influencing the
bending strength. EC5 equations for cnlc~~lalion and design are given. Two practical
examples, one for a curved beam and the other for a pilched cambered beam,
complete the lecture.

Introduction
Glued laminated beams are often tapered andlor curved in order to m e t
architectural requirements, to provide pitched roofs, lo obtain niaxi~tiurninterior
cleara~ice,and to reduce wall height require~nentsat the end supports. Tile most
commonly used types are the single tapered beem, the curved beam with constant
cross-section, the double tapered beam and the pitched cambered beam (see
Figure I).

Fig~~1
re (0)Sil~gle tapered bec~~zr, ( b ) crtnled benrli ivirh corrsirritt cross-sectiotf.
( c ) clo~ible~crperedbeanr, (cf)pitclred caarberrd beatlr.

As a result of their shape and the ~nanufacturingprocedure, tliese beams usually

have parts with sawn taper cuts and apex zones with or withoilt curved la~i~inations,
It is reco~nrnendedillat the laminations should be parallel to the tension edge of the
beam wit11 the tapered edges located on the compression edge.

The distribution of' bending stresses in tapered beams is non-linear and therefore
should be calculated using the theory of thin anisotropic plates, taking into account
the ratios of E,:,/Ew',,
and E,JGand Poisson's ratio. For clesign purposes the maximum
bending stresses at the topered edge can be calculated approximaleiy (Riberllolt,
1979) according to simple bending theory modified by ri factor depending on the
slope of the top face (see Equation (4)).
In tlie apex zone of' curved and tapered beams the distribution of the bending
stresses is also non-linear. In the apex zone of curved and tapered beams the
distribution of the bending stresses is also nonlinear. Additionally, radial stresses
perpendicular to the grain are caused by bending moments. Figure 2 shows an
incremental section of a curved beam to illustrate the distribution of the bending
stresses. The fibres on the inner side of the beam are shorter than those on the outer
side. Based on Navier's theory and assun?illg the neutral axis at mid-depth the
strains at the edges are as follows:
Adl. Ad1
E . = I > O =
' dl, dl, E0

i r e2 Distribrttiorr qj'bendi~rgst~.esse.sin a cut~~ecl

i~ealt~.

Thus, in accordance with Hooke's law, the nlaximum bending stress 1 cr, I is greater-
I
than 1 o,,. Equilibri~~~n of the internal rorces over the cross-section is only possible
if the neutral axis is closer towards the inner edge. The distribution of the bending
stresses is therefore non-lincar and hyperbolic with the maximum stress at the inner
Fibre. For design purposes the maximum bending stresses can be calculated
approximately (Blumer, 1975, 1979) by 111odifyingkf/lV with a shape factor k, (k,
> 1, see Figure 7) which depends on the ratio of the cross-section depth a1 tlie apex,
Iz,,,,, to the radius of curvature of the centerline of the member, 1; as well as for
tapered beams on the slope of the top face, a. For cur-ved beams of constant depth,
a = 0.
Bending rnornents in curved members cause radial stresses perpendicular to the
grain. Figure 3 sl~owsthe apex section of a curved beam under a constant moment.
Assuming, for simplification, a linear stress distribution, it can easily be shown that
the resulting tensile and compressive forces, & and F,., lead to the force U in tlte
radial direction. If the rnornenl increases the radius of curvature, the radial stresses
are in tension. The maximum tcnsior~stress, max a,,,,, at the apex can bc calculated
approximately by rnodifying M/W with a shape I'accor I,, (li, <,1 , see Figure 7).

In addition to the bending stresses in glued laminated curved beams, consideration

must be given to the bending of the laminations during glulam production,
especially in beams with a sinall radius of curvature. The bending stress in a curved
lamination with thickness r, ratio of curvature r, / I = 240 ancl E,, = 10 000 Nhnnt',
is theoretically:

These stresses are reduced due to plastic deformations and relaxation, but they have

STENEUROFORTECH - an initi;~tivcundcr the EU Comeu Progrumn~e

to be taken into account in cases of large curvature. Thei-efore, the design bending
strength of the beam has to be modified by a curvature factor li,.

Figure 3 S~ressesperpericlicrrlar to grai11 utider C O I I S ~ ~ Irtiot~iet~t.

~I

Figlrre 4 St~.essesparnllel arid perpo~dicrrlurto grai~lrrrld slzear s~lzs~scs c ~ at raper.ed

henriirrg sfress, (b) fetlsile be11~1itzg
ecige tn~der;( a ) cbot~rpres.si,~e stress.

At the edges of' tapered beams with sawn tapered cuts, stresses perpendicular-to-
grain arid shear stresses coexist with bending stresses (see Figure 4). The
perpendicuiar-to-grain stresses are in co~npressionor in tension, depending on
coinpressive 01- tensile bending stresses, respectively.

This stress cornbination can be lalten into account in the design procedt~resby using
3 reduced design bending strength, J;;,.,,,as de~nonstratedin Equation (7).

Design Procedures

Sir~gletopel-ed ben~~ts
WItere the grain is parallel to one of tlte surfaces, and the slope a < lo", the design
bending stress in the outernlost fibre, where llte grain is parallel lo the surface,
sllould be calculated as (see Figure 5):

and on t11e tapered side as

STEPJEUROFORTECI-I- ;in irlitii~livcilndcr thc EU Comctt Prograrnmc B 8/3

 6Md
o,,,,,,d = (1 - 4 tan'ol) -
bk'
The rnaxil~lunlstress condition occurs at the paint s,where 30/3,~= 0. In the case
of uniformly distributed load s ~'esultsin:
x = 1 1 (1 -1. /lop 1 /is)

In the oulertnost fibre at the tapered edge the stresses should satisfy the following
condition:
-
u,,a,d ' L,a,d (6)
-
where
P

in tile case of con~pressivestresses parallel to the tapered edge (in the case of -
tensile stresses, f,,,,,,, in Equation (7) is replaced by A,,).

Dolrble tapered, crlrvecl nild pitclted cantbered bentits -

The apex design bending stress should be calculated as follows:

where Ir,, is defined in Figure G and

The slope angle a is defined in Figure 6. For curved beams wit11 constant cross-
sections, the slope angle a sliould be assumed as a: = 0".
Fiigrtre 6 Elel~atiarzalrd s~rc!ss di.\*tribrrtiolz nt npcx ,far ( a ) iionble tuperccl bemrl,
(b) pitclted cur~rberaclDenr~r.

The design tensile stress perpendicular to the grain due to the bending ~noment
should be calculated as follows:

where

with
1c5= 0,2 tana

k, = 0,25 - 1,s tana + 2,6 t d c t (17)

Mi,,,,,, is the design bending snoment at the apex. In the apex zone, the design
bending stresses sllall satisfy the following condition:
'm,d ' krf;n,d (1 9)
where
I for r , , It
k r = \ 0,76 + 0,001 r,, It for
2 240

q,,It. < 240

In tile apex zone the design tensile stress perpendicular to llie grain should satisfy
tile following condition:
'r,eo,d ' k d ~(0' lv)O'z-6.9o.d (21)

where k,,is a Pictor which takes into account the stress distribution. The ratio of
the reference volume I/,,= 0,OI 1 1 1 ~to the stressed volume V considers the influence
of the volume on the perpendicular-to-grain tensile strength (see STEP lecture B1).
I/ should as a rnaxirnum be taken as 2/3 of tile whole beam volume Y,, (see
Table 1).

STEPEUROPORTECFI - an iniiiillivc undcr thc EU Comctt Programme

 1.0 0,oo
0 0,l 0 0,3 0.4 0,s 0 0,l 0,2 0,3 0.4 0,5
l'cl,P fr I1'IP /r

Figtire 7 I;crctoia k, nrld k, ,for-d@e~.errtt-uc1itt.s of crrt-rlatlim, r; atrd slope angles, a.

Curved beam wit11 P b ( /to,,2

constantcross- k,, = 1,4 V= - + 2
Zri,,hOp)s ?V6
180
section

Double tapered 2 tana 2

beam k, = 1,4 V = bltop ( 1 - -) 5 - V6
4 3

Pitched cambered
beam k,, = I,7 V = b sinacosa ( r , + /r,,J2 - ria - s -
180 3

Table I Fclctor k , , arrd vollrtrre I/ for d[ffercfrttype.s of Beatils.

Design examples
Curved i~enuzptritl~ constci~~t
CI.OSS-S~C~~~~Z
Material: Glued laminated timber made of spruce. Strength class GL28 according
lo prEN 1194 "Glued laminated timber - Strength classes and
determination of characteristic values"

Figure 8 Elc~~atiorr c111dS~I.E.SSdtstribtttior~ut ~ e - ~ jcrrrved

u r fienrtl of cotlstarlt cross-
secriorl trr~cler~itlifOrt?t
load qtP

STENEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative under lhc EU Cornctt Progranlrnc

Design bending stress and design tensile stress at apex:

v=1,40m3 kd,=1,4 k,=1,0

Characteristic material properties (CL28, prEN 1194):

.f;n,A,I.= 28 N/tntrrz = 0,45 ~ h t m "

The design bending and tension perpendicular to the grain strengths are:

Verification of failure condition:

Pitched canlbei-ed benit1

System and loading as before; apex with glued haunch (see Figure Gb).
Depth at apex: A,,, = 1,32 nl Radius: I- = 19,50 +. 1,32/2 = 20, I G tn

Design stress perpendicular to the grain at apex ( a = p = 10'):

wit11: V = 1.55 1n3, k,,,= 1,7, k, = 1,0

k,, = 0,2 tanlo' + ( 0,25 - 1,5 tan 10' + 2,6 tan210' ) . 0,065
c ( 2,l tanlo' - 4 tati210' ) . 0,065" 0,041

Verification of failure condition:

or,,,,, = 0,249 N / I ? I I ? J ~ > k,,/ I<,,& , = 0,36 * 1,7 . 0,277 = 0,172 ~ / ~ i t l l t ~

The failure condition of the perpendicular-to-grain tensile stress is not satisfied. This
compared to the curved beam. One reason is the fact that in Equations
is s~~sprising

-
STEP/EUROFORTECIJ :In initiniivc under I I I ~EU Cornctl Programme I3817
(14)-(18) a constant Inornent is assumed to act in the curved part of' the beam. A
more accurate calculation shows that the stresses in a pitched cambered beam under
uniformly distributed loads are 20 % less, whereas the stresses in the curved beam -
remain aln~ostunchanged (Ehlbeck, ICutth, 1990). Nevertheless, differences exist
between the results from tile design methods of' EC5 and test results showi~igthat
both beam types have similar failure loads. -
Concluding summary
- [n single tapered, curved, double tapered and pitched cambered beams the
tensile bending stresses at the inner edge are greater than in straight beams.
-
- In curved zones with a bending moment increasing the radius of curvature,
tension stresses perpendicular to the grain occur.
-
- Tapered edges reduce the bending strength because of' the combined effects
of bending, compression, tension and shear parallel and perpendicular to the -
grain.

- Bending of the laminates in curved beains reduces the bending strength when -
the radius of curvature is small.

References -
Blumcr, 14. (1975). Spannungshcrcchnung an Brcttschichtholz ]nit gckriimn~ter Lingsachse und
ver9ndcrlichcr TriigcrhBhc. In: I~loizbau(Ziirich) (6): 158-1 6 1; (7): I9 1- 194: (8): 235-737.

Blumcr. 14. (1979). Spannurtgsbcrcchnung :In anisotropcn Krcishogcnschcibcr~und Sattcldachtriigern

kons~anterDickc. Vcriifie~~tlichung dcs Lchrstuhls fur Ingcnicurholzhau und Baukonsin~ktionct~,
-
Univcrsillil Karlsruhc (Tfl), Dcutschland.

Ehlbcck, J. and Kilnh, J. (1990). EinlluO dcs qucnugheimspruchtcn Volumcns ouf dic TragMhigkcit -
gckriimmtcr 'f'riigcr konst;~ntcr EIBhe tlnd gckriimmtcr S;~ttcldachir;igcraus Brcttscl~ichtholz.
Forschungsbcricht dcr Vcrsuchsnnstalt for Stahl, I-lolz und Stcine. Abt. Ingcnicurholzbau, Uni\fcrsitPt
Kadsrutlc (TIJ). Dcutschland.
-
Ribcrholt, 1-1. (1979). T:~pcrcdtirnbcr beams. In: Proc. ol' the CLB W18 Mecling, Wicn, Ostcrrcich,
Paper I 1-10-2.

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - an initiative undcr the EU Comett Programme

 Glued thin-webbed beams

STEP Iccturc 139 Ohjectives

f<.H. Sotfi To introduce glued thin-webbed I-beams and box beains and to explain the
-. Norwegian lnsliiutc background to the design method given in EC5.
of Wood Tcchnoiogy
Prerequisites
- A4 Wood as a building material
A10 Wood-based panels - Plywood
A1 1 Wood-based panels - Fibre board, particle board and OSB
- A17 Serviceability limit states - Deformations

Summary
The lecture starts with a general description of a thin-webbed beam. It then
covers the necessary design controls based on E C ~and provides n brief
lieo ore tical background. A design example is given.

Introduction
A glued thin-webbed bean1 conlprises three main parts as follows:
- flanges,
- web,
- and glued joints between flanges and web.

The flanges are often tnade of finger jointed structur~nltilt~ber,but they can also
be made of otller materials such as glued laminated timber or laminated veneer
lurnber (LVL). The main purpose of the flanges is to carry the stresses caused by
bending moments and axial forces. Since tlre flanges normally have slnait
dimensions it is important that the material has few and smalf defects.

Tile web (or webs) are made of different wood-based panel materials such as
plywood, particleboard, fibreboard etc. Tile main purpose is to carry the stresses
from shear forces. For long beams it may be necessary to have joints in the web.
If the web joints are put in regions with low shear force they can be made as
butt joints. If not it will be necessary to reinforce tile web joint. It may also be
necessary to reinforce the web at the supports. The reinforcement can be made
with gusset plates of wood-based panels which are nailed or glued to the web.
The reinforced web at joints and supports must be designed to accom~nodatethe
actual shear forces.

Production
Glued thin-webbed beams are normally produced in an industrial process. To
achieve an adequate glued connection between the web and the flanges it is
important that the temperature is correct (see STEP lecture Al2). It is illso
important that the faces of tile Ranges have been planed and cleared just before
gluing and that the moisture content in both the flange and web materials is
under control.

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - nn initiative undcr thc EU Conlctt Progmmmc

Use of glued thin-webbed beams
Glued thin-webbed beams have a high load capacity and stiffness compared with
their weight. This make them easy to handle. They can also be easily rt~odiried
-
by hand tools. Such beams cart be used principally in the saine places as solid
timber. For floor and roof constructions where it is diSf'ictrlt to obtain large
enough sections of solid timber and where glued laminated timber [night be too -
expensive (i.e. for a span of 5 - S m ) glued thin-webbed bearns often are used.

When the glued thin-webbed beams are used as ~uernbersin lloor, roof and wall -
constructions the depth of the beam ~niglitbecome quite big (300 - 500 17zr11).
This makes it easy to accommodate different types of technical equipment. The
depth will also give roonl for enough insulation material where this is required.
In countries with cold wintcrs the di~nertsionof' the studs are defined by the
-
demand of insulation thickness. By using a glued thin-webbed profile it is
possible to optimize the material consun~ed.
-
The use in seiavice class 3 might be Iiniited because of the web material's
restrictions for use in this class.
-
Special aspects of production and transport
The stiffness about the z-axis is vely low compared with the y-axis. This must
bc considered during the production and all transportation phases from factory to -
the building she. The web materials are in addition very sensitive to clamage
caitsed by trarlsportation and handling.
-
The beams ~niistbe kept under dry conditions during the building period. IL' the
moisture content in the web becomes too high, the risk of getting non-eiastic
deforn~ationsin the final construction is high.
-
Lateral stability
Flanges which carry compression stresses rnust be supported to prevent lateral
deflection and buckling. When the beams are used in floor cotistn~ctionas --

sirnply supported beal~lsthe connection between the compression flange and the
floor oficn will be sufficient to avoid lateral instability. Care must be taken
where the cottipression stress changes from one flange to the other, as for -
example at the il.ltermediate support of' a continuous beam.

EfFective values toor the cross-section -

It is a presumption in the calculations shown later that llte web and flanges are
glued together to form a stt-uctural unit. It is also assumed that the variation of
strain over the deplh of tile beam is linear. Based on Hooke's law t11e stress at a
certain point can be expressed by the product of the strain and the modulus of -
elasticity. A bean1 may be built up with materials which have different rnoduli of
elasticity leading to different stresses at the same depth. Figure I shows an
example ol' how the stresses might vary for such a beat11 profile sub-jected to a --
bending moment.

Since the rnoditli of' elasticity are different over the cross-section, it is cotnmon -
practice to calculate so-called effective values for the cross-section. This can be
done by regarding the whole profile as one homogeneous material with the same
properties as the flange material. The contribution from the web ~llustthen be
reduced in proportion to the ratio of the moduli of elasticity.

STEP/EUROFORTECbI - :in iniiiativc under rl~cEU Colnclt Progrclmrne

Figrrra I Exantpie of .srrcsse.s i?;igirted I - a~idBus beams.

Effective area:

Effective second moment of aren:

Because the distribution of the stresses within a co~npositecross-section changes

over time due to the different creep behaviour of the components, the stresses
have to be calculated at instantaneous and at final deformation.

Control. of the stresses in the flanges

In a beam profile canying a bending moment most of the stresses in the flanges
are caused by axial compressive or tensile stresses. The portion of pure bending
will be quite small. For a symmetrical profile carrying only bending inolnent the
stresses in the compression and tensile flanges will have the same absolute
values. If the beam in addition to the bending moment also carries axial
compression or tensile actions, the fiange stresses shall be calculated as the sum
of stresses from the ~nomentand from the axial Forces.

Flirirgw
The n~aximun~ stress in the extreme fibres of the compression flange is given by
the following equation:

The axial stress at the centre of: gravity of the compression flange is given by the
following equation:

where

STEPIEUROPORTECI-I- an initiative undcr the EU Cometi Progrnrnmc 0913

 kid is the design value of the bending moment,
yo is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the ultilnate fibres
of tile flange. For sy~nmetricalcross-sections y,, = hl2 when h is the depth
of the beam,
is the axial load (in addition to the bending moment), can be compressive
or tensile, and
y, is the distance between the neutral axis of the bearm and the centre of
gravity in the compression flange.

EC5: Pnrt 1-1: 5.3.1 When the actual stresses are calcu1aled they must be compared with the design
strength values of the Flange:
'~c.rrmr,d'fm,d (5)

Where k,, is a factor which takes into account lateral instability. The factor 14.
may be determined (conservatively, especially for box beams) according to EC5,
5.2.1 with

EC5:Part 1 - I : 5.3.i(3) A rnb

= ----...-1, (7)

I, is the distance between the sections where lateral deflection of tlie compression
flange is prevented, and O is the thickness of the flange.

The stresses in the tensile flanges are calculated accordingly.

Control of axial stresses in the web

The main purpose of tlie web is to carry the stresses From shear forces but the
web will also have to t,&e some of the stresses caused by the bending moment
and axial loads. Therefore the web capacity must also be controlled in
accordance with these stresses. Since the strain variation is assumed to be linear
over the depth, the web stresses can be expressed by the following general
equation:

When the equation is corrected in accordance to the actual load duration and
service class, it can be expressed as:

As shown earlier the stresses in the flange are given by:

where y , is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the point
where he stress value is calculated.

Co~~rpression
side of tlie web
Thc maximum stress in the compression zone of the web can be calculated ns:
 where g,,,,,, is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the
compression edge of the web.

This stress shall satisfy the following condition:

EC5: Part 1-1; 5 . 3 . 1 ~ CI,~:c,max,dsfc,tcgd (12)

Tensile side of flze web

The maximum stress in the tensile zone of the web can be calculated as:

where )I,,,., is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and the tensile
edge of the web.

This stress shall satisfy the following condition:

EC5: part 1-1: 5.3.lf 'tv,f,mn,d 'fi,,v,d (14)
and .f;,,,,., are the compressive and tensile bending strengths of the web.
J;.,,l,,rr

Unless other values are given, tile design compressive and tensile strength of the
web should be taken as the in-plane design compressive and tensile strengths.

Shear stresses in the web

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.1 Unless a detailed buckling analysis is made it should be verified that:
h,,, 70 b,, (15)

Vds 5 ,n 1 + ( ) r 70 blv
for 35 b,,,r itv

where

V,, is the design value of the shear force in the actual section,
x,,f;,,,,,,is the design panel shear strength,
ti is the number of webs.

Shear stresses irz tlie gIlted joiizt befiveen the flnizges mtd the web
As previously mentioned it is advantageous that the capacity of the glue-line is
higher than the corresponding capacities of the flange and web material.
Normally the weakest link in this joint will be the rolling shear strength of the
web, f;,,,,,. It is assumed that the *design shear stress (T,,,,,,,,,)at the actual section
is uniformly distributed.

T,,,,,, can be expressed by the following equation:

where 5'' is the first moment of plane area for a flange, calculated from the

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initislive under the EU CornetL Progrnmme B 915

 neutral axis of the beam cross-section and I, is the total length of the glue-line in
the same flange.

ECS: Pert 1-1: 5.3.1 The calculated shear stress shaI1 satisfy the followil~gcondition:
t ~ c o n , dsJ;:95,~,d

r,,lm,d .,
!
,I. ,I. d ir
4 b,,l
for 19s 4 b,,

for. l y 4 b,,,
(19)

Example

Figure 2 shows the actual cross-section.

Service class 2
M, = 5,O kvtn F , = 18kN V, = 4,8 kN

The actions are assumed to consist of 25% permanent load and 75% medium-
term load.

Flanges: strength class C30 according to prEN 338,

Lrsd= 1 8,5 Nhttttz2 . = 14,2 Nht~nz' k, z 0,95
.~sl,, = 1 1 I El = 12000 N/IIIIII'?

Web: particleboard according to EN 312-6, r = 10 ~rini.

.f;
#.,+
,. = 5.97 ~/nlrrl' , = 4,44 ~/,rlin' , = 3,30 N ~ I z ~ '
.f;,,q,l,il= 0,804 N/nttn2 E ",,.,, = 2475 N/iilm3

Medium-term: k , = 0,75 kt,,,,, = 0.55

Permanent: k,, = 2,25

Since the particleboard web shows larger creep deflections than the solid timber
flanges, the norrnal stresses in the flanges will increase and in the web decrease
in time. Consequently, the normal stresses in rlte web are calculaled at
inshnlaneous and in the flanges at final deformalion.

STEP/EUROFORTECII - an initiative unclcr the EU Comett Programme

 For contt-01 nr btstnl~tnlzeousdeforiantiun

For- cuntr-01 at .fiizni!dcfor-incr fion

Cotttror! of' coiltpressi~~e

flange at firtnl defor-rnation

Co~ztrolof con~plasskestrass in the web at insta~~tnneorts

defoi.~?l~tio~i

STEP/EUROPORTECH - an initiative under [he EU Comctt Prograrnmc

Control oj'tensile stress in tile web at irzstailtnrzeorts defor~~iation

Corttrol of tile shear stress in the web

h,,,= 100 m m <70 b,, = 700m1n
h,,< 35 b,, = 350~21~

[ (50iF)]
V d = 4 , 8 W ~ 1 0 . 1 010+0,5 --- 3,30 = 4,95 W

Corzrrol of the shear stress in the glued joint befivee~rj7cirzges and Web nt
filzal defom~atiorr
Since the normal stresses in the flanges will increase in time, the shear stresses
in the glueline between web and flanges will also increase. ConseqtientIy, the
shear stresses in the glueline are calculated at find deformation.

Calculation of deflections
Deflections of glued thin-webbed beams are calculated according to the same
principles as given for solid timber. NevertheIess it is important to remember
that the shear deflection in this case also has to be considered.

The deflection from a given load is then expressed by:

where A and B denote factors given by the type of load and the structural
system. Unless a more detailed analysis is made, the shear deflection can be
based on the real area of the web (A,,,),

STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Colnett Prograrnmc

 Stressed skin panels

STEP lecture B 10 Objectives

J.G.M.Raadschcldcrs, To present a procedure for calculating stresses rrnd deflections of stressed skin
M.J. Blnss panels and to introduce the concept of effective flange widtl~.
Delft University
or Technology Prerequisites
B4 Shear and torsion
B I I Mecllanically jointed beams and colu~nns

Summary
The lecture begins with a general description of the layout of stressed skill panels.
Tlte concept of the effective flange width is introduced and the composite action
between webs and panels, depending on the type of connection, is explained.
Finally the calculation method is demonstrated.

Another fonn of stressed skin pnnel is the sandwich panel where wood-based panel
flanges are separated by an intermediate core such as foam or honeycomb. The
principles of the design method of this panel are outlined at the end of the lecrure.

Introduction
Stressed skin panels consist of webs in the direction of the span connected with
wood-based sheets forming tlle skins on one or both sides. In most cases the webs
are made frotn solid timber whereas the sheets may consist of plywood, OSB,
particleboard or fibreboard. The connection can either be glued or made with
mechanicaf fasteners such as nails, staples or screws. Stressed skin panels are
mostly used in prefabricated timber frame construction as bending members for
floors and roofs or as walls loaded in compression, bending and racking. Due to the
connection between webs and flanges the stressed skin panel acts as a composite
rnelnber and consequently the bending stiffness and bending capacity will exceed
the values of the webs alone.

Figtrc I Co~~,s~rrrcriott of a slrcs.~cdskirt punel. (a) ~wb.r,(f3) Blocks nnrIf7angc splices,

( c ) jlu~lges,(cl) .srres.sed skiri pariel.

Structural layout of stressed skin panels

The dimensions of stressed skin panels x e primarily limited by transpork and
erection. Stressed skin panels used as walls are about 2,50 m in height and up to
I0 IPI in length, and the web units span vertically. The width of floor or roof panels
lies norinally between 1,25 111 and 2,50 nt and should correspond to the dimension
of the sheets for 111aximumeconomy. With sawn tirnber webs the usual spans are
between 5 and 6 11).

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initi:ttivc undcr the EU Comctl Progmrnmc B 10/1

Flanges
The thickness of wood-based panels used as flanges is usually between 10 nzm and
19 tttrrt. If plywood is used the grain-direction of the ,face veneer can either be
-
oriented perpendicular or parallel to the webs. The choice of the direction is
influenced by the web spacing (bending of flooring) and the method of production.
If the orientation is perpendicular to the webs, the bending capacity of the flanges -
between the webs is higher allowing larger web spacings. In this case, however, the
strength and stiffness of the wood-based panel acting as part of the composite
member is smaller compared with an orientation parallel to the webs. If large panels -
are prefabricated, tile wood-based panel sheets have to be connected by splice
joints. These joints can be made as glued scarf or finger joints or as lap joints using
blocks on the inside of the panel. Fewer joints will be necessary if the longer
direction is parallel to the webs. In designing stressed skin panels care needs to be
-
taken to check the direction of the face grain in ~*eiationto the longest side of the
panel.
-

Figure 2 Gl~rcdjoirtrs for-tfie cotr~recriotiofJatlge ycrrtols. ( a ) splice joitr f, (6) fitrgcr

joitlt, (c) S C N I joitzt.
~

Webs
Apart from sawn timber, glued laminated timber, wood-based panels or
prefabricated I-beams can be used for the webs. The thickness of sawn timber webs
for wall panels is usually between 38 ~ n r t tand 80 ~rrazand the depth between 80 I ~ I ~ I
and 200 tttm. For floor or roof panels the corresponding dimensions are between 38
rnttt and 63 nzm for the thickness and 150 ~nnrto 300 mnz for the depth. The depth
of the webs is not only influenced by the necessary stiffness and load-carrying
capacity of the stressed skin panel but also by the thickness of insulation layers. If
mechanical fasteners are used in the joints, the minimurn edge distances of the
fasteners have to be considered when detennining the web thickness. In glued
stressed skin panels the narrow edges of sawn timber webs have to be planed
(regularised) before gluing. The web spacing usually lies between 300 ~nnrand 625
rurrt and for efficiency should be related to the sheeting size.

Co~~?zections
In the case of glued panels, the connection between flange and web is assumed to
be infinitely stiff. Consequently, a linear strain distribution over the depth of the
composite cross-section may be assumed. In the case of mechanically jointed
panels, however, the slip between flange and web has to be taken into account (see
STEP lecture B 1 1).

Effective flange width

Due to shear deformations, the normal stresses in the centre plane of the
ut-isupported area of the flanges are not uniformly distributed (see Figure 3). The
contributions of the flanges to the bending stiffness and bending capacity of the
-
composite cross-section consequently decrease with increasing distance from the
nearest web. The extent of the stress decrease rnainly depends on the ratios bI/l and
E/G. Here, b, is the web spacing, I is the span, E is the modulus of elasticity of the -
flange in the direction of the span of the stressed skin panel and G its shear

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programrnc
 modulus. The effective flange width decreases with increasing ratios E/G and b,/I.
A mathematical derivation of the effective flange width, taking into account the
shear defomation in the flange can be found in Mohler et a!. (1963). The resulting
ratio between the effective and actual flange width brJlhJ for uniforn~lyloaded
beams on two supports is:

where

a1 = A, * bf
- 2 2

and where pv is Poisson's ratio.

In order to be able to use the elementary beam theory in the calculation of stressed
skin panels, the concept of the effective flange width is used. The effective flange
width be, is defined as the width of an idealised flange cross-section where the
normal stress in the centre of the flange resulting from elementary bean theory
equals the maximum stress according to the correct theory, taking into account the
shear deformations in the flanges. The total flange force thus remains the same and
gives the same moment of resistance.

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.2 EC5 gives the following approximation for the effective flange width b,,. for I-
beams (or internal beams), respectively:
b, = 4 , + 4, for b ~ +,b , 1 3 (8)

and for C-beams (or edge beams), respectively:

bd = 03 bCsd b,, (or 0,5 b,,cJ bb,)
+ +

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctl Programme B 1013

The values of b,, and bLefshould not be greater thail the maxirnutn value calculated
for the shear lag. In addition the value of b,,, should not be greater than the
maximum value caiculated for plate buckling. The values according lo EC5 are
-
given in Table 1.

Flange material Shear lag Platc buckling

-
Plywood, with grain direction in tlie outer plies:
-
-
parallel to the webs
perpendicular to the webs
0,I 1
0,I 1
25 11,
20 lrf
-
Oriented strand board 0,15 1 25 11,
Particleboard or fibreboard with random tibrc
orientation
0,2 1 30 11, -
Tuble I kIc~~irtucrn
effcctille flrl~lgert~idthsrl~reto shenr Irlg atrcl p1c1te biickli~~g.
-
Figure 4 shows the effective flange width according ro equation (1) and the
corresponding approximation of EC5 for shear lag. Most stressed sicin panels in
practice show ratios b,/l slnaller that1 0,3.

0,o -1 I I II II

0,O 0,3 o,4 o,G 0,8 l,0

b,./l
Eflective flange ~ v i d t luccordir~g
~ to eqrrutio~l( 1 ) and EC5. (n) pc~r~iclebocrrd
erj~cltiorr( I ) , (b) purticlebo~~rd
EC5, ( c ) plyltmod eqllatiotl ( I ) , ((1)ply~~oacl
EC5.

Flanges loaded in compression are prone to buckling. A detailed buckling analysis

can be carried out for example according to von Halhsz and Csiesielslci (1966). If
a detailed buckling investigation is not made, the clear flange width b, should not
be greater than twice the effective width to avoid plate buckling. For nailed or
stapled stressed skin panels the withdrawal capacity of the nails has to be sufficient
to anchor the sheets against buckling.
b,f 4,- 4% ,I.
4.

STEPJEUROFORTECI-I- an inilintivc under (he EU Co~ncllProgamrnc

Glued stressed skin panels
The equations needed to calculate the bending stiffness and the stresses in the
different components of a stressed skin panel with a flange on the top are given
below. Glued stressed skin panels are calculated assuming rigid joints between
flange and web.

Figrtre 6 Cross secfioti of n g h e d ,strcrsscci ski11pa~rcl.I u'errores t11cJa)ige. 2 rhe wreb.

The effective bending stiffness is:

2

The compression stress acting at the centre OF the flange is:

The compression stress at the top of the flange is:

The tension stress at the centre of the web is:

The bending stress at the bottom of the web is:

The shear stress at the joint between the web m d the flange is:

For stressed skin panels with flanges at both top and bottom and for mechanically
jointed stressed skin panels reference is made to EC5 Appendix B and STEP lecture
B11.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under rhc EU Comctt Progrnmmc B 1015

 Design example
A stressed skin panel used as a flat roof bending member on two supports, span
I = 4.7 nr, web spacing bf + b,, = 625 nun, nailed connection between flanges and
-
web. The design example only covers the stresses at the instantaneous deformation.
A tnethod for determining the stresses at the final deformation, using the
appropriate values of k,,,, is s11ow1.1in STEP lecture B9. -
Characteristic and design values of permanent and variable load per web for the
governing load case: -
permanent load: g, = 0,31 kN/t,i g , = 0,42 kN/r)z (permanent)
variable load: q, = 1,25 kNha q, = 1,88 kN/t~r (medium-term)

Top flange: US Plywood C-C, Exterior, Group 1, unsanded according to EN

-
112.406 "Wood-based panels. Characteristic values for
established products." d = 16 111111, three layers, orientation of the
face veneer perpendicular to the webs. -
Webs: Strength class C22 according to prEN 338 "Structural timber.
Strength classes". O x h = 40 x I80 NINI.
Bottorn flange: US Plywood C-C, Exterior, Group 1, unsanded according to EN
112.406. d = 11,5 t?tuz, 5 Iayers, orientation of the face veneer
perpendicular to the webs.

EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7 Service class I : k,,,,, = 0.8 (solid timber and plywood)

Characteristic material properties:

prEN 338: 1991 The characteristic strength values as well as the modulus of ehsticity are talcen from
prEN 338 and EN 112.406, respectively. For the modulus of elasticity and the
E C ~ Part
: 1-1: B2(1) slip modulus of the nails, the mean value is used in the design although an ultimate
limit state is considered.

Top flange: .fnt.vo.k = 12,l N/tt1ni2 h,9u,k = 8,4 N/tnin2

Ec,.~.nrmtt = 5600 Nhnm' E
, , , , ,o,c = 4400 N / n ? t ; ~ ~
GK,,~,., = 500 Nhat~t' p, = 41 0 kg/ni3

Webs: fn1.k = 22,O N/III~H' = 2,4 N . t t ? ~ n ~

E O ~ , ~ ~ , ~= 10000 N / I ~ I ~ I $p, = 340 kg/,,i3

Bottom flange: f,,,,, = 12,9 N/tnrn2 &,,,o,k = 7,2 Nhnni2

Er.o.tr*ean = 7000 N h ~ l i l i ~ ,,,, = 4700 N/t?tm2
Glj.nlrl,n = 500 N/I~ZIII' p, = 4 10 kg/ni3
Nails: d = 4,O rnrn s = 40 tntlt
&'Yak = 6620 Ntnnt
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.2.1 The design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener of the nailed panel-
to-timber joints is:
Top flange - web: R,t = 903 N
Bottom flange - web: R,, = 842 N

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.3 The instantaneous slip modulus per shear plane per fastener of the nailed panel-to-
timber joints results as:
K,, = 583 Nhtznt

B 1016 STEPEUROFORTECM - an initintivc under thc EU Comctt Programme

 Effective flange width:
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.2 I = 20 . 16 = 320 I ~ ? I ? I
b,, = O,l I = 0,l -4700 = 470 II1177

top flange: b,, = b , , + b , = 320 + 40 = 360 nirn < 625 171111

bottom flange: b,,/= b,,, -t b,,.= 470 + 40 = 510 rrrmr < 625 lnrn

According to Mohler er al. (1963), an effective flange width for the top and the
bottom flange of b,/ = 567 ~ m nand b,, = 564 I I I I ~ I ,respectively, results.

The effective bending stiffness of the cross-section is calculaled according to EC5

Annex 3. Table 2 shows the results of the calculation including the corresponding
equation numbers taking into account the effective flange width according to EC5
as well as according to Mohler et al. (1963).

Equation No. EC5 Mijhler et al. (1963)

I i , (nirn) 16 16
11, (tl1111) 180 180

Table 2 Calcltlatioti of cflecrii~ebetdbig srifjiress accordi~rgto EC5 A1tt1e.r B.

Design shear force:

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 Design bending moment:

Md = (gd + 4d) l 2 - (0242 * 1,881 4700' = 6,35 . 106 N~~~~

8 8
For the calculation of the design stresses, the effective bending stiffness based on
the effective flange width according to EC5 is used.

EC5: Part 1-1: B3a Design compression stress in the top flange:

EC5: Pnrt 1-1: B3a, B3b Design bending stress in EIle web:

EC5: Pnri 1-1: B3a Design tension stress in the bottom flange:

EC5: Part 1-1: B4 Design shear stress in the web:

With k = 0,5 11, -t- a? = 89 ~ ? l r ~the

z design sliear stress results in:

ECS: Part 1-1: 65 Design fastener toad in the top flange:

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EC5: Part I - t : I35 Design fastener load in the bottom flange:

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.2(5) A detailed buckling analysis is not necessary since the clear flange width h, = 585
is smaller than twice the effective width due to plate buckling:
I ~ I I ~

Instantaneous deflection:
- 5 kk + qx-1 "1 5 (0,31 + 1,25) . 47005 1
21,2 rnrn = -
"imr - 384 ( E l ) , 384 . 469 . lo9
=
222

Sandwich panels
Sandwich panels with faces consisting of wood-based panels and a core of
expanded foam are increasingly used as walls or roofs in timber frame buildings
and as roof eIemenis for industrial buildings. The faces often consist of
particleboard, the core of polyuretl~aneor polystyrene foams.

Using the following assumptions, three layer sandwich panels can be calculated
EC5: Part 1-1: Annex I3 as mechanically jointed components:

- the norinal stresses in the foam core in the direction of the member axis are
disregarded,

- the shear deformations in the foam core are taken into account by replacing
the joint stiffness K/sin a mechanicaIly jointed component by G,,,,,llt for the
sandwich panel. Here, K is the slip modulus and s the fastener spacing, G,,,,,
is the shear modulus and A the thickness of the foam.

A detailed description of the calculation of sandwich panels is given in Aicher and

von Rot11 (1987) and in Aicher (1987).

Concluding summary
- Stressed skin panels are primarily used as bending members in floors and
roofs and as compression members in walls.

- Due to shear deformations in the wood-based panel sheeting the flanges

contribute only partly to the composite cross-section. In stressed skin panels
where the conneclions between web and flange are made with mechanical
fasteners, the slip in the connections has also to be talcen into account.

- For maximum economy, the size of stressed skin panels as well as the web
spacing should col-respond to the di~nensionsof the wood-based panels.

References
Aicher, S. and von Roll), W. (1987). Ein modjfizierles 7-Vcrf~hrcnfur das mechnnische Analogon:
Sandwictlvcrbund - zwciteiiiger verschieblicher Vcrbund. Bautechnik 64 (1): 21-29.
dreiscl~icl~tiger

S%PEUROFORTECII - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme 13 10/9

Aicher, S. (1987). Bcrncssung biegcbeanspmchtcr Sandwichbalken rnit dcrn modifiziertcn Y-
Verfahren. Bautcchnik 64 (3): 79-86.
-
Mbhlcr, K., Abdct-Saycd, G. and Eltlbeck, J. (1963). Zur Bcrcchnu~igdoppelsci~aiiger.gclcimtcr
Talelelernente. 1-Iolz als Roll- und Werkstoff 21: 328-333.

VOIIt-Ialdsz, R. and Csiesielski, E. (1966). Berecilnung und IConstruktion gclcimter Trlgcr rnit Stcgen -
nus Furnierplatten. Bcrichtc aus dcr Bauforschung, Heft 47, W. Ernst und Sohn, Berlin, Germany.

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Conlett Programme

 Mechanically jointed
beams and columns
STEP lecture I3 1 1 Objectives
14. Krcuzingcr To explain the computation and design of mechanically jointed beams and columns,
Tcchnische Univcrsit8i to provide analytical solutions, and to illustrate the use of computer programs.
Miincheri
Prerequisites
B2 Tension and colnpression
B3 Bending
B6 Colunu~s
C1 Joints

Summary
An exn~npleof a beam made of two parts is illustrated, for wl~ichnnalytical
solutions for computing stresses and deformations are derived, The possibjlity of
using a computer program for the design of such beams is indicated. A design
example is provided.

Introduction
Cross-sections of beams or columns may be composed of several components,
connected by mecllanical joints. Longitudinally h e cross-sections are not jointed.
In the junction between the individual composites, the mechanical joints mairlly
carry shear forces.

Thus a wide variety of cross-sections (see Figures 1 and 2) ]nay be built. The
dowelled beam is known from ancient timber constructiorrs. Adding additional
cross-section parts is a suitable way of strengthening an existing profile. These parts
may be of solid timber, glued laminated timber or wood-based materials.

For coiumns, cross-sectional parts are often separated by gussets at a given distance.
Especially for beams the cross-section with two flanges connected by a web, which
carries tile shear, is very common. The flanges may be of solid timber or glued
lalninated timber, the web may be of planks, wood-based panels or lately steel. It
is also possible to build a co~npositestructure from a concrete piate and a timber
tension flange.

Figtire 2 Ctoss-secfiorrs~vitlrt i t a firlgcs orid rfiscrerc or- rotr~irtrtarcscorrnccriorr.

-
STEP/EUROFOR'I"ECH an initiative under the EU Come(l Proprammc BII/I
Semi-rigid joint
The connection of a number of cross-sections is made by mechanical fasteners such
as nails, boIts, dowels or nail plates (glued joints are regarded as rigid connections).
-
Each joint is stressed by shear forces causing a displacement. The relation between
the displacement of the cross-section parts 11 and the force is specified by the slip
modulus K. Figure 3 shows some corninon patterns of joints, the dispfacernent u -
and the shear force v .

Figrrre 3 Displncelr~entaiicf slrear j?)rcr bettoeerr the paus.

For the computation, and in order to develop application equations, it is necessary

to distribute the joints continuously along the beam. The effect of this is a
continuously acting shear force v, such that:

If the distance between the fasteners is considerable or if the joints are concentrated
at very few points, the computational model of a continuous joint: is no Ionger valid,
and a different mechanical model is required, for instance a frame model.

Computation methods

Beants
For beam design the following parameters are required: stresses a and t in all --
parts, forces in the joints and deflections. For mechanically jointed beams, the
bending-theory for beams is no longer applicable because of the slip in the joints.
However, the theory is applicable to individual components.
--
Analytical solutions are developed by use of differential equations of equilibrium
(Mohler, 1956; Heimeshoff, 1987) or energy considerations and specially developed
design programs are available, see for example Icneidi (1991). The development of ..
the differentia1 equations is conveniently shown in a T-cross-section rnade of two
parts (Figtlre 4).

The solutions require that for every part simple bending-theory is valid and shear
displacelnent is omitted. The connection is regarded as continuous and the profile
and the joint stiffness are constant in the direction of the beam's axis.

STEPIEUROFORTECM - an iniliotivc under thc EU Comcii Programme

The deformations are (see Figure 5):

rr,, fr2 are the longitudinal displacelnent of the axis of cross-section I and 2,
rv is the co~nmonbending deflection and
ti is the relative displacement of the cross-section parts at the location of the joints.

II =
;)
15 - I',+ w ,(I;- + 2 = u2 - ul + w ' a

ir is independent of the position of the joints. The critical di~nensionis the distance
a of the axes of the cross-sectional parts. The derived equations are not only valid
for cross-sectional parts located one upon another, as shown in the T-profile, they
also apply to cross-sectional parts located side by side. This is only true if shear
deformation is neglected.

Elasticity principles matching the simple bending theory:

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative ul~dcrthe EU Conlctt Progmmmc

Equilibrium of the two elements iri x and z direction: [I'I= 0, ( N , + N,)' = 01
-
N,' + \' =0 (7) M~' = v l - v -"11 (gal
2

The sum of ( 9 4 and (9b) is differentiated once with respect to s and V' is replaced -
by the tenn -I>:
hii'' t M," + s' a + p = 0 (1 0)

If the internal forces and moments are repiaced using elasticity principles, the
following system or differential equations results:
-
E, A, u," + k ( I / ? - El, 4- HI' (1) = 0 (11)
E, A, clZ" - k (11,- - 1 1 +
~ I V ' a) = 0 (13)
(ELI , + E2 I?) M!' " - k - 11' + \v' ' 0) = p (1 3)

In this way three equations of equilibriuin (7), (8) and (10) are formulated for the
three defontii\tions i f , , it, and III. -
The variation of the elastic energy is also determined from these equations:
~ = 2~ ~ [ E , A ~ ~ ' ~ ' ~ E ~ A , ~ ~ ~ ' + ( E ~ I , + E , I ~ )(14)
W " ~ -

+k($ - u l + w i n ) ' - ~ ~ w ] d x
-
Elastic foundation effect k,,,, and the influence of second order- theory effects could
be taken into account by adding the term li,,.\I> - No n ~ "to Equation (13).
-
For single span beams with a sinusoidal load distribution, a simple, analytical
solution can be given because the shape of the deformations in the direction of the
axes corresponds to cos- or sin-functions. Altl~oughthe derivation is based on the
synusoidal load distribution, the solution is also applicable to most other load
-
distributions.

p = p o "(;x) (15) -
-
STEPIEUROFORTECI-1- an initiative under tllc EU Conlctt Progrrimnlc
 These terms, when placed in Equations (111, (12) and (13), give a system of
equations for the constants rr,,, I f ? , and IV,:

x
k- a
1

2
n n" kn
k- a - ( E l Il + E2 I,) -- a2 = -1
I iJ 1
The solution is:

k I =--n2 EiAt and y 1 = - 1

"1 i l +k,)
With these deformations and applying elastic principles, the stresses can be
computed. The stress in the axis of part 1 of the cross-section is (Figure 6):
o1= El lt { (.v = 112) = -El n
l t I O ~ ( 1 9)

Using the following terms

a2 = Y I E I A I ~.
Y tElA, 44-42 '
+

the stress is

This type of the equation is equivalent to the equation For the stress in a simple
beam. In EC5, Annex B, further equations are given.

EC5: Part 1-1: 5.1.9, 5.1.10 The bending stresses and [he stresses in the axes of the ~nembersmust verify the
condition of combined bending with axial tension or axial compression. If necessary
the stability condition must also be satisfied such that:

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under tile EU CorneH Prograrnlne B1 I15

EC5: Pan 1-1: 5.2.2 '
or,tt~i k i t xtt.t,
(22)

kc, takes account of the bending stress according to the lateral deformation resulting
from 2nd order tlleory effects. For this purpose the critical bending stress is
necessary. The bending stiffness of tlie beam about the wealc axis and the torsion
stiffness are required.

Co/in~zn.s
The computation of mecllanically jointed columns has to allow for buckling, and
the influence of 2nd order theory. It is clear that the effective bending stiffness
(El),. is the dominant factor for buckling. If the expression N,, . 1v" is included in
tlie Equation of equilibrium (13) and if the determinant of the equilibrium equations
is set to zero, the buclcling load is also obtained.

The axial stiffness of a colnposite colulnn is

( E A ) , f = (EA),,, = C EiA,
since the joints are not considered to be stressed by the axial forces.

The slenderness of a mechanically jointed column can be computed in a similar

manner Lo a simple column.

Each member of a coiiiposile colurnu coi-responds to the simple column, and for
each unernber of the cross-section the relative slenderness arid the buckling factor
can be computed.

If, at tlie same time the column is stressed by bending, the bending stress nii~stbe
superimposed. Normally the design will be governed by colnpression in a single
member such that

The compression force and its corresponding def'ormation results in a transverse

force If,, which is dependent on the slenderness. To this, any transverse force due
to direct loading must be added.

In EC5, Annex C, equations are given to cornpute the effective slenderness of

columns with different cross-sections. For spaced coluinns with packs or gussets,
and for lattice columns, the effective bending stiffness can be co~nputedusing frame
programs. Here, the deflection \vo in relation to a sinusoidal transverse load p,, and
taking into account the yielding of the connection, results in an effective
bending-stiffness given by:
l4
PO -
( E l ) =-
ef MIO n4

-
STENEUROFORTECH an initiative under the EU Cornctt Programme
 Design example
Figure 7 shows a beam made up of a single plywood flange and a timber web
jointed by nails. The desigii stresses and moduli are also given.

k=gOO Nhiun; s=40 n1r11

System, cross-sec~ia~t,
design values.

'0,rrtner fc.,~,k x.+o,d .f;.o.d ./;II,~/ (N/1121112

Design values 1 4500 19,5 I2,O 8,0 12,O
2 11000 21,O 12,9 8,6 14,7

For both ultimate and serviceability limit states E,,f,,,f,,l

values are to be used. For
calculation of deflections the sIip rnodulus K;,, will be used, for ultimate limit state
K,, = 213 K

Computation
EC5:Part 1- 1: A~lncxI3 Values of cross-section:

Stresses in LIE middle of the span caused by a bending moment h/l, = 6,4S kNr~r

Stresses caused by a compression force F,,= 30 RN

-
a, = 30000 4500 / (4500 * 13000 + 1 1000 . 19200) = 0,5 1 N/1711ti2
0 2 -
= 30000 . 1 1000 / (4500 12000 + I 1000 .I 9200) = 1,25 N ~ J I I ~ I '

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an inili:ilivc under the EU Comcll Programme B 1 117

Maximum force li, in the joints for a shear force V,, = 4 . 3,613- = 7,2 k N .
F, = -
0,33 -4500 . 17,000 .S7,7 40 7200 / 601,s 10' = 741 N

Concluding summary
- Tile basis for the computation of mechanically joir~tedbeams and columns
is shown and the analytical solutions given in EC5, Annex B and C, are
show11for simply supported beams and colulnns with a span length 1.

- For more co~nplicatedsystems such as Frames or beams and columns with

varying cross-sections, along the main axis, it is necessary to use numerical
solutions offered by computer programs. The members rnust then be
modelled as bars and the joints as either bars or springs.

References
MBhler, K. (1956). fjber das Trngvcrhaltcn von Dicgctdgcrn und Druckstiiben mit zusnmmengestezten
Qucrschnitten und nacllgiebigcn Vcrbindungsn~ittcl~~.I-iabilitation, Technischc Universitlit Karlsruhe.
Gcrmany.

I-Icirncshoff; B. (1987): Zttr Bcrccllriurig von BicgctriBgcrn nus nocligicbig mitcinandcr vcrbundenen
Quersclinittstci[cnin1 Ingcnicuri~olzbau.ln: Holz Roh-WcrkstofF45:237-247.

Kneidl, R. (1991). Bin Bcitrag zur linearcn und nicbtlincaren Rerechnung von Schichtbnlkensystemen.
Dissertation, Tectlnischc Univctsitlt Miinchen, Germany, Bcrichtc aus deli1 Konstruktivcn
Ingenieurbau, 619 1.

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 Trusses

STEP tccture 13 1 2 Objectives

M.EI. Kesscl To understand plane trusses as part of three dimensional stnlctures, to show the
Labor fur I-iolzlechnik LIIT different types of trusses and to present the general and silnplified analysis and
I-lildcshcirn the strength verification of members and joints of EC5.

Prerequisites
A17 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
BZ Tension and compression
B3 Bending
3 6 Columns
B7 Buckling lengths

Summary
Proceeding from three dimensional trussed structures the shape and the
appropriate load-bearing bel~aviourof plane trusses is discussed. Tile lay-out of
various types of trusses is shown and indications of the selection of the web
system are given. T11e principles and rules of EC5 for a general and simplified
analysis are described. Strength verification rules and limits of deflection
complete the lecture. Exrtmples are included at various stages.

General
Trusses are built to cover spaces (living rooms, In general, the members are
statically represented by three diinensional straight rods which have six degrees
of freedom (three displacements and three rotations) at each end. For static and
fabrication reasons, very often, the three dimensional truss struct~treis built up of
two dimensional vertical trusses (truss A) which are erected parallel or
concentrically and joined together by two dimensionally inclined trusses (trusses
B1 -B4) between them (see Figure I).

F i r 1 T1trz.c di11it.nsioncr1!nr.sscrl ~'1ntc11irc:

pal-altrl (left), cotrcc~itrical(riglit).

Truss A is intended to cany only the loads which act in the plane of the rmss
and hence it follows that statically truss A is a plane problem and consists of
lnernbers (plane rod elements) which have three degrees of freedoln only (two
ECS: Part 1-1: 5.4.1.1 displacements and one rotation) at each end, In EC5 these elements are called
beam elements.

-
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EC5:Par1 1-1: 5.4.1.3 Under certain circumstances members of two degrees of freed0111 (two
displacements) at each end (pin-jointed elements) can be used.
-
E C ~ P,W
: 1- 1: 5.4.1.1 The rnernbers of two din~ensional trusses are designated in two categories:
external members (top chord, bottom chord) and intefnnl or web members (a11
interior vertical or diagonal members between the top (upper) and bottom -
(lower) chord). Joints at which ~nernbersintersect connect are called nodes
or panel points. The following statements may be used to describe two
cli~nensionaitrusses:

- Unless a more general inodel is used, trusses shall be represented for the
purpose of analysis by bean1 elements set out along system lines and
connected together at nodes (e.g. as sfiown in Figure 2).
- The system lines for all members shall lie within the member profile, and
for external members shall coincide with the member centre line.
- A more general load-bearing ~ ~ l o dcould
el be to present 1~x1s~
members by
shell elemel~tswhicli could be very costly, however..

Figutz -3 Two rlirtrerwiortcil trrtss: ( a ) sy.yter/r litle, (11) Day, ( c f irrterrrul mertiber;
t ~ l Ifi fictitior~~
((1) .viippot.t, ( c ) ~ ' ~ t c ntt~et/lbel; Oeatti elernet~t,(.g) ~iocle.

For fabrication reasons in most trusses do not consist of members which

articulate perfectly along the centreline. Firstly, chords are fabricated from one
timber itnd therefore are contirluous over several bays. Secondly, rectangular or
circular sl~aped plate connectors always cause a certain rotational stiffness.
Member forces and architectural considerations deter~nine the type of
connections to be used and can result in rotationally fixed, seinifixed or pinned
joints. Thirdly, the depll~sof ruembers and the dimensions o l connectors lead to
eccentricities in the joints between adjacent ~~tembers.

This last case determines a general application rule:

Fictitious beam elenlents (see Figure 2) may be used to model eccentric

connections or supports. The orientalion of fictitious beam elements should
coincide as closely as possible with the direction of the force in tile member.
This rule which gives an esti~nation of the cornplex stress distrib~~tiollat
eccentric connections is to allow an economic analysis.

Corresponding to the general design requirements it shall be verified that no EC5:

relevant limit state is exceeded. 1 1 verifying assernbiies like trusses, distinction
has to be made between necessary global awl local limit states. In both states
second-order effects due to initial global and IocaI curvatures, eccentricities and
induced deflections shall be taken into account, in addition to those due to lateral

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loads. A very close approximation of the global geometric non-linear behaviour
of trusses is intended by [he application rule:

In tile analysis the geometric non-linear bel~aviourof a member in conlpression

(buckling instability) may be disregarded if it is taken inlo account in the
strength verification of the individual member.

This means that only the influence of global imperfections on the displacements
and rotations of truss nodes has to be taken into account. This is done by using
the node coordinates of the irnperiect (initially deformed) truss. The influence of
local imperfections of each tn~ssmember between its nodes can be neglected in
the analysis, i.e. by assuming that members remain straight between nodes, if it
is taken into account in the strength verification. This procedure simplifies the
analysis significantly and ofrers an econotnic use of finite element programs.

Concerning global limit states it has to be emphasized that, in general, tnrsses

are three di~neilsionalstructures as mentioned earlier. Nevertheless, frequently
trusses A and B in Figure 1 and Figure 3 are treated as two dimensional systems
loaded in tl~eirplane without any nlrttual intluence.

Figrite 3 Tlrrcc dir~tctrsiotlirl luc~cl-6errrillgbelruviortr. (a) trrrss A ~rrrstressed 1?\1

lufernl louris, (0, c) trrtss A srrasserf,

However, this is valid only for system (a) in Figure 3, where truss A carries the
vertical Ioads independently and tnlsses B1 and B2 the ialeral loads (external
loads, i.e. wind, seismic loads, internal loads due to buckling of compression and
bending members), B2 supporting BI. In the case of systems (b) and (c) in
Figure 3 truss A agnin carries tl~evertical loads independently but trusses B IiB2
and B need the cooperation of lnlsses A lo fonll a three dinlensional
loi~d-bearingsysteni lo providc sufficient lateral resislnnce (Kessel 1986). Due lo

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that fact i t becomes evident that bracing leads to stresses in trusses A resulting
from loads F which do not even have a component in the plane of truss A.

Truss Types
The type of timber ti-uss most commonly built is triangular, i s . double pitched
(see Figure 4). The web system should be selected For convenience of connection -
and resulting member stresses. For instance, in some cases space for ventilation
tubes is required. Web locations and node sp-acings 111ay be dedicated by
selection of secondary purlin framing so as to minimize cllord bending stresses
and buckling lengths of chord inembers in compression. Web directions may be
-
chosen in a way that short internal members are in compression and long
members in tension to avoid additional web bracing.
-

Figurn 4 Types of rrttsscs. ( [ { I , a2) tt-icrngtrlar (b) corr1~7otrr1cl( c ) parcrllal

(d) scissors (c) bo~vstritrg(fl $dz-bellied

By varying geometric paranleters a large variety of trusses can be developed for

nearly a11 kinds of application. Although the dimensions of trusses are restricted
by prefabrication procedure and transport, the height of triangular trusses can be
very large. In such cases it may be necessary to use a trapezoidal load-bearing
truss completed by n slnall triangle (see Figure 4b) to produce the desired
triangular roof shape.

Sometimes the bottom chord shape is dictated by architectural considerations

concerning interior decoration. Instead of a straight chord its centre point with
correspondence to the supports is raised up (see Figure 4)or layered down (see
Figure 40. While the first case is of no particularity the special feature of tile
load-bearing behaviour of the second one should be mentioned. If the top chord
is fiat, i.e. the top chord approaches a straight line (see Figure 5a and Sb), a
stability problem arises due to the fact that the centre point of the bottom chord
can deflect laterally (Kessel 1988).

F i r5 Kirtp II.IISSCS (a, 6) nr~dartic rrirss (c).

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 A further important variant of the triangular truss is the attic truss of domestic
roofs (see Figure 5c) whicli however, is no longer a truss in the original sense.
Due to the lack of webs [he external loads cause, in addition to the axial forces,
important bending nloments in tile chords. Particular attention must be paid to
the joints in the lower chord, These joints are stressed axially with respect to
roof loads, transversaliy with respect to ceiling and floor loads and rotationally
with respect to unavoidable eccentricities of connection members.

In order to lninirnise deflection, the span-to-depth ratios of trusses should

decrease with increasing span. Large deflections not only may cause
serviceability problems, they can also create substantial secondary stresses i1.i
cor~tinuouscliords. According to Ozelton and Baird (1976) truss deflections can
be mininxised by

- using timber of lower strength classes and consequently larger ~ n e ~ n b e r

sizes,
- keeping the number of joints and meclianically jointed splices to a
tninimum, and
- using fastenings with stiff slip characreristics.

The use of lower strength classes may appear uneconomical, since the necessary
cross-sectional dimensions increase. However, since the fastener spacings and
distances often determine the size of the cross-sections, the choice of a high
strength class frequently does not lead to material savings. Because the ioad-
carrying capacity of connections using mechanical fasteners depends on the
density of the timber, and the ratio of density over strength increases with lower
strength classes, it is usually more economic to use timber of lower strength
classes when the necessary lnechanical cor~nectionsdetermine the cross-sectional
dimensions.

Preliminary design
Generally arcliitectural considerations determine the shape and pitch of roofs.
But for econo~nicreasons the following rules concerning the depth-span ratio of
trusses should be fo'oilowed:

triangular or pitched 116 or deeper,

bowstring 118 to 116,
flat or parallel chord 1/10 ro 1/8.

Once the truss geometry has been fixed, the centrelines of the members are
dependent on their size. Therefore, it is usually necessary to conduct a
preliminary design to determine approximate member sizes and connection types.
For this purpose a simplified analysis is used with all loads placed at nodes and
all joints assumed pinned. Member forces can then be determined graphically or
analytically. Based on these axial forces, preliminary web and chord sizes can be
selected taking into account approximate moments due to any distributed loads
or concentrated loads that will not in practice be applied at nodes.

General analysis
EC5: Part I- I: 5.4 I 2 Trusses shall be analysed as framed structures, where the deformations of the
inembers and joints, the influence of support eccentricities and the stiffness of
the supporting structure are taken into account in the determination of the
niember forces and moments. If the system lines for internal members do not
 coincide with the centre lines, the influence of the eccentricity sliall be taken into
account in the strength verification of these members.

The analysis should be carried out using the appropriate values of menlber
stiffness and joint slip. Fictitious beam elelnents should be assumed to be as stiff
as the adjacent element.

Care should be taken if the fictitious beams have to be very short, i.e, shorter
than about 100 nrm. This could lead to a nearly singular stiffness rzlatrix and to
unreasonable liumerical results which could be missed. Sometimes, it is
advisable to use an adapted analysis, e.g. finite element analysis which makes
available rod elements with built in end eccentrici~ies.

E,~an~ple:
it can be assumed that a colnputer program is available for analysing trusses. For
the input the merrtber4stiffness of the bottom chord and joint slip of the dowel
connection is given here: Bottom chord with a rectangular cross-section O x 11 =
50 x 180 rtrm'. Strength class C24 according to prEN338.
= E(,,,,, = I 1000 N/I~WI'
Meruber stiffness: E<:,,
Timber-to-tirnber connection with dowels cl = 8 trim
K,,t,,,,= 380"" 8/20 = 3000 N/,tlttr is the instantaneous slip modulus per shear
plane under service load I;,,.,.

If ri geometric tion-linear analysis is carried out, the Inember stiffness should be

divided by the partial factor yln(given in EC5 table 2.3.3.2).

Verifying serviceabiiity
E,, = E(,5,,/ y, = I I000 / i ,O = 1 1000 ~/,tzm'
EC5: Pari 1-1: 4.1 (4) K.wr,/i,t = K.wr ( 1 +
kt,tf)

and verifying strength of rnembers and joints

El, = k,,,,, El,, / y, = 0.9 . 7400 / 1,3 = 5 100 ~ / r r ~ r n '
ECS: Part 1-1: 6.1 ( 9 ) KtrSpn = 2K.v.r / (3 ( 1 + k , ~ ~ : ~ ) )

Joints may be generally assumed to be rotationally pinned. Translational slip at

the joints may be disregarded for the strength verification unless it would
significantly affect the distribution of internal forces and moments. Joints may be
assumed to be rotarionaliy stiR if their deformation would have no significant
effect upon the distribution of member forces and moments.

Simplified analysis
EC5: Piat 1-1: 5.4.1.3 As an alternative to a general analysis, a simplified analysis is permitted for fully
triangulated trusses whicfi cotnpiy with the following conditions:

- there are no re-entrant angies in the external profile,

- some part of the bearing width lies vertically below the support node (see
Figure 2),
- the truss height exceeds 0,15 times the span and 10 times the maximum
chord depth.

The axial forces in the members should be determined assunling that every node
is pin-jointed. The bending moments in single-bay members should also be
 determined on the basis that the end nodes are pin-jointed. Bending moments in
a member which is continuous over several bays should be determined as if the
member was a beam with a simple support at each node. Tile effect of defection
at the nodes and partial fixity at the joints should be taken into account by a
reduction of 10% in the node bending moment. The reduced node moments
sllould be used to calculate the span bending moments.

Strength verification of members and joints

ECS: Part 1-1: 5.4.1.4 For elernerits in compression, the effective column length for in-plane strength
verification should generally be taken ils the distance between two adjacent
points of contraflexure.

For fully triar~gulatedtnlsses, the effeclive colunln length for members which are
only one bay long without especially rigid end connections, and for continuous
members withour lateral load, sfiould be taken as the bay length.

When a simplified analysis has been carried out, the following effective colu~nn
lengths may be assumed (see Figure 6 ) .

- for continuous members -svith a lareral load but without significant end
moments
- in an outer bay: 0,8 times the bay length,
- in an inner bay: 0,6 the bay length,
- at a node: 0,6 times the largest adjacent bay length.

- for continuous members wit11 a lateral load and with significant end
molnents
- at the beam end with moment: 0 ( i s . no column effect),
- in the penultimate bay: 1,O times bay length,
- remaining bays and nodes: as described above.

For the strength verification of ~nenlbersin compression and connections, the

calculated axial forces sllould be increased by 10%.

A check shall also be made that tile lateral (out-of-plane) stability of the
inembers is adequate.

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 Limiting values of deflection
EC5: Part 1- I : 4.3.2 For trusses the limiting values of deflection for beams apply both to the
colnplete span, and to the individual deflection of members between nodes.
Referring to the tmss span I , the limits are

These limits are recommended unless special conditions call for other
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.5.3 requirements, e.g. for the deflection of bracing systems (see trusses B of Figure
1). Furthermore it should be noticed that the horizontal bracing load of trusses
increases with their vertical deflection.

EC5: Part 1-1: 4.1 The final deforrnatioli of a truss fabricated from members which ltave different
creep properties should be ciifculated using modified stiffness moduli, which are
determined by dividing the instantaneous values of the modulus for each member
by the appropriate value of ( I + IG,,~).

The deflection 11 of a truss may be determined by computer program, e.g, based

on finite elements, or analytically by the rnethod of virtual work, using the
relationship
lr = C FiF,, li / A i Ei 2 7, Fi
i- F,, I ni Ki
where Fi axial force of ttr~ssmember i,
F,i force of truss member i caused by unit load,
/ti number of fasteners at one joint of truss member i.
Trusses with punched metal plate fasteners
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.4.1.5 Additio~~al
~rtlesfor trusses with punched metal plate fasteners are given in
Annex D and for joints in STEP lectures CI I and D3.

Concluding summary
- Trusses form part of three dimensional structures.

- By varying geometric pwalneters a large variety of trusses can be

developed for nearly all kinds of application.

- In general, trusses shall be analysed as framed structure (rod elements),

where deforn~ationsof nlelnbers and joints and eccentricities are taken into
account.

- Certain conditions allow a simplified analysis assuming pin-jointed

n1ember.s.

- Lateral global and local stability of trusses ltas to be verified.

References
Kcssel, M.H. (1986). The Bracing of Trussed Beams. In: Prac. of tltc Joint Mecting CIB
Wf SIiUFRO S 5.02, Florcncc, Italy, Paper 19-15-2.

I<esscl, M.I.1. (1988). Zur sciclichen Stabilisicrung dcs unlcrspanntcn Tr3gcrs. In: Bauingenieur
63(1988) 281-287.

Ozclton, E.C and Bnird, J.A. (1976). Tinnbcr dcsigncr's manual, 1st edn. Crosby Lockwood Slapies
London, United I<ingdom, 5 I8 pp.
 Diaphragms and shear walls

STEP lccturc B I 3 Objectives

T.Atsmarker To explain in principle, the behaviour of structural diaphragms, such as floors
Lund University and walls, in timber framed buildings and to present appropriate design methods.

Summary
Walls, floors and roofs in timber framed buildings are often sheathed using
different types of sheathing materials and may be used as structural diaphragms
in order to transfer laterai forces to the foundation. This lecture describes the
structural behaviour of horizontal floor diaphragms as well as the behaviour of
shear walls. Simplified design methods to be used in ultimate limit state are
suggested.

Introduction
A building is subjected not only to vertical loadings, such as self weights and
i~nposedloads, but also to horizontal loadings caused by wind or earthquakes.
This lecture relates to structural behaviour under wind action. Wind has a
number of effects on a building. Its direct action is to cause pressure on one or
more of the faces and suction on the others. Figure 1 shows the principal
distribution of wind loads on a building for wind direction perpendicular to the
long side wall, see STEP lecture A3.

r e1 .Exten~al~crirtdloads for ivirrd dilrclior~pcrpeitdicrriar to tire lorrg side itu~ll.

The arrortr sho~i!srlre roirtd (iirecrioi~.

The wind direction sl~ownin Figure 1 results in pressure on the windward wall
and the windward side of tile roof and suction on the corresponding faces of the
leeward side. A low pilch may result in suction on the windward side of the roof
as well. Note, that the side walls are subjected to suction perpendicular to tlie
wind direction. In addition to these principal wind Ioads, the wind may also
cause suctiorl or pressure on the inner faces of the building,

In order- to transfer wind loads to the foundation, some form of wind resistant
system is needed. Quite often the use of diaphragms and shear walls can provide

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an effective and econornic design. The principal structural behaviour is
illustrated in Figure 2 for a simple single storey box like buiIding, exposed to
wind perpendicular to the long side wall. The walls are assumed to be simply
-
supported between the roof and the foundation. Hence, half of the total wind
load acting on the long side walls is distributed into the horizontal roof
diaphragm, which is assumed to act as a deep bearn. The roof diaphragm is -
srlpported by the end walls, which transfer the forces to the fooundation by their
in plane shear action.

J
Figlire 2 Pri~tcipcrlforce disrribution irr a sirrrple sirigle storey box like l~uilditlg,
whew tlic roof acts ns N I~oriio~lrc~Idic~phrag~~i nitd the errd ,vnll.s ns shear
walls.

The srabilising system in timber framed buildings consists of several components

which [nust be properly fastened together to ensure that there is a complete load
path for the shear transfer.

Horizontal diaphragms
Floors, ceilings and roofs may be used to transfer horizontal forces to the
supporting walls. In timber framed buildings these structures are basically built
up from timber joists sheathed with different types of wood based sheathing
materials for floors and most commonly fastened to the joists by screws. The
ceilings typically consist nf one or two layers of gypsum plasterboard, either
nailed directly to the roof trusses or joists or screwed to secondary spaced
timbers, which in turn are nailed to the joists. These types of ceiling may also be
used as structural diaphragms, see Aismarker (1992). However, in this lecture
only floor diaphragms will be discussed, see Figure 3.

This type of floor diaphragm may be assumed to behave in a similar way to a

deep I-beam, supported through the struts by the walls running parallel to the
wind direction. According to EC5 this [nay be assumed so long as the span is
less than six times the width of the diaphragm. The sheathing acts as the web,
resisting sllear forces, while the chord members act as the flanges, resisting the
applied bending motnent. Figure 4 illustrates the principal behaviour.

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For timber framed buildings, the double top plate of the walls is used as the
chord member of the diaphragm. The plate members are lapped with staggered
end joints and connected together by nailing or bolting. Alternatively, a
continuous header or trimmer joist may be used as the chord, It is assumed that
all of the bending moment is resisted through the chords. Hence, the chord
members must be designed for tension or compression forces of
F,,J = Fr.d = Mnl,lx,J17 (1
where M,,,,,is the maximum moment and O is the width of the diaphragm.

The shear flow qJc,between the sheathing and the chord may be calculated as
q ~ =d P t f , , f ' ~ ~ C (2)
where F,,.,,
is tile total shear force and b,. is the centre-to-centre distance between
chords.

The sheathing must be designed to resist a shear flow of

v,, = FI5Jb (3)
where F,,,, is the total shear force and b is the width of the diaphrrtgn~.

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Finally the spacing of the Fasteners connecting the sheathing to the joists is
calculated as -
where R,, is the design capacity of an individual fastener, and
shear flow.
11,~ the calculated
-
For simply supported diaphragms, as shown in Figure 4, the shear force is
transmitted from the diaphragm to the shear walls by the perin~eter members, -
known as struts, at the end or the diaphragm. The shear force is assurncd lo be
uniformly distributed along the diaphragm edge. The struts as well as the chords
must be properly fastened to the top plate in order to transfer actual shear fo~~ces
to the shear wall below. Where the sheathing is not directly fastened to these
-
members, it is necessary to ensure that another load path exists.

For a wind direction perpendicular to the end wall the struts become chords and
vice versa. Therefore, these members tnust be designed, including the nailed or
bolted lap splices, to carry the strut forces as well as the chord f ~ r c e s Where
. the
chord and the strut also f~inctionas a header, they must be designed for a -
con~binationof vertical and axial loadings.

When using the suggested model it is assun~ed that the sheathing boards
essentitllly act as one and hence the individual sheets should be blocked. The
stiffness or the diaphmgni will depend on tlie orientation of the sheets relative to
the joists or blockings. I-Ience, the best performance is obtained froin a floor
with the sheets staggered rather than in a stacked configuration. However, the
diaphragm is often used for wind bracing in two opposite clirections. Staggering
should therefore be oriented for the worst loading direction. The sheets are well
restrained fsom buckling by the joists and their thickness is normally determined
by gravity loads.

In the case of large holes in floor diaphragms, it is viral to ensure a path for the
transfer of forces around the hole. Compression and tension forces can be
transmitted by using blockings and steel straps respectively. To ensure the shear
t~~ilnsferit is essential that the sheets are properly nailed or screwed to tlie
blackings and joists around the hole. The detailing of the different connections
details is critical.

Shear walls
In general the walls in a timber Framed building consist of vertical studs, spaced
at a regular interval, forming a ladder type frame together with the top and
bottorn plates. The framework is usually sheathed on one or both sides with
different types of sheathing material, nailed or screwed to the frame. Slructurally
the wall can be regarded as a cantilevered diaphragm loaded by a concentrated
force applied at the top plate. Using the sheathing as a bracing this force may be
transferred to the foundation in a vety effective manner. Figure 5 illustrates the
stn~cturalbehaviour.

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The studs are fastened lo the bottom and top plate by nails or other types of
metal fasteners, From a structural point of view the frame joints can be regarded
as being pinned. Hence, the displaccrnent of the timber frame must be resisted
by the sheathing a11d the fasteners connecting it Lo the frame. The most henvily
loaded fasteners are located where the largest displacements occur between the
frame and the sheathing, that is in the corners. In the upper corner lo the left and
the lower comer to the right fasteners will have force directions towards the free
edge. The other two corners will have opposite Force directions. In Figure 5 the
studs are assumed to be fixed to the foundation. Whether the studs can be
prevented from lifting from the foundation or not is often the nlost i~npotlant
factor influencing the shear capacity of wall diaphragms in timber framed
buildings. 111addition to appropriate Fastening, vertical loads can be used to resist
uplift and stiffen the panel. Apart from uplift, the studs must be designed for a
concentrated compression force. The strength of tlie fasteners as well as the
shear strength of the sheathing are other important factors that influence LIie
ioad-bearing capacity of wall diaphragms. These factors would have further
significance if it is necessary to consider the stiffness of the diaphragm and ils
horizontal in-plane deflection under load.

The total maximu~nload for a wall that is built up of several wall units, can be
calculated in a simplified rnanner as the sum of the rnaxitnutn loads for each
unit, even where the wall units are built up from different co~nbinationsof
sheathing materials and fasteners. Noweser, where there are different
combinations of sheathing materials and fasteners on the two sides of the
framework, according to EC5, only half the load carrying capacity of the weaker
side should be used. When there are window or door sections in a wall, these
sections should be disregarded in calculating the load-bearing capacity of the
entire wall.

A rather simple madel may be used to calculate the internal force distribution
between Fasteners connecting the sheathing to the framework. This model
assumes linear elastic behaviour of the fasteners, hinged connections between
individual beam elements and that uplift is prevented. Furthermore, the beam
elements as well as the sheathing are considered to be completely stiff against
bending and elongation in the loading plane. Taking these assulaplio~lsinto
consideration, the internal force distribution [nay be calculated as

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 Hky, H It xi
cri -= and Fsi= -
c Y,! c4
where FJiand F,, are the force components in x- arid y-directions respectively for
a fastener in position (.ri,jli).

The total force is simply given by

where
xi,yi are the co-ordinates for the aclual fastener.
H is the total shear force on the wall unit.
11 is the height of wall unit.
Cs',Cy'i are the sum of the squared distances for a11 fasteners.

The ulti~natedesign condition is failure in the most I~eavily loaded fastener,

which is located at the corners of the panel.

ECj:Part 1 - 1 : 5.4.3a According lo EC5 the racking load carrying capacity of the panel is calculated as -
I;r..d = hd I!?/$ (7)
where FJ, is the design capacity per fastener and s is the spacing of the -
fasteners. In this model :be applied force is uniformly distributed over the
fasteners connecting tlie sheathing to the top plate and does not account for
concentrated forces at the corners of tile panel. -
EC5: Park I -I: 5.4.3d The tensile studs and the anchorage should be designed for a force F,,,,, where
F,,,,= FBSsd
11/b (8)

and the compression studs should be designed for a force:

EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 5.4.3b Fc,', = F,.,, for shearhing on both sides, or
ECS: par^ I -i: 5 . 4 3 FC,(,= 0,75 F,,,/ for sheathing on one side

The end studs of the shear wall as well as the bottom plate must be adequately
anchored to the foundation in order to resist uplift forces and shear forces
respectively. In multi-storey buildings the shear walls 111ust be connected to each
other in a manner that allows tliese forces to be transmitted through the different
levels of the building.

Design example
Calculate the horizontal design capacity H,, for the wall unit in Figure 5, where
b = I200 nun and It = 2400 i t r m ~ . The spacir~g of' the fasteners are as
follows: s = 150 ttzm, t = 150 rnnl and r = 150 mm. The design capacity, T%,,, for
a single fastener is 0,2 kN.

The force in x- and y-direction for fasteners located in the cot-ners are

-
STEP/ECJROFORTECtI an initiativc undc; the EU Cornelt Progrnmmc
F,, = 0,s - N,, .2400~/44,82. I 0" = 0,0643 . H ,
F,,,, = 0,s . H, . I200 2400/13,5 . lo6 = 0,107 H,,
which gives the total force as
F, = 0,125 . H,,
and
Hd= 1 ,b IiN

For the actual wail unit, the same result is obtained if using the EC5 melhod.

Internal walls
The distribution of horizontal loading to the internal waIls is governed by the
stiffness of the diaphragm relative to the stiff~~ess
of the walls. Assuming a rigid
diaphragm supported by flexible walls is one extreme of the solution, and a
flexible diaphragm supported by stiN' walls another.

In tile first case the horizontal loading is distributed to the shear walls according
to the relative stiffness of the walls. For a diaphragm supported by three walls of
equal stiffness, each wall wit1 resist one third of the total load. Note, that if tile
internal wall is not placed in the centre of t l ~ e diaphragm, the torsional
component must be accounted for as well.

Assuming a flexible diaphragm supported by stiff walls the question is whether

the diaphragm may be regarded as a horizontal beam spanning continuously over
intermediate supports or as separate beams being simply supported. The
conservative approach is to design the end walls assuming the simply supported
condition and the interior wall based on continuity.

The case of timber diaphragms on timber shenr walls is in between the two
extremes and the assumption of a rigid floor diaphragm should be used with
caution. The assumption of a rigid diapl~ragnishould only be used for a plan
aspect ratio near unity, related to the diaphragm depth, h, divided by the span
between internal walls, I.

Concluding summary
- All of the colnponents of the shenr wall and diaphragm system niust be
adequately fastened together so that the struclure acts as a n effective unit.

- Floor diaphragms !nay be assumed to behave similarly Lo a deep I-beam.

- The assumption of rigid floor diaphragms should be used with caution.

- Wood shear walls can be regarded as ca~ltilevereddiaphragms loaded by a

concentrated force applied at the cop plate.

- Shear walls must be prevented from lifting from the founda~ion by

adequate anchorage at the end studs lo comply wit11 EC5 design rules.

Reference
Alsmarkcr, T. (1991). Gypsum Plnstcrboards ilS Wind Bracing Elcmcnts in T i n ~ l x r Priimed
Buildings. Lund Inslifutc of TcchnoIogy, Dcpl. of S~ructurillEngineering.

STEP/EUROI;ORTECI.I - ;in iniliativc under tlrc EU Cornctt Progrilmmc I3 1317

 Portal frames and arches

STEP lecture B 14 Objectives

M.N. Kessel To develop an understanding of the limit state design verification of portal
Labor fGr Iiolz\echnik LI-IT frames and arches including lateral buckling and to illustrate the design proce-
Hildcslieirn dure of EC5 by showing an example.

Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building material
A1 7 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
B2 Tension and co~npression
B3 Bending
Bb Columns
B7 Buckling lengths

Summary
After introducing different types of portal frames and arches, the ultimate limit
state design is demonstrated in two ways. First, a simplified analysis is shown
considering in plane and lateral buckling. Secondly the application of a second
order linear analysis is explained using a curved frame as example.

Introduction
Frames and arches often f o n ~ lthe main structural elements in three dimensional
structures covering halls of rectangular or circular ground surface, typically used
in gymnasia, swimming pools or stores of bulk goods. Span dimensions vary
between 20 and 100 m and in rectangular buildings the length is usually two to
three times the spm. Constn~ctionheight is normally between 10 and 30 m. For
fabrication and transportation reasons frames are normally three-hinged with one
hinge at each support and one hinge at the top ridge. The width of the glued
laminated timber cross-sections can be up to 240 tnrn and the depth up to 2 177.
Larger arches can use built-up sections of glulam.

In Figure I six different construction types of frames are shown. Figure l a

details a system consisting of a two-piece column to resolve the corner moment
into tension and compression elements. In Figure l b the shape of the frame is
achieved by means of a finger jointed haunch linking the rafter and column
units. In Figure l c the single rafter units are enclosed by two glulam columns
which are linked along their length and designed as spaced columns. The haunch
connection is effected by circular groups of dowels. The curved frame in Figure
Id takes advantage of the ability to curve glulam and leads to arches which are
shown as a three-hinged variant in Figure le. The two-hinged arch in Figure If
is necessary for flatter roofs but is greatly restricted in overall height and span
by transportation requirements.

EC5: POII 1-1: 2.3.1 In general it has to be verified for all roof members that no relevant limit state is
exceeded taking into account load actions in three dimensions.

This lecture, however, is restricted to the verification of frames and arches due
lo loads acting in their plane. Hence it follows that members forming frames and

STEPIEUROFORTECII - an initiative under Ihc EU Come!! Programme I31411

 arches are stressed mainly in compression and in-plane bending. In addition,
lateral bending due to buckling effects has to be considered. The stresses
ECS: Part 1-1; 5.4.4 caused by geometrical and structural imperfections, i.e. deviations between the
geometrical axis and the elastic centre of the cross-section due, for example to
material inhomogenities, and induced deflections shail be talcen into account.

Figurr I Sonle rypicnf frames: (n) V - .slrapeO, (b) crl~vedhn~rr~clr,(c) clo~velled

haanch, ((1) j51rger-joitrtcd Iru~rtlclr.Sonic typical arches: ( e ) tfzree-hi11,pcd
(fi flat two-hitrgecl.
Simplified analysis
Frames and arches can be verified by a simplified analysis in the same rnaimer
as columns and beams. The calculation of stresses due to external design loads is
based on a Iiilear theory considering equilibrium of tile undeformed static
system. Stresses caused by geotnetrical and structural in-plane and lateral
imperfections and induced in plane deflections are laken into account by
rnultiplying the cornpression and bending strength values by reduction factors
such as kc and .,k These factors have to be determined from the appropriate
critical compression and bending stresses of in plane and lateral buckling. The
EC5: Purl 1-1: 7.2 P ( I ) deviation from straightness measured midway between the supports shall be
limited for frame members to 1/500 of the length for glued laminated members.

Design example

Figure 2 Estlnrple: Cllr~~eclflun~e

of a ricli~tg-lruil.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Conlctt Progmmmc

 Tile design values of the vertical (V) and horizontal (H) support reactions and
the internal axial forces (N) and moments (M) at cross-sections I , 2 and 3 and
the ridge deflections rt,,,, and u,,,, are given in Table 1 corresponding to the
appropiate combination of actions 1,35 g t I ,5 s.

s,, units 6 s 1,35 g + I,5 s

V kN 54 48 145
H kN 23 31 78
N, kN -44 -50 -134
4 kN -4 I -56 -139
N3 kN -30 -42 - 104
MI kN11i -73 -104 -255
M: kNt11 -9 1 -133 -322
M3 MIII -61 -92 -220
'(ttsr 111111 O O
JOYrr ~tilll 21 32

Tnble 1 Design vnlrtcs of rracrialrs, irltcrrial mi01 forces arrd rl1arftetrts nrid ridge
deji'ections.

Tlte frames are fabricated of glued laminated timber GL 28 with the following
appropriate material design properties (see prEN 1194):
fm,ad=
0,9 -28 = 1 9 , 4 ~ h m ~
-
design bending strength 123

design compression strength

moduli of eIasticity Eo.scnn,r: = 12000 N/lnrrt2

Eo.05.1 = 9600 N/lnm2

Verification of ultimate limit shtes In cross-section (2)

E C ~ ~arl
: 1 - 1 : 5.2.1 Co??zpressio~?
brrcFclbrg
It is assumed that cross-sections ( 1 ) and (3) are laterally supported.
kc = 1ni11(kc,>,krt:)

In the case of in plane buckling the curved frame can be interpreted as an arch
with sufficient accuracy. One half of the arc length is estimated as the sum of
length of rafter (1 1 n ~ and
) coIurnn (6 1 1 1 ) .

A,= 1,25 (11 + 6 ) / i y = 7 5

STEP lecturc B7 In the case of lateral buckling, the buckling length is estimated as arc length
between cross-sections ( I ) and (3).

STEPfEUROFORTECH - an iniliativc undcr Llw EU Comctt Programme

ECS: Part I - 1; 5.1.2 Lateral torsio~talbticklil~g
In addition it is assumed that cross-sections (1) and (3) are torsionally fixed.

(See Timoschenko and Gere 1961 or Pfliiger 1975.)

EC5;Part 1-1: 5.2.4 Reduction in strength due to bending of laminations during production

5r 2 240 i. k, = 1,O

Design bending stress

Design compression stress

-
STEP/EUROFORTECH an initiative u~tderthe EU Comeit Programme
 Verification with respect to compression buckling

Verification with respect to lateral torsional buckling

ECS: Part I - 1: 4 Verification of serviceability limit states

In this design no precamber is included. I-Iowever, precamber could be
necessary in other cases especially where deflections in curved members are
caused by changes in moisture content.

Vertical ridge deflection, tc,,,,l, due to permanent load, 8,(see Table 1).

Vertical ridge deflection rr,,,,,, due to variable load s (see Table 1).
32 l ~ r t t i
I ~ , . , , , ~ ~ ~=
~.~~
ti,,, ,,,?,I, = (1 + 0 , X ) 32 = 40 rltltr

For frames and arches, EC5 gives no recom~nendations on deflection limits,

because such limits are related to the intended use of the construction. In the
absence of special conditions that call for other requirements, EC5 recommends
the final net ridge deflection to be

ECS: Pan 1-1: 5.4.4(2) Second order linear analysis

The calculation of stresses is based on geometric nonlinear theory considering
equilibrium of the defonned ilnperfect static system. The contribution of any
joint slip to the induced deflections should be taken into account.

Besides the limit states of rupture or excessive deformatioil of a section, member

or connection, the nonlinear calculation must be able to detect a possible limit
stale due to the transformation of the structure into a lnechanisln or due to
instability. For example, firstly a Icing post truss with a precambered upper chord
transforms into a lateral n~ecl~anismwhen the vertical deflection reaches tire
value of the precamber and secondly a flat three-hinged roof loses its stability by
snap tbrougl~buckling.

Nowadays, these calcuIations are carried out by finite element computer

programs. Normally two di~nensionalfjnite rod elements (two displacements and
one rotation at each node) are used. These elements are able to tdte into account
imperfections and induced deformations in the plane of the frame. All stresses
due to lateral effects have ro be calculated using the simplified analysis.
Otherwise, a more co~nplexdescription of the frame by three dimensional finite
elements is necessary (Kessel, et al. 1984 and Young 'and Kuo 1991).

Cornpared to the simplified metl~od,the advantages of a second order linear

analysis are:

STEP/EUROFORTECH - ;in initiative under the EU Comet1 Programme B 1415

- no need lo estimate critical stresses in determining the factors kc and
- no need to estimate bracing forces if a tltree dimensional simulation of a
set of frames or arches is carried out (Kessel 1984).

Design example
The second order linear analysis is shown for the previous example in Figure 2.
A two dimensional nonlinear finite rod element is used. The initial deflections
are shown in Figure 3 assuming an anglef of inclination

which leads to a corresponding initial vertical ridge deflection

as sl- own in Figure 3a and a corresponding initiat horizontal ridge deflection

as sl~ownin Figure 3b.

Figrcr-e 3 Itrrpstfect slnibrlre: (a) corrcspotlrlitrg to syr~lt~ietricalnctiotls. (b) cor-

respotlditrg to rnor~-syarrrteiricnlncrio~rs.Dashed lirie: initial franrc; solicl
line: irrclinecl fra~~ze;
cf~aitt-dottedlirte: irrcfirwdfr-anre itlcludirlg cnrvatlire.

The combination of actions remains unchanged, but the stresses and deflections
are calculated using a value of E of
E = E,,,, f ;,,,,,1f, = 9600 . 19,4 / 28 = 6650 ~ h t t t t i ~

The resulting design values are given in Table 2.

STEP/EUROFORTECl-I - nn initiative under the EU Comet1 Programme

s, units 1,35g+ 1,5s
symmelric non-symmetric
V kN 144 146
H kN 79 79
N1 kN - 135 - 1 35
Nz kN -140 -140
N3 kN -105 - 106
Ad, kNr11 -269 -260
M, kNt11 -343 -327
4 Writ -238 -227

Table 2 Nor~lirreararmlysis. Desigrl vnlrtes of laactions, i~rler-rrcrlarid farces and

ntarrr el7 ts.

Verification of ultimate limit state in cross-section (2)

Since, lateral buckling is not part of the applied nonlinear analysis the factors
k, = k,,: and k,,, remain valid therefore:

the design bending stress is

the design compression stress is

and the interaction equation is

References
Kessel, M.11.(1984). Geornetrisclt nichtlinean: FE-Anrvendungcn im Ingcnjcur~iolzbnu.In: Finite
ElemenLe - Anwendungen in der Baupraxis. Verlag Emst Jlr Sohn Berlin, 237-245.

Kessel, M.l-I., Hinkes, F.J., Schclling, W. (1984). Zur Sichcrung des Drcigetenkral~mcns aus
Bre!tschichtholz gegcn Kippcn. Bauingenieur 59 (1984) 189- 194.

PflUgcr. A.. (1975). Stabilit3tsprobIeme der Elaslostatik. Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New
York, 3rd Edition.

Tirnoshenko, S. and Gere. J.M. (1961). Theory of' elastic stability. McGraw-Hiif Book Co. Inc.
New Yorli, 2nd Edition.

Young, Y.B, and Kuo, S.R. (1991). Consistent Frame Buckling Analysis by Finite Efcment
Metlmi. J. Struct. Eng. 117 (1991) 1053-1069.

STEP/EUROFORTEClf - an initintivc under lire EU Cornett Programme

 Bracing - Design

STEP iccturc B 15 Objectives

tf. Bruninghoft' To develop an understanding of how con~pressionor bending members need to
Gcsamtl~ochschulcWuppcrtnl be braced in order to avoid instability, to identify the governing parameters and
Bcrgischc Univcrsitai to present the procedure of ECS as a worltable design rnetl~od.

Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building nlaterial
B2 Tension and co~npression
B3 Bending
B6 Columns
B7 Buckling lengths

Summary
The lecture starts wit11 a non-mathematical introduciion to the ~nechanismsof
bracing structures. It presents the principal factors influencing the actions on bracing
members and shows how the equations offered in EC5 have been derived. A
practical example showing how the actions on bracing structures are evaluated
comple~nentsthe lecture.

Introduction
Coluinns require a stability calculation to check against failure or unacceptable
defor~nations.Often it is advisable lo restrain one or more points (between the main
supports) from lateral deflection by bracing. This is done in an analogous way to
that used for slender bearns to prevent lateral buckling. Colu~nnsor beams could
be part 01a combined structure, for example an upper chord of a truss. The actions
on the bracing structure may be derived by using a second order analysis whereby
the equilibrium of moments and forces is analysed by considering the deformed
shape or the respective structure. The stiffness of all ~nernbersconcerned and the
slip of built- in joints is tdien into account. However, EC5 presents a simplified
method based on the above approach.

Factors influencing actions on bracing members

It is necessary to differentiate between compression and bending melnbers lo be
braced. Furthermore either a single higilly loaded support or several supports which
form pa11 of a bracing structure, e.g. a buss, could be analysed. The actions on
supporting structures depend on the general geometry of the structure to be braced,
such as cross-seclional and Io~tgiludinnldimensions, support conditions and marerial
prope11ies determined by the cl~oiceof the strengtl~class, the climate and the load
duration class of' tile governing load case. The stiffness of rnenibers and the rigidity
of existing joints are very imporlant factors, not only as attributes of the st~vclure
to be braced but especially for the bracing structrlre itself. To perfon11 a second
order analysis, geometrical and stn~cturalimperfections sl~ouldbe incl~ided.

In EC5 the initial curvature of the rneniber axis is limited by deviation from
straightness to 11500 of the length for glued laminated timber and to 1t-300 of the
EC5: Pad I - I: 7.2 length for structural timber.

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - 1111 initi:~tive unclcr tlic EU Comet1 Prognmnic B15/1

Baclcground of the design methods of ECS
Single szrpports of conzpression nrembers

C)
N,,-p ,-1.- +N 11

F1r 'r : d) I
0 -(I

Figure I Sj~.stemnrrd cli$'ectioris of'bruce~lr11erliber.s.

Compression members of the length I regularly braced by elastic supports to avoid

buckling produce big spring Forces if the deflected shapes shown in Figure 1 b and
c are assumed. Mohler and Schelling (1960) showed that the niinimum spring
-
stiffness should be

where
X
ks = 2 ( 1 +cos - )
111

and a the length, I I Z the number of waves, so that I = it1 n to guarantee a deformed -
line of member axis with two hinged ends and with k, = 2 for one wave shape or
I;, = 4 for an infinite number of waves. The spring force F, (see Figure 2).

Figrtre 2 Sltupe uttd forr~lsof utt elastically sicppor-ied member.

can be calculated conservatively by a second order analysis to be:

where e is the maximum devia~ionof' straightness.

Figure 3 shows that spring forces of I;;, = N, 158 and i;,, = N, 196 could be included,
if deviations of straightness in an unloaded sittiation of 11300 or 11500 are assumed
for solid timber, or glued laminated timber, respectively. The results have been
-
approximated in EC5 to N , 150 or N, 180.

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH - an inilielivc undcr the EU Cornelt Programme
Figitre 3 Coeficiettt of bmcitrg force as u fnnction of deviatiori of strrrigfitrress.

Single nipports of bendilzg nieinbem

Burgess (1989) proposed the substitution N,,in equations 5.4.5.2 d and e of EC5
with
-
Nd = M,,Ncric
Mcr,

where Nc,i, and M,,i, are the critical forces calculated according to tile classical
theory of stability. EC5 proposes an alternative approxi~nation

where k,, is calculated from equations 5.2.2 c to e of EC5 for the unbraced length
of the member. Here the torsional rigidity of a beam is taken into account. No
bracing is required if I,, = 1 . Tlie procedure only works if the beam is braced
dong the compression edge.

Bracing of beam or truss systems

To achieve maximum actions on a bracing structure the iluperfections of the
compression or bending members to be horizontally supported by a bracing
structure of the stiffness (El),/ is assumed to be a single wave sine curve as shown
in Figure Id. Con~pressionforces, N,, produce a moment (see Figure 4)
Md = n N d y

Figrm 4 Braced con~prc~siotl

ttrenzbers utld deflections; (a) slrrright lirre, (6)it~zpetfect
axis, ( c ) deflected axis. is rhe stQj$res.s of the bracing str-rtctrrre.

STEP/CUROFORTECH - an initiative under Ihe EU Comcu Programme B 1513

The resistance component, negIecting the stiffness EI: of the slender members to be
stiffened, is given by the differential equation of elastic line with regard to the
predeflection

which equation may be combined such that

where the predeflection is

a
y, = e sin (-XI
l

and
M, = nN, y

The solution of the preceding differential equation leads to

see also Briininghoff (1983).

The evaluation of this equation requires knowledge of the bracing stiffness (EI),:,lo
be calculated, taking into account not only the elastic behaviour of all members, e.g.
chords and diagonals of a truss, but also the contribution related to any joint slip.
To provide a simplification for comrnon design situations, EC5 limits the maximum
deformations of the bracing structure caused by q, to N700.

Then the elimination of (EQfout Equations (10) and ( I 1) above and the conversion
of a sine shaped load qd into a constant form give

where k, = 1 .

For spans of more than 15 i n a particular accuracy of workinanship [nay be

expected to limit deflections so that i t is reasonable to reduce tfle span-related
imperfection by the factor
I

where I is given in 171.

The design engineer st~ouldcheck the deforn~ationsof the system if the deflection
limitations are likely to be exeeded.

Using beams (instead of compression members) in structures the co~npressionedge

should be supported so that the equations in EC5 may be taken for bracing analysis.

SI'EPIEUROFORTECN - an initiative undcr tile EU Comet1 Proprainmc

 To take into consideration the torsional capacity of beams as described above, the
compression force can be reduced to

where h is the depth of the beam

Design example
A hangar 60 m lengtll, 20 rn wide and 8 height is to be constructed, using glulam
beams of strength class GL 28 according to prEN 1194, "Timber structures - Glued
laminated timber - Strength classes and determination of characteristic values". The
beams span 20 nr, are 1200 inm deep and 160 r71tn wide and are spaced at 6 m
centres.

Design values of permanent and varable load for the governing load case:
permanent load: g , = 5,4kN/ln (line load, permanent)
variable load: q , = 6,O kNAn (line load, short term)
EC5: Part 1- 1: 3.1.7 Service class I : k,,,,,,= 0,9

Cllni-acterisric innrerial properties

The characteristic valua of strength as well as modulus of elasticity for bending
prEN 1 194: 1993 and torsion are taken from prEN 1194 "Timber structures, Glued laminated timber,
strength classes and determination of cl~aracteristicvalues". The 5-percenlile values
are used in the designwork since an ultimate limit state is considered.

cross-section values:
Wy= - h 2 b = 38,4 . lo6 rrrnr3
6

I,, = q3 h b3 = 1500 . lo6 r11ni4

Tlie critical moment is

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I- an initiative under the EU Cornctt Programme

and the critical stress is

a"l,c"~
Mcril = 7,44 iV,7,17,z2
= -
WY
The relative stress slender~iesscan be calculated

and the buckling coefficient

The compression rorce of the glularn beam is to be determined

where

M,, = (g,, + q,,) = 570 kNvt

The bracing load is then given with

where the imperfection factor is:

I

11 =I0 for 9 ft~llyloaded beams and two 50% loaded gable walls -
N,, = 349 ItN as shown above.

The limitation for horizontal deflection is if700 for bracing actions, N500 for the
combination of wind and bracing loads. These are normally fulfilled if the bracing
-
strilcture is properly designed connected and the relationship of span I and spacing
e, is less than 6, here

-
Concluding summary
- Bracing structures ate needed to restrain slender compression or bending
members from lateral buckling. -

- The major factors influencing the bracing actions are ditnensions of the
system and the beams, geolnetric and structural imperfections and material
properties such as strength and modulus of elasticity for bending and torsion. -
- The procedure offered in EC5 is based on a simplified second order analysis,
such that an additional check of Iateral deflections is generally required. -

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an iniliativc under thc EU Comctt Progremmc

References
Mohler. K. and Schelling, W. (1968). Zur Bemcssung von l<nickvcrbSndenund ICnickauss~eirungcn
im Hotzbau. Der Bauingcnicur, 43. lahrgang, Hcf 2.

Burgess, I-I.J. (1989). Suggcstcd Cl>angcsin Code Bracing Rccommendations Lbr Beams and Calumns.
In: Proc. ol' thc CIB-W 18 Meeting, Bcrlin, Germany, Paper 22-15-1.

Brilninghorr, H. (1983). Dclcrrnination of' Bracing Structures for Coinpression Members and Benins.
In: Proc. of the CIB-W 18 Mecling, Lillehammcr, Norway, Papcr 16-15-1

Notation
n length between elastic supports
c, spacing of beairis

STBP/EUROFOR'l%CI-I- an initiative under the EU Comcll Programme

 Load sharing

STEP leclure B I G Objectives

I-I.J. Btass To develop an understanding of the phenomenon of probabilistic load sharing in
~eifiUniversity parallel stnrclural systems and to quantify the effect on the load-carrying capacity
of Tecl\nology of systems.

Prerequisite
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
The lecture presents examples of parallel structural systems, where the positive
correlation between the strength and the stiffness of timber members increases the
load-bearing capacity of systems compared with that of single members. The
influence of the material behaviour and the variation of timber strength and stiffness
on the load sharing effect is discussed. For common structural systems the load
sharing effect is quantified.

Introduction
EC5: Part 1-1:5.4.6 EC5, like other design codes, includes a load sharing factor for assemblies
consisting of several similar members connected by a load distribution system. An
example of such an assembly is a timber joist floor, where the joists are linked by
panel sheathing. Tile load sharing factor increases the member design strength by
taking into account two effects: first the reduced chance that a weaker member or
pare will be placed at a position where the stresses are particularly high, and second
the positive correlation between strength and stiffness of timber members. This
positive correlation enables a stiffer member to carry a higher proportion of the
applied load. On the other hand, less stiff members, which in most cases are also
weaker cany less of the load. Load sharing counteracts the materiill variability
effects lo a certain extent.

Figitre I Hoor Ioyorit rmder tile action of rr cotrcerttintcd load.

The load sharing or load distribution effect improves the member 'behaviour in
systems for both concentrated and distributed loads. For concentrated Icrads, the load
distl-ibution system transfers part of the load to the adjacent members, relieving the
most stressed member under the concentrated Ioad. Figure I shows a[ floor cross-
section under the action of a concentrated toad.

In uilifonnly loaded systems, the load-sharing effect is less evident. If the stiffness
of a11 members is the same, the deformation of all members would be identical even
without a load distribution system. Since in reality the inember stiffness varies,

STEPtBUROFORTECH - an initiative under ihc EU Comctt Propnmmc B lGll

softer members tend to deform more than stirfer members. Line (b) in Figure 2
shows the different joist deformations in a floor if no load distribution system is
effective. If a load distribution system connects the joists, the deformations become A

more uniform (see line (a) in Figure 2). In this case, the load distribution system
decreases the load on flexible members and increases the Ioad on stiffer members.

Figlire 2 E'ect of the load di.striDutiorr systerri on the joist dcfornicitions. ( a ) rvitli crrrcl
( b ) witliorrt load clistribirtiori systctrt. 1V: 101v d~;tjctres,s
aember; S: high .stiflress
rtiettiber; A: average strfiress trrer?rber.
-
The same situation is true where the member behaviour is no longer linear. If the
stiffness of a single member under loads close to the ultimate load decreases due
to ~nicrocracksor plastic deformations, the load is redistributed within the assembly -
and the partly damaged member is able to contribute to the load carrying capacity
of the system, the total assembly load can still be increased.
-
Load sharing in different structural systems

Flool;r and . f i t roofs -

Foschi, Folz and Yao (1989) performed a numerical study of the design of floors
and flat roofs in order to derive system factors for modifying single member design
ec~uations.The structural analysis carried out in this study was restricted to linear
behaviour. The loads considered were uniformly distributed dead and live loads.
-
The load sharing factor was derived by a reliability assessment of a single beam
within the floor, i.e. the way in which the performance of a single member was -
affected by its i~lsertioninto the structural system was considered. Sensitivity
analyses were carried out to determine the influence of different parameters. Tlie
load sharing factor k,, was found to be quite insensitive to variations in the support -
conditions, the size, number and spacing of the joists and the ratio between dead
and live load. The following factors increase the effect of load sharing:

- increasing the ratio of the stiffness of the Load distribution systetn to the
average member stiffness,
- increasing the variation of the member modulus of elasticity and -
- raising the correlation between lnodulus of elasticity and bending strength.

The bending strength variation of the beams also significantly influences the load -
sharing factor. For very small and very large values of the coefficient of variation
(COV), the load sharing factor is small with a maximum for COV values between
0,20 and 0,30. For a typical floor or flat roof, the load sharing factor determined
was k , = 1,15. This corresponds quite we11 to the value of 1,10 in EC5.
-
-
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative uridcr the EU Corncu Programme
Roof Trlrsses
Load distribution in roof truss asselnblies has been studied by Wolfe and McCarthy
(1989) and Wolfe and LaBissoniere (1991). Tests were performed on individual
trusses and full-scale roof assemblies using three different truss configurations. The
Ioad distribution system was I:! n m ~plywood sheathing across the tnlss rafters. By
measuring the load-deflection response of individual trusses independently and as
part of the roof assembly, the effects of assembly interaction under uniformly
distributed loads as well as line loads on individual trusses were evaluated.

Roof load carrying capacity was increased and apparent truss stiffness variability
was decreased by load sharing mechanisms within the assembly. When partial
damage occurred to individual trusses, a redistribution of loads away from these
trusses enabled them to continue to contribute to the assembly load carrying
capacity at a lower Ioad level.

If a single truss in a system was loaded along its top cllord with the design load,
40% to 70% of that load was transferred to adjacent trusses by the sheathing. The
load sharing effect on the load canying capacity of the trusses resulted in ratios of
measured roof assembly strength to minimum truss strength from 1,09 to 1,47.
These values depend on tile effectiveness of the load distribution system and on the
position of the truss in the assembly. They indicate that the design load carrying
capacity of the entire truss, i.e. members and connections, can be increased by at
least 10% due to the load sharing effect. For most systems, a factor of 1,10 can be
considered as a safe minimum value.

Slzect piling
Load sharing effects also increase the bending capacity of planks in sheet piling or
retaining walls, if they are interconnected, for example by tongue and groove joints.
In this case, the load distribution system is the connection between the single
planks. This connection causes a nearly uniform deflection of the individual planks
under uniformly distributed loads although their stiffness values may vary
considerably.

A theoretical analysis (Van der Linden et a]., 1994) was carried out, based on the
following properties of ekki planks (Lophirn alata) in wet condition:
J;, = f 03 Nhrur1' and E ,,,,.,,,,= 17600 Nhlrnr'.
The coefficient of cor~elationbetween bending strength and modulus of elasticity
was 0,73 and the coefficient of variation for both bending strength and rnodulus of
elasticity 15%. The bending stress distribution over the depth of the planks included
a plastic behaviour in the cornpression zone, leading to n decrease in stiffness at
higher stress levels. The analysis included the generation of sheet piling systems
based on varying properties between the planks and constant properties within the
planks and the subsequent calculation of their Ioad carrying capacity using a
nonlinear finite element model. Comparing the characteristic load carrying capacity
per plank for systelns with ten planks to the capacity of individual planlts leads to
a load sharing factor of about I,I5. This factor is applicable only to the bending
strength values for the planks, since the load distribution system is not effective for
axial forces.

Design example
Timber floor with beams b x It = 60 x 200 Ilttrr spaced at n = 0,60 rr1 interval with
tongued and grooved floor boards acting as ioad distribution system, span

STEPtEUROFOR~CH- an initiative under Il~eEU Cornett Programme B 1613

 1 = 4,60 !ti. Strength class C24 according to prEN 338 "Structural timber. Strength
classes".
-
Design values of permanent and variable load for the governing Ioad case:
permanent load: g, = 1.0 k N / r ~ ~ ~ u n i f o r m
distributed
ly load, permanent)
variable load: q,, = 3,O IcN/ti? (unifonnly distributed load, medium-term) -
EC5: Part 1-1: 3.1.7 Service class 1: k,,,,, = 0,8
-
Design bending stress:

Characteristic material property:

prEN 338: I99 I The characteristic value of the bending strength is taken from prEN 338 "Stmctural
timber - Strength classes": j;,,,,= 24 N/nun2. -
EC5: Part 1- 1: 2.2.3.2 Design value of bending strength:

E C ~Part
: 1-1: 2.3,z.ib Verification of failure condition:

Concluding summary
- Load sl~aringincreases the characteristic load carrying capacity of members -
in parallel structural systems compared to single members, based on the
positive correlation between strength and stiffness of timber members.

- A stiff load distribution system, a close correlation between strength and

stiffness and pIastic behaviour of the members are all beneficial to the load
sharing effect. -

- Typical assemblies where the Ioad sharing effect increases load carrying
capacity are flat roofs, floors, trusses, rafters, wall studs and sheet piling with
effective load distribution systems connecting the individual members. -

References
Foschi, R.O.. Folz, B.R. and Yao, F.Z. (1989). Reliability-Basecl Dcsign of Wood Slructurcs. -

Structural Rcscarch Sci-ics, Rcpon No. 34, Department of Civil Etlginccring. University of Britisli
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, ISBN 0-88865-356-5.

Vikn dcr Linden, M.L.R., Van dc Kuilcn, J-W. G. and Blass, H.J.(1994). Application of' the Holln~an -
yield criterion for Load sharing in timber sheet piling. In: Proc. of the 1994 Pnc. Timber Eng. Conl.
Gold Coast, Australia.

Wolfe, R.W.and LaBissonicre, T. (1991). Structural Performancc of Light-Ramc Roof Assemblics.

11. Conventional Truss Assemblics. Research Paper FPL-RP-499, Forest Producls Laboratory. Forest
Service, US Department ol' Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

Wolfc, R.W. and McCarthy, M. (1989). Structural Pcrformmcc of Lighr-Fmmc Roof Assemblics. I. -
Truss Asscrnblies With High Truss Stiffness Variability. Research Paper FPL-RP-492, Forest Products
Laboratory. Forest Servitc, US Dcpartmcnt o l Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
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STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative uridcr the EU Comctt Prograrnnle
 Fire resistance of timber members

STEP lcclurc B 17 Objective

1-1. EIarll To present calculation lnethods for slructural fire design.
Zivilingcnieur fijr
Bauwcsen Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building material
A 13 Behaviour of timber and wood-based materials in fire

Summary
The calculation methods for structural fire design according to EC5: Part 1-2
-
"General rules Supplementary rules for structural fire design" are discussed and
a comparison between these methods is shown with the help of an example.

Introduction
Generally the same principles are followed to calculate fire resistance as in
standard design. Thus for actions and for material properties characteristic values
are applied. However most fire testing is based on deterministic methods using
mean values for strength. In order to ensure the same safety level EC5:Part 1-2,
gives approximate calcuIation methods that satisfy both requirements, see Figure 1.

For .rr(itrrk~rd/iree.tpo.rttrc:
- Cltiirrit~gcic/~rii~ f ~ l l =l l rPo I or P r
Rcclrtccd .vrer~xtlteirld firfwrctinerricjirc c.~/~~isrtre:
str#ie.r rrrctlrad - C/rnrrirr# rfc~>lbdc.ll,, rti:cmr.dirig EC5:pctrr I -2:A1tttc-r1)
- hind corryinx crrf,ercir)t~~/'rtrcr~il~crs ~virlrtr rcsidtrcrl cross-
scclion:
1', = f h -1 -
(b 2 ele,rrr,J f i r4 ~iflc.~,/irc c.f~~ris~rrc
11, = (h -2 %,l,l,j (b - c/ch,,J jirr 3 .~ide$flrc?erpo.rrorr
C

- GloItc11smrcfrtntl rtrrrr!~~.~i.r
c~t;cort.lirgEC5:Part 1-22.5.1

~wcrirlchorring rnc~tfels
- Terfr]~errrlarc prc1jT1c.r iit rkc rc*sidrtcrlcrr~sr-scctio~;
- Strcnjir/r ccirrl srifJrc!s.c f~rmpcrrie.rrIc~~ciidcrrr
on tcrrrl>ercrtrtrc
rttrd nroisltrre rarrfcrrt

fig tire I Sfnictttml fire clcsigt1 accurcii~igEC5: Parr 1-2

STEMEUROFORTECI-I - an initintivc undcr [lie EU Comcu Progremmc

 Verification
The effect of actions E(t) and the resistance of timber members R(t) during fire -
exposure is in principle shown in Figure 2 . The fire resistance is reached at the time
EC5: Part 1-2: 2.5 t, when R(t) becomes less than E(t). Thus the verification on the design level is

0 10 20 30 40 50 GO
f (ulirt.)
Figrcrs 2 Effect of aciiorrs E(t) ar~drasistarrce of timber rrlenll~er:~
R(f) rlrrririg Jre
e.YposlI re.

El,,, is the design effect of actions in the event of fire

R,., is the design resistance in the event of fire

Design values for material properties

Material pr-operties for- tltet-ilmi analysis

EC5: Part 1-2: 2.3

X,(O) is the characteristic value for material properties at a temperature 0,

depending on whether property increase is favourable for safety or not.

of elasticity
Tllernzo t~iecitntricalproperties of strengrll arid ttlod~rl~ls
For load-carrying verification the design strcngth and stiffness values shall be
determined from

EC5: Part 1-2: 2.3

For deform;ition verification the stiffness values sl~ailbe taken from

XJ,, is the design value of material property (strength or modulus of elasticity)

X, is the characteristic value of material property
kmMIJis a reduction factor taking account of the influence of temperature and
moisture content on strength and stiffness in case of fire
I/ is a coefficient which alters the characteristic property LO a mean value
kr = 1.15 for glued laminated timber and wood based panels
kr = 1,25 for solid timber
Y,,~ = I ,O is a partial safety factor for material properties
STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme
 Char-ring depths
Charring depths for members exposed to fire can be calculated by means of the
cllarring rate (linear relation between charring and time) and the Lime of exposure
to the fire (see STEP lecture A13).

Design values for actions and effect of actions

According to EC5: Parl 1-1, the accidental cornbination rule is used in fire design.
EC5: Parl 1-1: 2.3.2.2b
C YG,,,~ Gk,j + A,, + V ~ ,Q k If + C'I~,,Q~~
i >I

Where G, are the permanent loads and Q, the variable loads. y is a partial safety
factor and ~y is a combination value. (A, is normally equal to zero, but has to be
justified in the fire situation).

For fire design tlie forces and mo~nenls(SL,)

can be derived from the norrnal design
value (St,) by the following equation:
S' = 11 S,l (6)

7 can be calculated by division of the fundamental and the accidental cornbination

rule (case of fire) or 11 is sinlplified to a value of [0,6]. In this case conservative
results are possible.

Esort7ple
System:

1 is the span and e the distance between the beams; I = 5,O 112; e = 1.20 m

Loading:
G, = 2,l kN/tn" Permanent action
Q = 1,2 kN/t?t2 Variable action (snow)
Q = 0,5 ~ N / N I ' Variable action

Normal design (fundamental coinbination):

y is tile partial safety factor for actions; y, = 1,35 for permanent actions and
ye = 1,5 for variable actions

Bending moment:

EC5:Parli-l:2.3.2.2b Fire design (accidental cornbination):

y, is the partial safety factor in the event of i'lre; y, = 1,O

STEPIEUROFORTECI-! - iin initinlive under ttic EU Comctl Progm~nnic

\ifi is a coinbination value; \if,,, = 0,2 combination value for the first variable action
in the event of fire, yr,, = 0,3 combination value for olher variable actions in the
event of fire.
-

y, = 2,49 . 1,30 = 2,99 kNlttz

Bending moment:
J
4,/= - - 2.99 . 5.0' = 9,34 kN,,,
8 8

Calculation methods

Te1r1perlc1frir.eprofiles
The temperature for the actual charline is of n 111agniiudeof about 300 "C. The
charline derived froin P,, (Q) can be piit at 200 "C. For a fire exposure of 111orethan
70 minutes ambient temperatures are reaclied at a distance below the clinrline which
remain constant for the remaining exposure time. This distance is about 30 t m t i
from tile charline and for the charline related to PI, (P) about 25 tilitz. The shape of
the iemperature profile is given in Figure 3.

Figwe 3 Tettipemtlire profife for b, > a,,,, see Hnrtl (1990).

If the width of the residual cross-section b, is stnalle~.than n,,for exposure from one
side or smaller than 2nl, for exposure froin two sides, the gradient llns to be
modified to account for a temperature increase beyond ambient in Lhe middle of the
section (see Figure 4).

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - ;In initiative under the EU CorncLt Programme

 Figure 4 Temnperature profile for b,< 2 a , , see Hartl (1990).

Tenzperat~cradepetzdent strengtfi alzd stifitess properties

The dependency of the strength and stiffness properties is sl~ownin Figure 5 , where
E is the modulus of elasticity, f,, f, and f, are the strength values for tension,
bending and compression strength of solid timber. From these fundamental findings
the following calculation methods are derived.

Figure 5 Tenrperati~redepe~rderrtstrerrgtll and s t t ~ ~ z e properties,

ss see Glos (1990).

Effective cross sectiorz l?tctlzod

For the effective cross section method the time of tire resistance depends on the
load bearing capacity of the uncharred remaining cross section. This effective cross

ECS: Part 1-2: 4.1 ',

section is shown in Figure 6, with
= 'tlurr + '0 (8)

where 4, = 7 fn11z.

EC5: Pnrti-2: Figure 4.1 Figrcre 6 EJfcctive cross seclion.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative undcr LIIC EU Comett Programme

 The factor rl,, is calculated in the following way:
Integration of the temperature profile according to Figtire 3 gives an average
temperature of about 80 "C. Adopting an average temperature-dependent strength
at 80 "Cof about 70 % (between bending and compression in Figure 5 ) implies that
70 % of a,, may be regarded as unaffected and 30 % as ineffective. 30 % of a, =
25 rllrtt gives about 7 rltrlr (rl,,).

Faclor k,, according to the required time of' fire resistance is given in Table I .

Unprotected surfaces tf,rcq

< 20 min.

if,,c,, 2 20 min.

Surfaces protected by I ~ - , <~ 20~min.

~ tf.rctl -tpr
wood based panels k,, = -----
20

' 1,rccl
- tpr 2 20 rnin. ,k = I ,O
Surfaces protected by tr - t p r < 10 min.
k(, =
tf,rrq -'pr
gypsum plasterboards --,

10
(inner layer)

t,,,,, is the required time OF f'lrc resistance and t,,, tile failure time of protective claddings.

EC5: Part 1-2: 4.1 Tuble I Drterrrrirmtion oJ k,,.

Reclrtccd stmrtgtlr arld sriJfiess r~rcthod

This tnethod is also derived from the afore mentioned temperature profiles (by
integration average temperature). Tile load carrying capacity is calculated for the
residual cross-section.

Due to an allnost linear relationship between temperature and strength and stiffness
properties an equation was found where the reduction factor can be calculated in
dependence on the perimeter of the fire exposed cross section (p) and the area of
the residual cross section (A,), see Figure 7.

E.g. k,,,,,,, for standard fire exposure, coniferous timber and for bending strength

where
11 is the perimeter of the fire exposed residual cross-section in metres
A, is the area of the residual cross-section in ni"

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative undcr thc EU Cornctt Programme

EC5: Part 1-2: Annex A Figure 7 k,,r,,,,Jfor letl.siotr ( I ) , betiditrg (,ti), cort?pre.ssio~t
( c ) crrrd ~ttohllesof elnsficily
t.0
General c n l c ~ r l a t i o imct/?ods
~
For general calcuIation methods the telnperature and moisture conlent in any point
of the cross section is considered. Also the relationship between strength and
stiffness properties and temperature and moisture content has to be taken into
account. Therefore an increase in the amount of design work is inevitable, but these
more complex methods would lead to more economical constnrctions.

Example:
The following calculation is based on the example given on page 3 for fire
exposure from 3 sides and for a fire resistance of R30 and RGO (30 and 60
minutes):
cross-section b x h : 180x220 ntm
strength class C27 = 27 N/tltt~t'
EC5: Part 1-2: 3.1 . l a Po = 0 i r solid timber (see STEP lecture A13)
EC5: Part 1-2: 1.3: PO) k, = 1,25 solid timber
M I = 4,77 k N ~ a see example page 4

EJffective cl-oss section ~rictltod

EC5: Pnrt 1-2: 4.1(2) = I $0
~,,I,,~IJ

R30:
EC5: Part 1-2: 4.2a (I,, = p, t,,,, + k, d effective cilarring deplh
(4 = 7 ltlI71
k,, = 1,O according to Table 1
C I , ~ ; , ~ = 0,8- 30 i- 1 , O m 7 = 31,O rnrrr

I, f.30 h'
y, =
6
J30 = I18 . 189'16 = 703 - lO"nu11" section modulus

EC5: Part 1-2: 2.3il.b design bending strength

design bending stress

 Utilization factor 13,3 / 33,7 = 0,394
R60:
Utilization factor 29.4 / 33.7 = 0,871

Redrrcecl strength and stiffrzess nzettzod

R30:
ECS: Part 1-2: 4.1a charring depth llc,ulr-
- p,, 1

section modulus

-- --
1 P
ECS: Part 1-2: Anncx A(4) k m o ~ ~
200 -
Ar

design bending strength

EC5: Part 1-2: 2.3a.b
.f mJ,d -
-
ke%wif k/
'",' = 0.899
- 1 ,25 . 27 = 30,3 N/,r~tn '
Ynrs

design bending stress

Utilization factor 1 1, 1 / 30,3 = 0,364

R60:
Utilization factor 22,5 1 28,8 = 0,784

Canclusion
It depends on the amount of design work how econamical the results of calculaiing
the fire resistance will be. It should also be pointed out that not all the problems
related to fire resistance are calculable. The results from fire testing especially for
floor and wall design are useful.

The effective cross section method and the reduced strength and stiffnes method are
very useful For approximate results for the fire resis~nce,which might be enough
in most cases. They are not adequate if the fire resistance time needs to be very
precise or if 2.-order effects are not negligible. If timber members are covered by
panels and if they are be included in the calculation, other design procedures shouid
be applied. In this case testing or more detailed calculation is unavoidable (see e.g.
STEP lecture E12).

References
Hart!. H.(1995). Brandvcrhaltcn von Holtkonstruktionen. Inforrnationsheft.

Glos. P (1990). Fcstigkcit von Bauholz bei hohen Temperaturen. ForschungsberichL.

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STEPIEUROFORTECI-I an initiative undcr thc EU Comett Programme
 Mechanical timber joints - General

STEP lecture Cl Objectives

P. Raciier To give an overview of the types of mechanical fasteners used in timber structures.
CUST Civil Engineering To define the geometry and the basic properties of these fasteners. To give general
Blaisc Pascal University guidance and specific guidance on factors governing the design of the joints.

Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building material
B2 Tension and compression
B4 Shear and torsion

Summary
This lecture describes the various types ,of mechanical fastener used in timber
structures. The geometry and the application of the most cornrnonly used fasteners
are presented. Further, the behaviour of mechanical fasteners is examined to aliow
a proper selection depending on the aims of the designer. Then, general
recommendations relating to the layout and the design of timber connections are
given. They cotnplement the EC5 rules for assessing reliable designs (see STEP
lectures C2 to C16).

Introduction
The basis of design relates to the layout of the structure, the choice of the framing
system, the proper design of the components and the ease of const~uction.For
timber structures, the serviceability and the durability of the structure depend mainly
on the design of the joints between the elements. For commonly used connections,
a distinction is made between carpentry joints (see STEP lecture C12) and
mechanical joints that can be made from several types of fastener.

For a given structure, the seleclion of iasteners is not only controlled by the loading
and the load-carrying capacity conditions. It includes some construction
considerations such as aesthetics, the cost-efficiency of the structure and the
fabrication process. The erection method and the preference of the designer or the
architect are also involved (Natterer el al., 1991). It is impossible to specify a set
of rules from which the best connection can be designed for any structure. The
main idea is that the simpler the joint and the fewer the fasteners, the better is the
structural result.

In the first part, this lecture presents the different types of fastener. Obviously, it
is not possible to present all types of fastener or connection devices in a single
lecture. Therefore, only the most important and common fasteners are presented.
The general geometry and structural applications are given. The second part deals
with the classification of the fasteners according to their behaviour and their load-
carrying capacity. Then, the final part mentions some calculaCions and details to be
considered in the design of the joints.

Types of fastener
The traditional mechanical fasteners are divided into two groups depending on how
they transfer the forces between the connected members.

-
STEP/EUROFORTECN an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme cI/l
The main group c o r ~ ~ s p o n dtos the dowel type fasteners. Here, the load transfer
involves both the bending behaviour of the dowel and the bearing and shear stresses
in the timber along the shank of tile dowel. Staples, nails, screws, bolts and dowels
-
belong to this group. The second type includes fasteners sitcli as split-rings,
shear-plates, and punched metal plates in which the load transmission is primarily
achieved by a large bearing area at the surface of the members. The load
-
transmissiori is primarily achieved by a large bearing area at the surface of the
members.
-
When dealing with larger structures, fasteners could be used with special steel
hardware especially for the connection to the foundation or at tile apex of the
structure. -
Apart from mechanical fasteners, a mention should be made of a new group relating
to glued joints. They require specific quality control (Ozelton and Baird, 1976).
This technique is mainly carried out using glued-in bolts for beam connections or
-
large finger joints for frame corners (see STEP lectures C14 and D8).

Nails -
Nails are the most commonly used fasteners mainly for structural components such
as diaphragms, shear- walls and trusses. They are manufactured in many sizes,
shapes and materials (see Figure 1). Round wire nails are the most comrnonly used -
fasteners for timber. Improved nails with square cross-section or deformed shanks
are also available. The sizes of nails are related to diFferent standardised gauges in
the European countries. The common sizes rangc from 2,75 to 8 rtrrtl in diameter -
and 40 lo 200 ntnr in length.

For* nailed joints, the main development results from the use of power-driving
equiptner~tusing coriipressed air. For nail lengths up to 100 mrrr, it allows fast
-
installation reducing the cost of the execution. The equipment should be set
carefully to avoid over driving the nails especially in wood-based sheet material.
--

Figure I Slrapes of rlnils: ( { I ) rolrrrd \iiire nrri1.s. (6) l~elically tlrreadcd rlnils,
ritrged sl~ailknails, ((1) ~tlraclrirtedri~)cnnnils.
(c) ~11r11lr1nr

For the installation of nailed joints, predrilled holes may be necessary Lo avoid
splitting or to enable nails to be driven into dense hardwood. For softwood species,
tliis operation should be carried out For Douglas-fir and larch mernbers. Then, the
hole diameter has to be no greater than 80% of the nail diameter.

In timber structures, the nails have to be used primarily in single shear for
connecting timber, steel or wood-based panels as side members. The designer has
several possibilities for enhancing the load-carrying capacity of nailed joints. For
a lateral load, larger lateral load-carrying capacily can be obtained using square
nails. The other possibility is to insert steel sheets into the members. The nl'lr s are
driven without predrilling for sheets up to 2 ttlr?! in thickness. To increase both

STEPIEUROFORTECIJ - an initintivc under the EU Comctt Programme

lateral and withdrawal load-carrying capacity, the common clloice is to use special
nails (helically threaded or annular ringed shank nails). They provide greater
witlidrawal strength and reduce the hazard of timber splitting.

Plir~cl~ed
rile fa1 plcites
As nailed plates, punched metal plates allow joints to be ~nadebetween members
in-plane. They are manufactured from galvanized steel plates of thickness ranging
between 0,9 to 2,s I I I I ~ The
. installation of the punched metal plates requires special
equipment in a factory. Tiley are mainly used for light-framed timber trusses for
wliicll the member thickness should be ar least 35 rnlrt.

Because of the out-of-plane flexibility of such trusses, care should be taken in

handling to avoid darnage to the joints during erection as recomn~endedin prEN
1059 "Timber structures - Production requiretnents for fabricated trusses using
punched nlcttal plates". There exist inany proprietary plates. The designer should
refer lo Lhe manufacturer's specification which should be approved by a certification
organisation.

Bolts nltd d o ~ ~ e i s
Boils are commonly made from ordinary rnilcl steel with hexagonal or square heads
and nuts. The diameters range between 12 and 30 m111.For ease of installation, EC5
requires holes to be driven 1 tr71lr larger than the boft diameter although in practice
larger tolerances may be required. This bolt hole clearance reduces the capacity of
the bolted joints. For this reason and for appearance, dowels are taking tile place
of bolls. They are pieces of round steel rod fitting lightly into drilled holes.

As specified by the EC5 rules, both steel and timber properties affect the load-
carrying capacity of bolted or dowelled joints. Using ordinary bolts as standardised
for steel structures in EN 20898 "Mecl-lanical properties of fasteners-part 1: bolts,
screws and dowels", Table I defines the relevant properties. In addition, Table 2 '
gives the properties of the steel bar to be used in the design of dowels. Depending
on the size of the connection or the method of erection, some dowels may be
replaced by fitted bolts or end-threaded rods to hold the niembel-s together.

Bolt grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8

f;. (N/t>lmz) 240 320 300 400 480

T~tbleI )'icltl .v~re.ssS, aird tensile .stref~gthA,,, for ordirru~:yDoits.

Steel grade Fe360 Fe430 Fe5 I0

f,. (NhrttrJ) 235 275 355

- --

T ~ l l ~2l e \fo/l~esof f,. c~nd,f;,., for coirol~ottsteel burs.

Generally, bolts or dowels are iised in double or muliiple shear joints. To ensure the
performa~~ce of the joints, a minimum thickness is required for timber elements: 30
1nm for side inembers and 40 rtzrrt for internal members. All the tigtltened fasteners
should be instalfed with a washer under any I~eadsor nuts in contact with the
limber.

STEMEUROFORTECI-I- nn initiative undcr the EU Comctt Progrilmnlc C113

Scre~vs
The main type of screw used for structural applications is the coach screw. The
common sizes range from 6 to 30 imti in diameter and 25 to 300 mrn in length. As
for bolts, the use of a washer is required. In large connections, they conveniently
hold timber connectors in place or replace bolts when they are not suitable. Another
use is to fix joist hangers or framing anchors in combination with nails. A
-
limitation to their use results froin the predrilling needed to install the coach screws.

Co!ttzectors
The use of timber connectors alIows the transfer of heavy loads by increasing the
-
bearing area in the timber. For truss connections, a nearly perfect pinned joint can
easily be achieved using a single connector unit instead several dowel-type -
fasteners. Figure 2 shows the typical shapes of split-ring, shear-plate and toothed-
plate connectors.

Figrrre 2 Uslml tirtrber connectors; ( a ) split-ritrgs, (b) shear-plates, (cJ sirigle and - -
dotrblc sided too(lzed-plates.

Split-rings and shear-plates are formed from aluminium cast alloy, cast iron or steel
with diameters varying from 60 to 260 nrm. Precision in grooving and boring is
essential for the installation and performance of these types of connector. The
second type is the toothed-plate connector which is made from cast iron or hot-
dipped galvanized steel. Their diameters range from 38 to 165 mm. Larger
connectors are available for connection of glued-laminated members. In structural
timber, connectors with diameters up to 75 ~ t r r are
t installed. To limit the effects of
the transverse moment, the joints are held together by fasteners installed with round
or square washers of a size about half the diameter of the connectors used.

Split-rings and double sided toothed-plates are used in a similar way for timber to
timber joints. They transfer the load directly between the surfaces of the members
that are in contact. The assembly is generatly done on site. On the other hand,
shear-plates and single sided toothed-plates are suitable for steel to timber joints as
well as timber to timber joints. They allow the prefabrication OF the joints and only
the bolts are instalted on site. For these connectors, the load transfer is achieved by
the bolt stressed in shear by the bearing area of the connector centre plates.

Behaviour of fasteners and structural joint modelling

The design procedure has to combine the global analysis of the structural
timberwork and the local analysis of the connections. The key problem lies in joint
behaviour that affects the distribution of the forces and the deformations of the
structure. It can be determined from test results for the chosen joints according to

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme
EN26891 "Joints made with mechanical fasteners - General principles for the
determination of strength and deformation characteristics". Otherwise, the joint
properties are assigned from the behaviour of a single fastener. Figure 3 shows the
experimental behaviour of different fasteners where the load is defined per shear
plane.

Figure 3 Esperi~nentalland-slip crtrves for joitib irr tetuion parnllel to tlte grain:
( a ) glried joints (12,5 Id nrnt2), (b) split-rittg (100 tnni), (c) dotrbh sided
toothed-pfare (62 ~ z m ){Hiru~fzir~m, 1990), (d) do~vcl(I4 nu~r),(c) bolr
(I# nmz), Ifl purrcl~edplote (10' tr1171'), (g) nail (4,4 1t7tn).

In contrast with rigid glued joints, mechanical fasteners exhibit large deformations
that must be considered by the designer.

Apart from the stiffness of the joints, the overall behaviour depends on the stress
concentrations in shear and in tension perpendicuIar to the grain. These induce a
brittle behaviour for the split-ring connector and for shear-plates. The other
fasteners exhibit an elasto-plastic behaviour resulting from the deformation of the
fasteners as well as the crushing deformation of the timber.

Two important features should be mentioned from these curves:

- the initial slip for the bolted joints due to the oversized holes. This leads to
brittle behavjour and a reduced load-carrying capacity for multiple fastener
connections (see STEP lecture C15). An initial slip can also arise for shear-
plate and single-sided toothed-plate connectors;
- the punched plates show a small plastic deformation capacity. It can induce
a brittle failure depending on the geometric imperfections of the joints, within
the fabrication tolerance.

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comeit Programme C1/5

Furthermore, the yielding of dowelIed joints depends on the slenderness of the
fastener as sliown in Figure 4. Roughly, the slenderness can be defined for a doitble
shear joint as the ratio between the thickness 1, of the central timber member to the
-
diameter d of the dowel (see STEP lecture C3).

Figare 4 Influerice of tile slendernes.~of the cloltlcl on fke load-slip behnviour of a

tirrrbcr to timber sirrgle joirrt irr tetrsiori parcrllel m /he grcritt. -
The direction of the transferred forces nrfects the behaviour of the joint. For a
single fastener, this influence depends on the size of the fasteners co~nparedwith
the thiciiness of the growth rings or the timber. Froin test results (Sinith and Whale, -
1986), the load-carrying capacity of fasteners with a diameter up to 8 r l z r l ~ is
independent of the direction of load to grain. In the case of loads acting at an angle
to the grain, tension stresses perpendicular to the grain reduce tfle ductility and the -
capacity of the joint.

To prevent brittle failure and splitting, the ductility of the joint can be enhanced by
reinforcirlg tile members in the joint area. Efficient reinforcement can be made with
-
steel or wood-based panels glued on the internal sides of the connected members.
Such designs couid be suitable for resisting accidental actions such as seismic
actions (see STEP lecture C 17). -
In order to rnodel the joint for structuraf calculations, a joint classification can be
conveniently based on tile static ductility Ds= ic,/rr, of the joint (Figure 5a). -

fc) 9-
"11 Hd'li;, a~
Figure 5 Joitrr mrodellitig: (o) defltritiorrs of trite parameters, (b) modei,for senriceability
lirrrit smtes, ( c ) atrd ( d ) 11ro~1el.s
for ~iltir~znte
lit~litStntes.

STEP/EUROFORTECl - an initiative undcr thc EU Comctt Pragrammc

Following this ciassification (Table 3), design calculations can be achieved using
the join1 models defined for the serviceability and ultimate limit stales.

Joint type and loading conditions D, model at ultimate

limit states
- axially loaded nails and screws,
- glued-in bolts,
- split-rings, shear-plates, D, 1 3 5c
- dowel-type fasteners with failure mode 1 * or loaded
at a grain direction greater than 60",
- toothed-plates,
- punched ~netalplates, 3 <D, S 6 5c
- dowel-type fasteners with failure mode 2:@,
- nail plates,
- dowel-type fasteners wit11 failure mode 3* G < D, 5d

Table 3 Cln.ss(ficntior~ofjoirirs based oft file srntic dtrcrility (:? see STEP Iecrrtre C3).

Considering the choice of joint shape, mechanical fasteners provide the designer
with a wide range of possibilities. The proper selection should include strength and
stiffness criteria. As an example, a tension splice joint between glued laminated
members (GL7-4) is considered. Following the design rules given in the STEP
lectures C3 to C9, Table 4 presents some joints able to transfer the design load
equal to 51. 1 0 9 N .

Fasteners Number A, (10 ' r t ~ i ~ t ~ )R, ( I @ N) KJt,r(lo3N/trtnz)

split-rings d,=100 nrrrr 2 266 52,6 45,G
dowel d = 24 nttrt 2 242 51,2 35,6
dowel ti = 14 r/rrrt 4 165 52,4 41.5
dowel d = 9 r ~ z r l r 8 136 53,7 53,3
nails d = 3,4 nlaz, I = 80 ntnl 2 x 38 240 52.9 59,9

Tnbie 4 E.mtrrple of joitrts wit11 sirttiinr load-cortyir~gcapacity (service c1as.s I ) .

The proper selection depends on the stnstural system and the loading conditions
as well as the assumptions considered for the slructural analysis. In this example,
the first three joints correspond to pinned joints. For die two others, attention should
be given to their rotational stiffness since it can induce overloading of the fasteners.
Depending on the bending efficiency of these joints (see STEP lecture Cf G), it
should be considered in the structural analysis in order to clleck the design of the
joint itself and the design of the members. This example exhibits also large
variations in timber joint size and stiffness for the same strength level. With many
smaller fasteners, the translational stiffness is increased.

Genera1 Joint design

To ensure the design performance of the joints as given in EC5, the correct location
of the Fasteners with respect to the end and the edge of the members is of utmost
importance (Wilkinson and Rowlands, 1981). Despite this requirement, the design
is not always controlIed by the load-carrying capacity of the fasteners. It may
depend on the joint shape that can induce supplementary stresses in the members.
The main factors are now examined.

STBP/EUROFORTECI-I - itn initialivc under lhc EU Comclt Programme C117

Swelling nrzd slzritzkage
Emphasis has to be put on the dimensional changes of the timber cross-section that
can occur with variation of moisture content. In the area restrained by the fasteners,
the moisture changes cause stresses perpendicular to the grain that can induce
spiitting (Figure 6a).

To avoid or limit splitting, the restrained area has to be limited, When possible, the
fasteners should be put together in the appropriate part of the connected members
(Figure 6b). The fasteners used to hold the joint components are installed in oval-
shaped holes. In other cases such as moment-resisting joints in frames, the larger
restrained dimension should be Limited to one metre.

Figitre 6 .loirlt details: ( a ) splitting drce to shrirrkage, (6) correct joirtt tiritlr oval shaped
iioles.

Eccerttricities
In structural work, the joints and the members should be symmetrical and
concentric wherever possible, especially in heavily loaded members, Nevertheless,
eccentricities can result from several causes (Figure 7):

- the type of fasteners used,

- the installation of the designed joint,
- the layout of the stn~cturalsystem.

Figlire7 Eccerr~ricities in ttle strtlctittas dire to rite fasteners ( a ) or the

trzenrbers ( c ) arrd r~lodificdinstallations to ni~oideccentricities (b),(4.

For eccentric timber fasteners such as connectors, the influence of the secondary
transverse moment is included in the calibration of the design strength. The
installation of the required washers counteracts this type of eccentricity.

STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

Often, the eccentricities can be avoided by providing a proper layout of the
fasteners and members as shown in Figure 7b and 7d. Otherwise, the design has to
consider the secondary forces (moment, shear and tension) jnduced on the fasteners
and the members.

Group nctiolz
When using a closely packed fastener pattern or many fasteners in line, the load-
carrying capacity of the joint may be controlled by the tearing strength of the
member (Figure 8). This block shear failure for a group of fasteners involves shear
along one plane and tension on a perpendjcular plane.

Figrire 8 Block sitear failure itr joitrt: ( a ) rnisiot~faillire of flre fret area S , , (6) sltenr
failnre of tile net area S,

The failure mode is sequential with a fracture on one of the resisting areas, S,
Followed by yielding and failure on the area perpendicular to the fracture plane. For
a brittle lnateriai such as timber, the strengths on both planes must not be added.
Tf~en,the strength of the member is checked considering the net section S, in
tension or S, in shear and the design strength of the material. The design biock
shear strength corresponds to the larger value.

Coinbilzatiort of fasteners
For the transfer of a given force, the design of joint with a combination of various
fasteners can sometimes be achieved especially in trussed structures. To avoid
overloading caused by large stiffness differences or by oversized holes, gluing or
bolts shall not be combined with other mechanical fasteners.

Figrcre 9 .Ioi~rfntncle utitli a cot~r6irratior1

of fasterzers: IT,, do~r~els
arld 11, nails.

Conservativeiy, the design 01.' a joint is made with the assulnption of an elastic
behaviour of the fasteners. The distribution of the design load F,, is based on the
slip ~nodulusof ihe fasteners,

For lateral load on two types of fastener (see Figure 9), equilibrium condition and
compatibility of deformation are expressed as follows:

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comett Programme Clf9

with K,,,,
and K,,*,,
the slip modulus at ultimate limit state for fasteners A and B.

The ultimate design load f;,, and F,,, on a fastener is :

Otllet-j;?cto,s
Another chatlenge for the designer is to fulfill the fire resistance specifications. At
present, the trend is lo hide the joints in the members. At the same tin~e,this gives
aesthetic solutions.

With the design of the joints, the aim of the designer must be the limitation of
stresses pe~.pendicular to the grain. This is interesting work as it requires the
examination of the path of the forces i n the timber structure and the joint area.
When the force acts at an angle to the grain, the joint [nust be located so as to
reduce tension perpendicular to the grain.

Lastly, some consideration is given to corrosion when designing connections in

aggressive or exposed conditions. As a starting point, the design should avoid water
being trapped in the joint area. For exposed connections, a covering provides an
efficient protection from tile sun and water (see STEP lecture Al4). In severe
conditions, corrosion is resisted by rustproofing of stecl coinponents or using
corrosive-resistant metals. The designer should also consider the compatibility of
the ~netalwith timber treatment. As example, caution should be taken for the
installation of coniponents made from aluminium or steel into timber treated with
preservatives containing copper.

References
I-Iirashima, Y. (1990). Latcrtll resistance of timber connector joints parnllcl to grain direction.
Proceeding of thc Inlcrnalional Engineering Conference, Vol. 1: 254-261, Tokyo, Jnpnn.

Hilson, B.O., Whale, L.R.J. Popc, D.J. and Smith, I. (1987). Charnctcristic properties of nailecl and
boltcd joints under sltort-term lnlcral load. Part 3: analysis and interpretation of cmbcdmcnt icst data
in tcrms of dcnsity relatcd trends. J. institute of Wood Science 2 (1 1): 65-71.

Naucrcr, J., 1-lcrzog, T, and Volz, M. (1991). Holzb;s atlas xwci. Edition franqaisc, Presses
poly[cctlniqucs ct univcrsitaires romandcs, LC Mont-sur-Lausannc, S\vitzerland.

Olzcton, E.C. and Baird, J.A. (1976). Timber dcsigncrs' manual. Cmn;icla publishing limited, London,
United Kingdom.

Smith, I , and Whale, L.R.J. (1986). Mechanical timbcr joints. TRADA, Research Rcport 18/86,
I-lugllcndcn Vi~llcy,England.

Witkinson, T.L. and Rowinnds, R.E. (1981). Analysis of mechanical joinls in wood. 1, of Experimental
Mccl~anics 2 1 (1 1): 408-314.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - tin inilialivc undcr thc EU Conicti Programme

 Tension perpendicular to the grain
in joints
-
STEP Icc(ure c2 Objectives

- J. ~hlbcck,R. GBrlachier
UnivcdtBt Knrlsruhe
To describe the special problem of tension stresses perpendicular to the grain in
joints when the force in the joint acts at an angle to the grain and to present
different design methods.

Prerequisites
B2 Tension and compression
B4 Shear and torsion
B5 Notched beams and holes in glulam beams
C1 Meclianical timber joints - General

Summary
Illustrated exalnples are given of joints which tend to fail due to perpendicular-to-
grain tensile stresses. The failure modes are explained. EC5 provides a simple
application rule for designing against these failures, but some more sophisticated
design procedures based on fracture mechanics as well as on purely empirical
equations are presented. Practical applications following such procedures are
demonstrated by design examples.
-
Introduction
The load-carrying capacities of timber joints with mechanical fasteners loaded at an
angle to the grain direction are normally determined by taking into account the
bending resistance of the fasteners and the embedding strength of the timber.
However, local stresses perpendicular to the grain may under certain conditions lead
to failure at a lower load level.

Some typical examples (Figure I) where tension perpendicular to the grain in joints
occurs are:

(a) joist hangers (steel-to-wood joints)

(b) punched metal plate fastener joints
(c) joints with dowels or ring and shear-plate connectors (giulam beams)
(d) glued-in bolts

Figntz. I E.tn11rples of tension perpe~tdicitlnrto the grain irz joirit.~rvifh probable c m c k

propctgntio~zpath.

Tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses combined with shear and bending stresses

can be estimated by means of the finite element methods. However, such calculated

STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initintivc under the EU Cornet1 Programme C2/ 1

stresses do not directly compare with the characteristic tensile strength determined
from standard test specimens. Since the stresses in joints loaded perpendicular to
grain are similar to the stresses in notched beams, similar calculation methods, for -
example based on fracture mechanics as adopted in EC5 for notched beams, could
be used.
-
Other methods for taking into account these stresses use empirical solutions. The
perpendicular to grain design is replaced by a shear design procedure with certain
Fictitious strength reductions or by assigning the load component acting
perpendicuiar to the grain to an assumed effective area and comparing the resulting
-
stresses with certain design stresses perpendicular to grain.

Reducing the risk of a tension perpendicular to the grain failure

-
First, the factors influencing the load carrying capacity of joints loaded
perpendicular to the grain are described. From these factors structural rules for
reducing the risk of a tension perpendicular to the grain failure are derived. Figure -
2 shows a mechanical timber joint loaded perpendicular to the grain. The force F,
is acting perpendicular to the grain and is transferred to the beam by dowel-type
fasteners. The fasteners are spread over a certain area.

Figlire 2 Joi~lt~ i l i t l tI; acting perpettdiarlar to tlte graitt (riotation).

The load-carrying capacity of this connection is influenced by the following

parameters:

- The ratio between the distance b, of the Furthest row of fasteners from the
loaded beam edge and the beam depth h. Therefore, fasteners should be
placed as near as possible to the unloaded beam edge to avoid tension
perpendicular to the grain failures.

- Several fasteners in a row spaced along the grain direction distribute the
acting force over a larger stressed area in such a way that the stresses
perpendicular to the grain are considerably reduced. This advantageous
influence increases with the number of rows and with large spacings.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tile EU Comett Programme

- Increasing the depth h or the width t of the beam leads to increasing load-
carrying capacities. Attention must be paid to the fact that only a part of the
width is stressed with tension perpendicular to the grain.

- Spreading the fasteners over many rows reduces the tension perpendicular
to the grain stresses.

- The tension perpendicular to the grain strength of the timber depends on the
actual stressed volume and consequently influences the load-carrying capacity
of joints in beains with different sizes.

Design of tension perpendicular to the grain in joints

Design nccol.cii~zgto EC.5

Unless a more detailed cafculation is made, for the arrangement shown in Figure
3 il shouId be shown that the following condition is satisfied:

provided that bc > 0,Sh. The symbols are defined as follows:

V, is the design shear force (max(V,,,V,,,)) produced in the inember of thiclcness

r by the fasteners ( V , + \rz = F sina),
b,. is the distance from the loaded edge to the furthest fastener or connector and
cr is the angle between force I; and grain direction.

This design procedure substitutes the design perpendicular to the grain with a
fictitious shear design over the residual cross section. Some important factors
influencing the load-carrying capacities are, however, not taken into consideration.
In the case of b, c 0,511a Inore detailed calculation is required in any case.

Desigrz based ort. frnctrir-e rttechanics

The design of notched beams accordi~~g lo EC5 is based on the theory of fracture
mechanics. Although tension stresses perpendicular to the grain in joints are similar
to those in notched beams the design methods according to fracture mechanics have
not been adopted in EC5. Nevertheless there is a proposal (Van der Put, 1990)
based on fracture mechanics and supported by test results.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiativc under thc EU Come[[ Programtnc

 for -
Md = - > , I
Vd ll

5 for Md < 2,l

-
3 Md l (Vd 11) Vd h
and

for b, > 0,712

where symbols are defined as foltows:

t is the thickness of the member,

12, is the distance from the loaded edge to the furthest fastener,
12 is the beam depth (in mnr),
M, is the maximum design bending moment nearest to the joint and
V, is the design shear force introduced in the member by the fasteners.

This design proposal modifies the EC5 design rules by taking into account the -
influence of the beam depth / I . By this means, the restriction b, > 0,5 h is omitted.
Note that this design proposal based on fracture mechanics leads for deep beams
(11 >> 130 ~tim)and with 0,7 h > b, > 0,5 h to substantially lower design values -
than EC5. On the other hand there is a discontinuous point at b,. = 0,7 11. For
infinitesimally small changes of / I , there is a "design jump".
-
Design based on rxperiitzetztnl and flleol.etical irtvesrigarion.s
Based on test results and their concl~rsions(Ehlbeck el al., 1989), design for tension
perpendicular to the grain in joints can be carried out by checking that the -
Following condition is satisfied:

This equation was derived for. a characteristic perpendicular-to-grain strength related

to a voiume of 0,071 m! Since EC5 now relates to a reference volume of 0,01 I?? -
Equation (5) should be tnodiFied by a factor (0,Ol nt3/0,02 rrr"0a3 = 0,87. Thus,
Equation ( 5 ) should read:

The factor q makes allowance for the fact that only part of the load F,,,,, causes
tensile stresses, some of it also causing compressive stresses perpendicular to the
grain.

The factor k, allows for the fact that the load F,,,, is distributed over several rows
of fasteners so that only a reduced portion of tensile stresses is acting in the Line of
the furthest row of fasteners:

STEP/EUROFORTECH - nn inilizitive under the EU Comctt Programme

The effective area A,,represents a fictitious area, because the perpendicular-to-grain
stresses are unevenly distributed along the length, 1, of the row of fasteners and,
in addition, also stresses the timber for a certain distance beyond both ends of the
row. It can be roughly assumed that

with

The effective thickness, t,/,can approximately be assumed as the sum of the depths
of penetration, 1, of the fasteners (Figure 2).
ttj = El r: t (1 1)

For nails and screws I should not be assumed to be greater than 12 d

If two groups of fasteners are positioned near to each other with a centroidal
distance of 1, the effective area increases by the factor

In cases where the joint is near to the beam end, it should be realized that the load
or the stresses cannot distribule unchecked. If the distance of the joint from the
beam end is less than the beam depth itself, only half the effective length should
be taken into account.

Examples
Design of a joint with force acting perpendicular to the grain.
Joint with dowels acting perpendicular to the grain of a glulam beam with a cross
section of r x h, 100 x 600 r?t17r (Figure 4)
Service class 1: k,,, = 0,8

Strength class GL 28 according to prEN I 194 "Timber structures - Glued laminated

timber - Strength classes and determination of characteristic values."
fi~,~,k = 3.0 N/lnm2 A:jox,k = 0,45 N/1?1t7?

Design values:
.f;,,.d = 1,85 N / r n m y f , , , , , d = 0,28 Nhnnt'

Design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per dowel: R,! = 8,15 kN
Design load-carrying capacity of the joint. R,,,oi, = 2 . 12 . 8,15 = 196 k
N

Design of tension pet~endicrrlarto grain in joirtts accol-ding to EC5:

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornctt Programme

Figlire 4 Joirrt witlr dowels.

Desiglz based on fractlrre niechalzics:

Assumption:

Design based on experinzetztal invesfigatio~w:

t4 = El 2 t = 100 rttm

AU = l,,ej teI = 28300 ?tznzZ

STEP/EUROFORTECIi- an initiative undcr the EU Comett Programme

Discussion of the design results
In Ehlbeck, Gorlacher and Werner (1989) some test results wit11 dowelled joints in
glulaln beams under heavy loads perpendicular to the grain are presented. One of
these test specimens corresponds to the design example shown in Figure 4. The
short term load-carrying capacity of this joint was 110 kN. Assuming the same k,,:,a,
value and safety factor as used in the design example the comparable test value is
1 10 . 0,8 1 1,3 = 67,7 W .Assuming a 5-percentile of 0,6 to 0,8 times the single test
value the design values is about 41 to 54 kN.

The EC5 design method in many cases seems to be on the unsafe side, whereas the
two other design metl~odslead to more realistic values. In a future version of EC5
one of the more precise methods is likeley to be included.

Concluding summary
- Joints may fail under certain conditions due to perpendicular to the grain
stresses.

- In order to reduce this risk of failure the fasteners should be placed as near
as possible to the unloaded edge.

- Spreading the fasteners over a certain area reduces the tension perpendicular
to the grain stresses and increase the safety.

- The EC5 design of joints with Ioads acting perpendicular to grain is very
simple but does not take into consideration some important factors
influencing the load-carrying capacities. Tesl results indicate that the design
according to EC5 may lead to unsafe design situations.

- Some more sophisticated design rules do exist and should be used in cases
where 0,7 h > be > 0,511.

References
Ehlbeck, J., GGrlacller, R., Werner, H. (1989). Delerminnlion of perpendicular-to-grain tensile siresses
in joinls wich dowel-type-fasteners. Proc. of the CIB W I8 Meeting. Berlin, Germany, Paper 22-7-2.

Van dcr Put, T. A. C. M. (1990). Tension perpendicular lo rhc grain ;II norches snd joints. Proc. of
dlc ClB W 18 Meeting, Lisbon, Portugal, Paper 23- 10-1.

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctl Programme

 Joints with dowel-type fasteners
Theory
STEP lecture C3 Objectives
B.O. Hilson To define embedding strength and to demonstrate how it is measured. To
University of Brigklon develop the ultimate load equations for laterally loaded joints with dowel-type
fasteners and to show how they may be represented graphically.

Prerequisite
C1 Mechanical timber joints - General
Summary
Embedding strength is defined and the parameters to be controlled in the design
of embedment test apparatus are described. Johansen's equations for the ultimate
strength of timber-to-timber joints, and steel-to-limber joints, are developed.
Graphical representations of the timber-to-timber equations based on Moller are
shown.

Introduction
Laterally loaded joints with dowel-type fasteners are illustrated in Figure I .
Typical dowels that might be used include nails, staples, screws and bolts.

Figtire I Laterally loarfcd joirlts rcjith do,vcl-type fasfertars. ( a ) Dowels irr si~rglc
sirem (i.e. orrc sirear plorte per c/olvel), (17) Dorclels ill cio~lblesllcnr (i.c.
trvo slrear. plotres per rlo~vel).

In the past the working load design values for these types of joint have been
determined from the results of short-duration tests on relatively small numbers of
replicate joints. One approact? made estimates of lower percentile values, eg
lower first percentile, assuming a normal distribution, and these were then
divided by a Factor to account for safety and workmansi~ipand to reduce the
strength to an equivalent long-duration load value.

The data available from the above tests are generally insufficient to enable
reliable estimates to be made of the characteristic strengths required for EC5. To
obtain the data by mass testing would have been prohibitive because of the inany
combinations that are possible in practice. Conseqtrently, techniques have been
developed which enable characteristic values to be predicted froin material
properties and joint geometry.

STEPfEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme c3/1

The equations used in EC5: Part I-! are based upon a theory first developed by
Johailsen (1949). The equations predict the ultimate strength of a dowel-type
joint due to either a bearing failure of the joint members or the simultaneous
development of a bearing failure of the joint members and plastic hinge
formation in the fastener. The precise mode of failure is determined by the joint
geometry and the material properties namely the fastener yield molnent and the
embedding strengths of the timber or wood-based materials.

Many researchers have carried out tests to validate Johansen's equations

including MolIer (1951), Aune and Patton-Mallory (1986), Hilson et al. (1990)
and in every case, provided the effects of friction between inembers and axial
force development have been minimised, good agreement has been found
between experiment and theory.

Material properties
The embedding strength of tirnber, or of a wood-based material, is defined as the
ultimate stress obtained from a special type of joint test called an embedment
test. A typical test arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2.

. l L " , , * O i i r ~ . P *..
,*...,, Ciiif

tF
Figure 2 A - s1~ecirtler1,B
T~picalem6edrrieni rest c~rrat~go~re~ri, - steel side plates
rigidly clattlpi~~g
favtener.

Bending deformation of the dowel must be minimised and this can be achieved
by clamping the ends of the dowel in the steel side plates and by limiting the
-
thickness of the test specimen typically to twice the dowel diameter.

A typical load-embedment characteristic is shown in Figure 3 and the embedding

strength is defined as the maximum load, or the load at a specified limiting
deformation, divided by the projected area of the dowel in the specimen i.e
C

where t is the thickness of the test specimen and d is the dowel diameter.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

 The embedment, r r , is the movement of the dowel relative to the specimen, i.e.
of BB relative to A in Figure 2.

Further guidance on the determination of embedding strength is given in EN 383

"Determination of embedding strength and foundation values for dowel type
fasteners" and suitable apparatuses for measuring embedding strength are
described by Rodd et al. (1 987).

Even in the most carefully designed apparatus some slight movements, in

addition to the embedment of the dowel in the specimen, will occur. The
characteristics of the apparatus should be measured, therefore, by carrying out a
test with a rigid, (e.g. steel), central member and a tightly fitting dowet of the
same diameter and surface condition as those under investigation. This
characteristic should then be deducted from the normal test characteristics to
obtain the true load-embedment characteristics.

Procedures for measuring the yield moment of nails are set out in EN 409
"Determination of the yield moment for dowel-type fasteners - nails".

E C ~ Part
: 1-1: 6.2 Johansen's equations. Fasteners In single shear
In deriving Johansens's ultimate load equations it is assumed that both the
fastener and the timber are ideal rigid-plastic materials, e.g. the load-embedment
characteristic for the timber is as shown in Figure 4. This approximation
simplifies the analysis and makes little difference to the final result.

The following notation is used:

t , and t2 are the timber thicknesses or fastener penetrations,

j'j,*,,is the characteristic embedding strength corresponding to t,.
.f,,,, is the characteristic embedding strength corresponding to tz,

p =fh ad where
9

fh,l,d
= *
k f
Ynr
is the design value of embedding strength,

rl is the diameter of fastener,

M,,, is the characteristic yield moment for fastener,
- M YF is the design value of fastener yield moment and

R,, is the design resistance per shear plane.

The numbering of the failure modes used in the following derivations follows
that used by Johansen.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme C313

From Figure 5 R,, = fit.1,$ 11f'
From Figure 6 R, = fil;?,l~ f2 d
R,, = 13 fh.I,<l f2 d
Rd
I

I
Rd Rd
Figure 5 Mode l b failure it1 tl. Figure 6 Mode l b failure irt tz.

Rd
Figure 7 Mode la failitre.

b1
P gives :
Equating and putting b, = -

STEPIEUROFORTECH - ~ J Iinitiative under the EU Comet1 Programrnc

Substitution gives:

Solving for b, gives:

,I. I ,,, 62 f2f2,.

,f!flk61.; b ~ , ~

t
R'I
t
R,l
Figure 8 Mode 2cr failure. Figlire 9 Mode Zbfailiirc.

At kin,, shear = 0

Substituting f;,,,,d = Pfh,l,d and =-

t1 - bl gives:
2

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

and K,,= A,,),tr

Failure rnode 2b {fiortl Figure 9)

As before b , = P b2

Substituting b1= P 4 and a2 = -

- b2 gives :
2
*z

Fclilure Mocfe 3 worn Figrtre 10)

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

Figirre 10 Mode 3 failitre.

Johansen's equations may also be derived using the Virtual Work approach
(Aune and Patton-Mailory, 1986).

Additional resistance
As the fastener deforms under load axial forces can develop for failure modes 2
and 3. These are caused by friction between the fastener and the timber and also
by the constraints produced by the heads of nails and the washer assemblies in
bolts.

The force in the inclined part of the fastener will have a component parallel to
the applied load and wilt, therefore, enhance the resistance. EC5 talces this effect
into account by enhancing the resistance for inodes 2 and 3 failures by I0 per
cent.

In an actual joint the load carrying capacity will correspond ro the lowest value
obtained for Rd by substituting into the full set of equations. The equation giving
the lowest capacity will also identify the failure mode.

Moller charts
Moller (1951) represented tile Johansen equations for single shear, in cases for
which f3 = 1, by a graphical representation. In this lecture the Moller chart has
been modified to incorporate the 10% enhancement for modes 2 and 3 failures
and is shown in Figure 11. It should be noted that in this chart t, is the larger
thickness or embedded length. Similar charts may be produced for other values

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornctt Programme C3/7

 t2 a point
of p. By calculating the two dimensionless parameters -
t1 and

may be found on the chart, the appropriate failure mode identified'and hence the
appropriate equation chosen.

J- ",t,d

fir, d
Fklrm 11 M ~ d g e dMLiller c l r ~ r t- Figiirg 12 Moci#ed Muller ~ / t a r-l
sitzglc slrear {P = I). double sltear (P = I).

Johansens's equations. Fasteners in double shear

Using the same basic approach, Johansen equations for fasteners in double shear
may be developed. The resulting equations are as follow^:
Rd = .haI ,d f t ~1 Mode I b (Figure 5) (8)
12, d p
R,, = 0,s j;,,r,,, Mode I b (Figure 6) (9)
i

R ~ .2 + @ [~l
Mode 2l (
(Figure l
8 or 9) (10) -
&,f,ddtl

Mode 3 (Figure 10) ( 1 1)

The Figure number refers to the diagram showing half of the corresponding
symmetrical double shear joint.

In these equations t, is the central member thickness and t, the thickness of an

outer timber or the penetration in an outer timber whichever is the smaller. In
each case R, represents the resistance of one shear plane so the resistance of the
whole joint is normally 2R,. The equations apply to symmetrical double shear
joints - other geometries may be analysed using the same principles.

Again to allow for axial force effects the modes 2 and 3 values may be
enhanced by 10%. A modified Moller chart incorporating the enhancement is
shown in Figure 12.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initintivc under the EU Comelt Programme

Johansen's equations for steel-to-timber joints
In steel-to-timber joints, provided the steel plate is thick enough, then for modes
2 and 3 failures the plastic hinges will move to the interface between she steel
and the timber and different lohansen equations may be developed. A steel plate
thickness at. least equal to the fastener diameter is normally assumed sufficient
for this approach to apply. Using the above assumption, the following equations
{nay be derived:

Figrcre 13 Mode 2 failtire - tlrick Figure 14 Mode 3 Failrfrc - thick

steel plate. steel plate.

Thick steel plates - Mocie 2

From Figure 13

t1 - bl gives
substituting a, = - :
2

Tizick sreel plates - Mode 3

From Figure 14

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Tlzick steel plates - Mode ib

Again for modes 2 and 3 a 10% increase is suggested in EC5 to allow for axial
force effects.

Tlzi~asteel plates
For thin steel plates the plate will be unable to provide the rotational resistance
to develop a plastic hinge in the fastener and so the EC5 equations have been
developed assuming no moment of resistance at the interface.

EC5 defines a thin steel plate as one having a thickness equal to, or less than,
haif the dowel diameter.

Using the above assumption the following equations may be derived:

Figurr I5 kIode / a failure - I~I~II Figtire 16 Mode 2 .faillire - tilitr

sreel plate. steel plarc.

Thitz steel plates - Mode l a

Froill Figure 15 moment at interface = 0
l l z i r z steel plates - Mocle 2
From Figure 16 moment at interface = 0

Allowing 10% increase for axial force effects gives

Note: Double shenr joint -

Centre nrembet. of t?~i?tsteel
The same equations apply as for thick steel plates since the symrnelry of the
joint enables a plastic hinge to form in the steel plate, provided the plate is
strong enough to resist the applied forces.

For steeI plate thicknesses between 0,Sd and d EC5 suggests that resistances
should be determined by linear interpolation between thick and thin plate values.

Referellces
Aunc, P. and Patton-Mallory, M. (f986). Lateral lond-bearing capacity of nailed joinls based on
[lie yield tllcory - Theoretical development and experimental vcrification. US Department of
Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Rescnrcli Papers WL 469 cP: 470.

Hilson, B.O.. Whnlc, L.R.J. and Smith, 1. (1990). Cl~aractcristicpropcrties of nailed and bolted
joints under shori-term lateral load. Part 5 - Appraisal oT current design data in BS5268:Paa
2:1984 Structural Use of Timber. J. Inst. Wood Sci. 1 i(6) 208-212.

Johansen, K.W.(1949). Theory of Limber connections. lnlemational Association of Bridgc and

Structural Engineering. Publication No. 9:249-262. Bern

Mijlier, T. (1951). En ny metod fijr berlkning av spiki'ijrband. Report No 117, Chalmers

University of Technology, Sweden

Rodd, P.D.,Anderson, C., Whale, L.R.J. and Smith, I. (1987). Characleristic propcrties or nailed
and boltcd joints under short term lateral load. Pan 2 - Embedment test apparatus for \\rood and
wood-based sheet materials. 3. Inst. Wood Sci. I I(?): 60-64,

-
STEP/EUROFORTECII an initiative under the EU Comctt Programnne
 Nailed joints I

STEP ~ecturcCJ Objectives

B.O. I-li~son To describe the different types of nail arid present typical exa~iiplesof their use.
University of Briglrton To present empirical equations for the predictio1-1 of etnbedding strength in
timber and yield ~ i i o ~ r ~ for
e n t nails. To introduce nail spacing requirements and
to give an example of a timber-to-timber nailed joint design. To dernonstrale the
effects of pre-drilfing and slip.

Prerequisites
C3 Joints witli dowel-type fasteners - Theo~y

Summary
Val-ious types of nail are described includirig sn-looth wire (round asid square
sections), annular ringed shanli, helically threaded ant1 square twisted nails. The
advantages of the different forms are discussed.

The etnpirical equations for embedding strength and yield moments are quoted
and a brief description of their origins and limitations presented.

The need to control spacing is described and EC5 recommendations are given.
The advantages and disadvantages of pre-dl-illing are discussed. The i~nportance
of slip is stressed and an example of the design of a nailed tiruber-to-timber joint
is presented.

Types of nail
Nails are the most commonly used fasteners in timber construction and are
available in a variety of lengths, cross-sectional areas and s~rrfacetreatments.

The most conlmon type of nail is the s~noothsteel wire nail which has a circi~lar
cross-section i d is cut from wire coil having a ~ninilnu~n tensile strength of 600
N / I ~ I IIt~ is
I ~ available
. in rt standard range of diameters up to a maximum of S
rllrlt and can be plain or treated against corrosion, for example, by gnlvanising.
The head of the nail is most com~nonlyforged into n flat circle of approximalely
twice the dia~neterof the shaft but sonie nails are available with s~uallerheads to
enable these to be driven flush witli the timber surface.

'In some cou~itriesnails are produced with a square cross-section and t11ese are
used in the same applications as the smooth round nails described above.

The performance of a nail, both when under lateral load and under withdrawal
loading, may be enhanced by modifying the surface of the nail. One approacli is
to deform the s~rrfaceof a smooth round nail by cutting annular threading or
helical threading onto tlie shank of the nail. Another Lakes nails with a square
cross-section and twists them into a helical pattern. This process not only
modifics the nail surface but also work hardens the steel thus raising the yield
strength. Galvanising, chemical etching, coating with cernent and coating with
plastic are other ways in which tlie performance of a nail [nay be enhanced.
Nails may be driven by hand or by pneumatically operated portable machities. In
the latter case cartridges of special nails, such as T-nails and nails with a -
segment of the head cut off, are used to enable them to be assembled in groups.

Pre-drilling -
When nails are driven into dense timbers there is a danger that excessive
splitting will occur. This can be combatted by blunting the pointed end of the
nail so that it cuts through the timber fibres rather than separating them but a
more reliable approach is to pre-drill the timber. In this latter case the nails are -
driven into pre-drilled holes normally having a diameter not greater than 80% of
the nail diarneier.
-
Pre-drilling produces three main advantages:

- the laterai load-carrying capacity of the nail is increased; -

- the spacings between nails and the distances between the nails and the end
and edge of the timber may be reduced tlius producing more cornpact
joints and

- less slip occurs in the joints.

On the other hand, pre-driiling is labo~uintensive and, therefore, expensive and

the net cross-sectional area of the member is reduced. Consequently, it is
normally only used wlien the characteristic density of the timber is 500 kghz3 or
Itlore.

Embedding strength
EC5 recommends the following values for the characteristic embedding strength
for nails up to 8 N ~ I I Iin diarneter driven into timber and they apply for all angles
of load to grain direction.

Without predrilled holes

&,, = 0,082 p, d iV/mrtt2

With predrilled holes

A,, = 0,082 ( 1 - 0,O1d )p, Nl ntm
where p, is the characteristic density in k g h i 3 and d the nail diameter in irir?i.

No increase in embedding strengtil is currently recommended far annular ringed

shank nails, helically threaded nails and other nails with modified surfaces. This
is due to a lack of einbedment test data For these types of nails.

The equations for characteristic embedding strength have been determined by

carrying out a large number of embedment tests covering a range of timber
densities, timber species and nail diameters.

An illustration of the type of analysis that was used to produce Equations (1)
and (2) is presented by Whale et a!. (1989).

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STEPIEUROFORTECI-I an initintivc undcr thc EU Comcu Prograrnmc
Yield moment
EC5 only presents guidance for the characteristic yield moment for cosnmon
smooth steel wire nails made from a wire having a minimum tensile strength of
600 N/lmn2.

For round nails it proposes,

and for square nails,

For round nails d is the diameter in tnrlt and for square nails the side dimension
in ITlUl. Other types of nail would have to be tested in accordance with EN 409
"Determination of the yield inonlent for dowel type fasteners - Nails" to
determine suitable values for M,,.

Nail spacing
Nails must be spaced at suitable distances from each other, and fron-i the ends
and e d g s of pieces of timber, in order to avoid ~lnduesplitting. The var-jous
distances involved are shown in Figure I .

I
I

r e I Nail spacirrgs arrd dislnrzces.

a, spncbtg palallel to the gmitt

GI, spaci~~g perper~rlic~rlal-
to the gmilr
n, et~cidistnricc
a, ecige dis~ance

Tlie end distance is said to be loaded when the load on the nail has a component
towards the end of the Limber. Otherwise it is referred lo as an unloaded end
distance. Loaded end distances need to be greater than unloaded ones.

In a similar way the edge distance may be loaded or unloaded.

The i~lostsuitable vnlues for spacings and distances will vary from species to
species depending principally upon the cleavage and shearing strength of the
tiinber, the timber density and the nail diameter.

Pre-drilling reduces the splitting tendency considerably and hence allows much
closer spacing of the nails as described earlier.

The spacings and distances recoin~nencfed by EC5, and based on years of

experience are presented in Table 1.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- i ~ iniliativc
n uncicr thc EU Conlett Progr:lmmc c4/3
Distrunce No Pre-drilling Pre-drilled
p, 2 420 kg/rrri 420 < p, < 500 kghzr' -
Spacing parallel d < 5 tnrrr: l(kl
rl 2 5 nlnl: 1L)d 15d (4+3 1 cosa ( jd
Spncirig -
perpendicular 5cl 5d (3+ 1 sirla ( )d
Loadecl end ( I O-t-5co.~a)d (15+5co.sa)cl (7-1-5cosot)d

Unloaded end 1Ocl lSd 7d

Loaded edge (5+5.sir10()cI (7+5silra)d (3+4siila)c/

Urlloaded edge 5d 7d 3d

TctOle I Sjmcirrg.~nrrd clistances J I rrcril.s,

~ d = r~ailclicrnreter ir~irrnl, a = arrglc c!J
jorrc to grcritr directiorl.

Naif slip
Nailed joints, in comnlon with joints nlade with rill other types of nicchanical
fi~stener,slip under loacl. This is illusrrnted in Figure 2 which shows a typical
load-slip characteristic fos a cornpression test on a three member nailed joint.

Fiigllr~2 Lnotl-slip chamcteri.stic for n ~lniledjoirit. /;I,,,!,i.s rl~ertln.rirtrrrrrt loa~l,F,,, is

111eservice load crrtcl t~,,,,,11lc irt.srar~~crrreorrs
slip.

An estir~~atc of the instantaneous slip tililt will occur whet1 the service Ioad is
applied may be ob~ainedfroin n knowledge of tile instantaneous slip modulus
K.,,., determined from tests carried out in accordance with EN26891 "Timber
structures. Joints made with mechanical fasteners. General principles for
determination OF strength and clefonnation characteristics," or frotn the following
reco~nme~idations in EC5.

For pre - drilled situations : K,,, = pyd

20
N/mrn

do''
For no pre - &itling : Kser= p, -
1,5
25
Nlmm

where p, is the characteristic timber density in kg/ir~%a~idd the nail diameter in

1)11?1.

Final slip measurements in nailed joints will be greater than the instantaneous
\falues due to creep and may be estimated frorn:
It is essential to allow for the slip in the joints when calculating the displacement
of a nailed timber structure under service load. Normal elastic theories predict
the displacement of struclures from the elastic shortening or lengthening of the
members in the case of trusses and from the assumption of no slip between the
component parts in beams. Joint slip will add considerably to these effects and,
therefore, produce much larger displacements.

The deflection of a nailed timber truss due to slip in the joints can often exceed
that due to the elastic axial lnovements in the members.

In nailed composite beam construction the simple theoly of bending will not
apply and stresses and deflections must be calculated allowing for [he slip that
will occur between, for example, the flanges and the web of a nailed I-beam.
This incomplete interaction niay be assessed using a procedure described in
Annex 3 EC5: 1-1.

Slip also affects the momenl-rotation characteristics of joints such as nailed

plywood gusset joints in some portal frame construction.

Design example. Nailed tension splice joint

Specificatioil

Fig~tre3 Te~rsiotlsplice joirrt.

Timber not pre-drilled Design load (ultin~atelimit state) = 3600 N

Strength class C1G
S~nootkround nails 3,35 111117 diameter, 65 r,ttn long
Service class I , load duration class medium tern?: k,,,,,,= 0 3
G,=lOOON Q,=l500N
= 0,082 p,d-'g3 N/mrn2

For strength class C 16 p, = 310 kS/m3

the same strength class for each component,

Assur~~ing P= 1

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I- an initiative i~ndcrtllc EU Comeu Programme

Nails in sirzgle shear
(a) Man iral ap~~ronch

Clleclc all equations for ~ninimumvalue of R,,

Mode 1 b

R, =& ,,, t,d = 10,9-35-3,35 = 1278 N

I2 = pointside penetration

= nail length - headside timber thiclcness

= 65 - 35 = 30 mtn

minimum = 8cl = 26,8 tlznl < 30 r w r l

R, p = 10y9*30*3,35.1,0= 1095 N
=fir,l,dt2d

Mode l a

Mode 2a

Mode 2b

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Mode 3

Minimum value = 494 N Mode l a failure

( b ) Completer- approach
The set of design equations can be written into a computer program with j;,,,,,,,
I,,
t,, d, p and M,,,,as input parameters.

(cJ Moiler- char-t ~ppronclr

P
If MoIler cllarts are available, in tIiis case for = I , then the mode of failure
may be identified quickly and only one equation needs to be used.

In this exan~pler, = 35 rtil?~and t , = 30 mln since r, has to be the larger

dimension for the Mtiller chart.

From Figure 1 1 in STEP Lecture C3 the failure mode is identified as mode la.

Number of nails =
Design load - -3600 = 7,3 each side
Design resistance per nail 494

Adopt eight nails each side for symmetry as shown in Figure 4.

The nails will overlap in the centre member and this is perntitted by EC5
provided that the thickness of' tile central member less tile pointside penetration
is greater than 4cl.
-
In this exarnple 47 30 = 17 itrrtr and 4d = 4 -
3,35 = 13,4 t11t11
17 tu11t > 13,4 tlirli acceptable

Spacii7gs
p, = 310 kg/,n! No pre-drilling. a = 0"

From Table 1 :
Spacing parallel = 10d = 3 3 3 171111
Spacing perpendicular = 5d = 16,s ~nnz
Loaded end distance = 15d = 50,3 t i ~ i i z
Unloaded edge distance = 5d = 16,8 rnn~

An acceptable arrangement is shown in Figure 4.

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F i r4 Acccprobie nailing patfern.

Total length of each splice plate = 2 (60+35+60)= 3 10 rnrn

No reduction in the cross-sectional area of each member is assumed since the

nail diameter is not greater than 6 nrrti and the nails are driven without pre-
drilling.

Slip
For no pre-drilling

Design load (serviceability limit state) = 3-500 N

load per nail

312 5
instanteous slip per nail = 2 = 0,54 mm
574
All nails are assus~~ed
to slip by the same artlount and so each central member
will move 0,54 nrru relative to the cover plates so that the abutting faces of the
central inembers will draw spat by 2 - 054 r?tr?t = 1,08 nun.

Final joint opening = 2 * 0,76 = 1,52 rurtl

Reference
Whnlc, L.R.J., Smith, 1. and Hilson, 8.0. (1989). Characteristic propertics of nnilcd and bollcd
joints under sliort term lareral loiicl. Part 4 - Thc influence of resling mode and filslcncr diameter
ilpon embcdrncnr tcsr data. J. Insc. Wood Sci. 1l(5): 156-161.

STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - an initiative iincier tlic EU Comctt Programme

 Nailed joints I1

STEP I C C ~ U ~cs
C Objectives
B.O. I-lilson To present an example of a laterally loaded, nailed panes-lo-timber joint design.
University of Brighton To discuss the use of axially loaded nails.

Prerequisite
C4 Nailed joints I

Summary
The empirical equation for the embedding strength for plywood is given and the
scope for the introduction of new panel products wit11 the adoption of Joha~~sen's
theory is emphasised. An example of the design of a laterally loaded, nailed,
panel-to-timber joint is presented.

The use of axially loaded nails is discussed and the factors to be considered are
presented together with a design example.

Nailed panel-to-timber joints

I~zfroc~ztction
Joliansen's equations are generally applicable for m y combination of wood-
based materials provided the appropriate material properties are known.
Equations for the cf~aracteristicembedding strengtlls for some panels have been
developed experimetltally by carrying out a large number of embedment tests.
For example, for plywood:

where p, is the cl~aracteristicdensity in kg/i7r3and 6 tile nail diameter in ntm.

One of the main reasons for adopting Johmsen's equations for joints in EC5 is
that new materials, in particular panel products and new dowel-type fasteners,
may easily be accolnmodated by developing tlle appropriale empirical equalions
for cl~aracteristicembedding strength and characteristic yield momer~t. Also
Johrtnsen rype equations may be developed for any combination of materials
using the approach described in STEP lecture C3.

Nuil spncii~g
For panel-to-timber joints and for steel-to-timber joints closer spacings may be
adopted than those recoinmended for timber-to-timber joints (see S'IEP lecture
C4). This is because there is generully less tendency for the panel product to
split on nailing and the nails are normally used in single shear so that they do
not fully penetrate the solid timber member thus reducing tile splitting tendency
in that member. These effects have been confirmed by nailing tests.

EC5 recommends, for plywood-to-timber joints, that the nail spacings

recommer.~dedfor timber-to-timber joints tnay be reduced by snultiplying the
tabulated values by 0,85 but the minimum values in the plywood for an
unloaded end or edge distance should be 36 and for a loaded end or edge
distance (314sin a) (1.

STEREUROFORTECIi - an initiative under l l i c EU C o m c t l Progntmrnc C5/ 1

Similar moditications are suggested for steel-to-timber joints but the
recommended multiplier is U,7.

Design example. Plywood-to-timber tension splice joint

Spec$icatiotl

Characteristic density of plywood = 640 kg/rn3

Minimum thickness of 18 nzt11 nominal plywood = 17,l t r i ~ i
Timber not pre-drilled
Timber strength class C22, p, = 340 kS/ui3
Smooth round nails 3,35 rnm diameter 50 t t t t ? ~long
Design load (ultimate limit state) = 7200 N
Service class 2, load duration class medium term: k,,,,, = 0,80
G, = 2000 N = 3000 N

k"I0d &,k
h,d = ----
Y hi
Plywood = 0,80 '4970 = 30,2 N / ~ ~ , ~ "
1,3

Timber = 0y80.19,4 = l l , g ~ / r r t s l ~
1,3

A,, pointside -- A,, timber -

--l1Y9 = 0,39
= headside f,,, plywood 302

Nails in single shear

Check all equations for minitnuln value of R,,
Mode I b
Rd = A,,,,,,1 , (1 = 30,2 - 17,1 - 3,35 = 1730 N

I? = pointside penetration = nail length - headside ~hickness

= 50 - 17,1 = 32,9 IIIIII > ~ninirnu~n
= 8d = 26,8 rnr?t

Mode l a

Mode 2a

Mode 2b

Mode 3

Minin~uinvalue = 597 N Mode I n failure

Number of nails = -
7200 - 12,06 each side, say 12 each side
597

Check nail overlap in cenlrnl ~nen~ber:

47 - 32,9 = 14,l irtrlt > 40 = 13,4 1711ll

STEPIEUROFORTEC1-1- an initiative under ~ h cEU Cornell Programme C5/3

Spcicii~gs
p, = 340 k,S/r,lf, no pre-drilling, a = 0"

Spacing parallel = 0,85 - IOcl = 28,5 11rrll

Spacing perpendicular = 0,85 - Sd = 14,2 ~ I Z I T I
Loaded end distance = 0 3 5 - 15cl = 42,7 rlittr
Unloaded edge distance = 0 3 5 - Scf = 14,2 I I I I I Z

In plywood, unloaded edge not less than 3d = I0,l I~~IIJ

loaded end not less than 7cl = 23,5 ttlru

No reduction in cross-sectional area is assumed

5000
Design load per nail (serviceability limit state) = - = 417 N
12
417
Instantaneous slip per nail = - = 0,4 nirrt
1058

Opening of joint = 3 - 0,4 = 0,s rnnt

Final joint opening = 1,20 nu~r

Axially-loaded nails
Smooth steel wire nails are relatively weak when loaded axially and, therefore,
EC5 recom~nendsthat they should not be used for permanent and long-term
axial loads. The best resistance is obtained when tile nails are driven into side

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under lhe EU Comctt P r a g r i ~ m n ~ c

grain. Nails driven into end grain are norn-ially assumed to Iiave negligible axial
load capacity. Changes in the ]noislure content of the timber will also reduce the
axial load capacity of smooth nails.

Other fdctors which affect the resistance that nails can offer to axial withdrawal
loads include the density of the timber into which the nail is driven and the
surface condition of the nail. Consequently, cement-coated nails, annular and
helically threaded nails and square twisted nails all perform better under axial
loads than smooth nails. Another advantage of annular and helically threaded
naiis is tllat their resistance to withdrawal is little affected by changes in the
moisture content of the timber (see EC5: 1-1 For further guidance).

Figitre 3 Perpendicrrlai. trailing.

There are two ways in which the nailed joint shown in Figure 3 is likely to fail
(ignoring tensile failure of the nail itself):

(a) withdrawal of the nail froin the member receiving the point, and
(b) the nail head being pulled through the sheet material.

Empirical equations for resistance have been developed for a number of

combinations. For smooth nails the resistance is given by the lower of the
following values:

For pointside withdrawal R , = A,, (1 l

For head pull-through R,, = i,,,,G! 11 + f2,d

Wirere d is the nail diameter, nrtn

h is the thickness of headside timber, rltrlz
4 is the pointside penetration, mni
f,,, is the design strength for member receiving point
A,, is the design strength for lieadside inember
EC5 suggests the following equations for cl~aracteristicstrengths:

f,*,= (18 - 10'" pp,'-Nhnrti"

and
A,, = (300 - 10'" pp,"N/lnat2
where p, is in li6hn3.

When the head diameter of a smooth nail is at least twice the diameter of he
nail shank then it may be assumed that the head pull-through mode of failure
cannot occur.

STEPIEUROFORTECI-i- an initialivc under lhc EU Cornell Programme c5/5

The pointside penetration, 4, should not be less than 12d.

Design example. Axially loaded naiis

Specification

Figure 4 shows 12 ~ t i r l lthick plywood cladding nailed to timber studs acted upon
by a wind generated suction force Q,,

Q,,= 750 N per metre of height

Charncteris6c density of plywood = 550 kghti"
Timber strength class C16, not pre-drilled
Smooth round nails 3,00 fnm diameter, 50 rl~rrrlong
Service class 3
Find the necessary spacing For the nails.

For strength class C16, p, = 3 10 lig/rrt3

=I8 -310' =1,73Nh7zt?12
S?, = 300 - LO'' - 550' = 90,75 N/tr1tn2
For service class 3 and short-term load duration

= 0,7*&73 = 0,93N/rntn2
f,,
43

Pointside withdrawal resistance

f,.J@ = 0,93 - 3,00 - (SO - 12) = f 06 N

For head pull-through (assutning liead diameter < 2d)

A, = .f,,, d h + j;,, d' = 0,93 - 3,00 -
12,OO + 48,8 - 3,00' = 473 N
Pointside withdrawal critical
106
Nail spacing required = - .I000 = 141 m m
750
Provide 3,00 x 50 mni nails at 140 mm centres.

STEP/EUROFORTECl-I- an initi~aivcundcr thc EU Cornctt Programrnc

 Bolted and dowelled joints I

STEP lccturc C6 Objectives

J. Ehlbeck, 1-1. Werner To describe ultimate limit state design procedures for bolted and dowelled joints
Univcrsit%t Karlsruhc including rules for spacings. To present empirical equations for the prediction of
embedding strengths and fastener yield moments. To show briefly some possibilities
for improving the performance of these joints.

Prerequisites
C2 Tension perpendicular to the grain in joints
C15 Multiple fastener joints

Summary
Design rules for ultimate limit stare design for various types of bolted and dowelled
joints are evaluated. The rules for spacings, end and edge distances are explairled
and the influence of load-to-grain angle is commented upon. Empirical equations
for the embedding strengths of' the members and the fastener yield moments are
given. The effect of system properties (e.g. fastener surface friction) on the
chatacre~.isticload-carrying capacity of the joints is described and possibilities to
improve the joints' performance are presented. The load distribution between
fasteners in fine is discussed.

Introduction
Dowels (Figure I) are slender cylindrical rods made of steel, mainly with a smooth
surface. The minimum diameter is G n t m . The tolerances on the dowel are
-0,O1 +O,f ~ t l i t t and the pre-drilled holes in the timber member should have a
diameter not greater than the dowel itself. The holes in steel members may be pre-
drilled 1 ntar larger than the dowel diameter and due allowsu~cemay be made for
any extra slip that may occur.

Bolls (Figure I ) are dowel-type fasteners with heads and nuts. They should be
tightened so that the members fit closely, and they should be re-tightened if
necessary when the timber has reached equilibrium ~noisturecontent. Bolt I~oles
may have a diameter not more than I 111111 larger than the bolt. If a bolt is fitted in
a hole which is not greater than its shank, the design method for dowelled joints
can be applied. Washers with a side lengttl or a diameter of at feast 3 d and a
thickness of at leust 0,3 cl (d is t l ~ ebolt diameter) should be used under the head
and nut. Washers shou1d have a full bearing area.

Joints with dowels are used in timber construction to transmit high forces. This
economic type of joint is easy to produce. In large dowelled connections it may be
necessary to replace some dowels wilh fitted bolts in order to maintain the fonn of
the joint. Dowelfed joints are stiff, compared with bolted joints. Therefore, bolted
joints should not be used in construction where large deformations impair the
serviceability.
Figitre I BOO with ~r1nslrerarid (Iolo,vel.

Bolts and dowels can be used For liinber-to-timber joints, panel-to-timber joints or
steel-to-timber joints.

Ultimate limit states design

The doininant properties influencing the load-carlying capacities of dowel-type
fasteners are

- the embedding strength of the timber or panel members,

- the geometry of the joint and
- yield moment of the fasteners.

The embedding strength itself depends on

- the density of the member,

- the diameter of the fastener,
- the angle between force and grain direction and
- the friction between fastener and timber.

The embedding strength can be assumed to increase linearly with increasing wood
density. Small spacings as well as small end distances of the fasteners can cause
premature failures. Therefore, splitting in timber joints should be avoided by
appropriate spacings and distances.

When the force acts at an angle to the grain the influence of the tensile stresses
perpendicular-to-grain shall be taken into account. Design methods for this are
given in STEP lecture C2.

E~nDetIdingstrmlgrlr of titnber n~zdwood-based pnrlels

Tile embedding strength should generally be determined in accordance with prEN
383 "Timber structures - Test rnethods - Determination of embedding strength and
foundation values For dowel type fasteners" with the evaluation of the test results
following the procedures given in EC5 Annex A. This strength is defined as the
average compressive stress at maximum load in a specimen of timber or wood-
based panel under the action of a stiff linear fastener with the fastener's axis
perpendicular to the surface of the specimen. The embedding strength depends on

STEPEUROF0RTECf-I - an initiiltive under thc EU Comcll Progrnmmc

 the type of fastener, the manufacture of the joint and tlle wood density or the
cluality of ttie wood-based materials. Tflus, the embedding strengtll is not a special
EC5:Part 1-1: 6.5.1.2 ( 1 ) material property, but a systems property. For bolts and dowels up to 30 ntrtr
diameter the following characteristic embedding strength values for timber should
be used:
&,oak 0,082(1- 0,014 Pk
= N/IIIIII (1
witlt p, in lig/rn3 and d in nutt.
A4,o.k
fh,cr,k =
kgOsin' ct + cos' a
for softwood: lcw = 1,35+ 0,015d
for hardwood: k, = 0,90+ 0,015d

a is the angle between load and grain direction.

The influence of the angle a between load and grain direction is illustrated in
Figure 2.

Figrrre 2 A,, / f,,,plotted agai~isfutrgle cx bet~veetl loud orld gruirr riirectiotr;

( a ) Irald~voud;( b ) sofr~i~oorl.

For wood-based products characteristic embedding strength values to be used for

~c5:Parri-1:6.5.1.3(2) bolted or dowelled joints are not yet available, except for
plywood. EC5 recommends for plywood the following value:
fh,k = O,I l(1- 0,014 pk N / I ? Z I ? ~ ~ (5)
wit11 p, in Icg/tn3 and d in 177nl.

These values are applicable independent of the angle between load and Face grain
direction.

Yield il?or~lerltof.fitstc?ner's
The yield moment of dowel-type fasteners should generally be determined in
-
accordance wit13 prEN 409 "Tinlber structures Test metl~ods- Determination of
the yield tnoment ordo~veltype fasteners - Nails". Althougl~prEN 409 is developed
for nails only, it hns been verified (Elifbeck and Werner, 1992) that rile test ~neihods
given in prEN 409 can in principle also be used for bolts and dowels. For round
EC5: klrt 1 - 1: 6.5.1.2 (2) steel bolts it11d dowels the characteristic value for the yield moment should be.
calcu lated approxitnately ns

STEPJEUROFORTEC1.I - i ~ ninitiative undcr the EU Cometi Progranlmc C6/3

 where J, is the tensile strength of the fasteners.

M~~lfiple - fasfet~ei'joii~t
The loads in bolted and dowelled joints are non-uniformly distributed between the
EC5: Rtrt 1-1: 6.5.1.2 ( 3 ) individual fasteners in a n~ultiplefastener joint. For more than six fasteners in line
with the load direction, the load-carrying capacity of the extra fasteners should be
reduced by 113, i.e. for rz fasteners the effective number rzcf is
2
1iCl =6 + - (tl - 6) (7)
3
If the failure of the joint is not governed by splitting and if plastic deformations are
possible, then the loads can be redistributed in the joint. For further information see
STEP lecture CIS.

Fcrstener sl>acirtgs at id clistatices

The minimum spacings as we11 as the end and edge distances for bolts and dowels
are different because of the size of the washers. The minimum spaci~igsand
distances for bolts are given in Table 1, those for dowels in Table 2. The spacings
parallel ( a , )and perpendicular (cr,) to the grain, the end (a,) and edge (a,) distances
are defined in Figure 3-5.

Figure 3 Fastetre,-q~acirlgsporullcl mrd perper~cliclrlarto grain - cief71lifiotl~.

-90.5a < 90' 90"5 a c 270'

Figrtra 4 Fostelrer ertd distctltlces - defini~iorrs(iefi: loacled crrd; right: ~rrrionclelecierrd).

0'5 a < 180' a < 360'

180'.1'_

Figtire 5 F~rsfcrleredge c1ilistcri1ce.s- definitions (lefi: laaclcd edge; rigizt: rinloodecl edge).

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an iniliativc under thc EU Comctt Programme

 a, Parallel to the grain (4+3 icosa ( ) d
a2 Perpendicular to llle grain 4d

a,, - 90" 5 a < 90" 7(1 (2 SO ttml)

1 150' < a 2 210' 4rl
90" < a < 150'
210' c a < 270" (1 +- 6 1 sin a 1 ) (1 (24 4

(j.i,, 0's a 2 180" (2 -1. 2 sin a ) d (2 3d )

1 , all ollier values or a 3rl
a is (lie onglc between load and grain direction

ECS: Part 1- f :6.5.1.2(4) TcibIe I spacirrgs nrtd riistorrres for Dolls.

A4i1~inrtrt>l

n, Parallel to the grain ( 3 + 4 1 c o s ~ Ir ) d

cl2 Perpendiculnr to the grain 3rl
a,, - 90' I a 5 90' 7d (2 80 tnni)
ox, 150'5 aI210" 3d
90' < a < 150"
2 l 0 " < crc270" CI~.~ 1 sin a 1 (2 3d)

fl4.1 0'5 a 5 180" (2 + 2 sin a ) d (2 3 d )

a,, all other values ol' a 3d
cx is the angle bet\veen load and grain direction

ECS: Part I - I: 6.6 (2) Tubit.2 Mini~jjicaispncittgs N I Idisturlces

~ for- ciolor~!els.

The spacings a, may be redt~cedto a minimum of 4d. In this case the load-carrying
capacity decreases due to the danger of splitting. Tl~esefore,the characterislic
embedding strength J,,o.k should be reduced by tile spacing factor k,,:
for bolted joints
I

For dowelled joints

For plywood the spacing factor k, can be disregarded.

Lnterally looded bolts nrtd clovvels

EC5: Pact 1-1: 6.2 The design load-carrying capacities for bolted and dowelled joints can be calculated
using tile modified Johansen theory. This theory is described in STEP lecture C3.

EC5: Part 1-1: 2.3.3.2 and 3 The design values of the relevant lnaterial properties are calculated with the
modification factor k,,,,,,, and the values of y,, according to EC5.

Because of friction between the fastener and the timber and the constraints produced
by the washer assernbiy in bolted joints, the load-carrying capacities, especially for
fasteners with a profiled surface, are higher. This phenomenon is called the "chain
effect". After significant fastener deformation the component of the axial load in the

STEPEUROFORTECH - an inikiative under the EU Corneli Programme C615

 fastener parallel to the interface of the joint tnelnbers can be added to the lateral
shear load. Ttte component perpendicular to the surfaces of ihe members forces
these members into tight contact and may cause additional resistance in the
direction of the joint load due to the friction between the members. This clamping
effect diminishes gradually because of wood relaxation and shrinltage. The increase
of strength in joinls made with resin injected bolts (Rodd et a1.,1989) has the same
reason. The embedment characteristics are also superior to those of plain bolts in
terms of both strength and stiffness.

The load-carrying capacities of a joint can substantially be increased by gluing a

wood-based panel onto the members. (BlaR and Werner, 1988). In ttiat case the
spacings arid distances af the fi~stenersmay be reduced. Tlie reinforcing material is
able to spread highly concentrated loads uniforlnly while tile glueline transfers the
load into the timber member by shear stresses. Splitting in timber joints can be
avoided. Design proposals are given by Werner (1993).

Asially lurrderl bolts

EC~: i-1: 6.5.2
P~II: The ter~silestrength of axially loaded bolts shall be checked in accordance wit11
EC3: Part 1.1 "Design of steel structures - general rules and r ~ ~ l for
e s buildings".
The wasl~ersshall have a surficient thiclcness in order to guilrantee uniform
colnpression stresses perpendicular to the grain. The design cornpressive stresses
under the wasl~ershould not exceed

strength can be increased because the loaclecl area is small.

The co~t~lpressive

Concluding summary
- The design load-carrying capacities of bolted and dowelled joints should be
calculated using the general design equations for dowel-type fasteners

- The decisive properties influencing the load-carrying capacities are the

enibedding strengths of the jointed members, the geometry of ~Iiejoint, the
yield inornent and tile dinn-reier of the fastener.

- Bolted joints are, because of larger holes, not as stiff as dowelied joints and
the mini1nu111spacings required are greater.

- For riiore than six fasteners in lirle with the load direction the load-carrying
capacity sliould be calculated with an effective, i.e. a reduced number of
fasteners.

References
Blall, i-I.J. and Wcmcr, 11. (1988). Stabdiiklverhindungenmil versiirkten AnschluRbcreichcn. Uauctl
mil Holz 90: 601-607,

Eltlbcck, J, and Werner, H. (1992). 'l'ragfiihigkcil von Laubholzvcrbindungcn mit stnbfCirmigen

Vcrbindurlgsmittelrl. Resenrch Report. Versuchsimslall fiir Stnhl, f4olz und Steinc. Abt.
Ingcnicurl~olzbau,Univcrsitiit K:lrlsnlhc, Gcrmany.
Rodd, P.D., I4ilson. 13.0.and Spriggs, R.A. (1989). Rcsin injcctcd mechanically fi~srencdtirnhcr joints.
In: Proceedings o f the 2nd Pacific Timher Engirlccring Confercrlcc. Vol. 2, 13 1 - 136.

Wcmcr, H. { 1993).TragWhigkcit von i-lola-Vcthindunge~ mil stif\fiirmigcil Verbir~dungsr~~itteln

unrer
Bcriicksichtigung van strei~endcnEinfluUgiilJen. Dissertation. Univcrsit:il Karlsruhe, Gcrmilny.

S'~P/EUROFORTECI.I- an iniiiativc under the EU Colnctt Programme

 Bolted and dowelled joints I1

S ~ lecture
P C7 Ob,jectives
J. Ehlbeck, H. Wcrncr To describe serviceability limit stare design procedures for bolted and dowelled
Universitdt Karlsruhe joints and to demonstrate the effect of slip. To present examples for designing
laterally loaded, timber-to-timber, panel-to-timber and steel-to-timber jojnts.

Prerequisites
A1 7 Serviceability limit states - Deformations
C6 Bolted and dowelled joints I

Summary
Design rules for serviceability limit stare design are presented for bolted and
dowelled joints. The design procedure and the importance of fasteners' slip are
deinonstrated by examples.

Serviceability limit state design

The load-carrying capacity and the defonnation behaviour of'joil-ris will1 dowel-type
fasteners can be described by load-deformation curves. Figure 1 shows idealised
load-deformation curves of bolted and dowelled joints with approximately Lhe same
load-carryirrg capacity. I;,,,,,,.,,
is Lhe estimated maxin~umload.

Figrrre I crtr.ves of c/ort~rl/ecl

Irfraliseci load-cfefoi.~~~nrion (0)arid bolte0 (b)jni11f.c

EC5: Pnrl 1-1: 4.2 ( 1 ) The instantaneous slip modulus I<,., is determined from such curves as a
characteristic value of the joint. Based on many test data EC5 recornnlends an
instantaneous slip modulus K,,,per shear plane per fastener under service load for
dowelled joints

with p, in lig/rn3 and d in nnrr.

ECS: Part I-!: 4.2 (2) If the characteristic densities of the two jointed inembers are different then p,

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an iniii:itivc under the EU Comctt Programme c7/1

 should be taken as

This procedure is, of course, not applicable for steel-to-timber joints.

The instantaneous slip u,,,,, shouId be calculated as

F
Vi,@ =-
Ks,
EC5: Part 1-1: 4.2 (4) F is the load per shear plane per dowel under service load. The final joint slip 1%"

is given by
-
1%" - L$,st kd&l>(l+kdcj?) (4)

with k,,,.l. from EC5 Table 4.1 .

Because of the bolt hole tolerances, bolted joints have an initial slip of about 1 mtn.

Therefore, the instantaneous slip iii,, and the final joint slip rtfi,, are given by:
F
= -+ 1 ltlftl
EC5: Part 1-1: 4.1 ( 5 ) ititGt
Ksc*
EC5: Part 1- 1: 4.2 (6) rr,,, -- (u,- 1 mm) /(I+ kdd,)(l+ kdd2)+ 1 frt111

with KvFrfor dowels of the same diameter.

Esmnple I: Dowellecl tinher-to-tirwbcr joi~zr

Dowel d = 12 ~ ~ f r j ~ A,, = 360 N/rwlz2
Structural timber-strength class C24 according to prEN 338 p, = 350 kg/rn3
Service class 3; load duration class: short-term k,,,,,, = (49
Load for the governing load case: permanent load G,= 12 kN
variable load Q, = 14 kN

lirrzit state design

Ultil~~rrte
-
Fd = 1,35 12+ 1,5 14 = 37,2 kN

Design values of material properties:

ECS: Pan 1 - 1 : 6.2.1 ( 2 ) Embedding strength (y, = I ,3):

EC5: P:lrt 1-1: 6.6 (3) centre member: a1 = 6o d = 5,3d k, = = 0,87

12 cos20'
ECj: Part 1-1: 6.5.1.2 ( I ) = &,,2,d = 0,87 * 0,082 (1 - 0,01 . 12) - 350 . -019- = 15,21 ~/ntm'
1,3
outer members: a , = 4.43 d > (3+4 cos70") = 4,37 d

STEP/EUROFORTECkI - an initiative under thc EU Co~ncitProgramme

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.2.1 (3) Yield moment (y, = 1,l):

i r e2 DoilBle shear rlu~c~rllerl

joint. Dimc~rsiorwin (rlirll).

EC5: Pat( 1-1: 6.2.1 ( I ) Design load-carrying capacities per shear plane per dowel

R,, = ~ n i n 16779m75403

-1 $8
(2+1,28).10 11,91 .12.802

design load-carrying capacity of the joint

Sc.t-nicenbility litnit state desigrt

F,, per shear plane per dowel:
26,O
FSCr= -
2 . 4
-
= 3,25 kN

Instantaneous slip modulus per shear plane per dowel:

1
EC5: Part 1-1: 4.2 ( 1 ) KSCI = -
20
- 350i15 - 12 = 3929 N]mm

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative undcr the EU Comett Program~nc

 Values for k,,,in service class 2
permanent kcdej = 0,80
short-term kdd = 0,Oo
instantaneous slip fiitst = -
3250 = 0,83 1nnr
3929
E C ~ Part
: 1- i : 4.2 (4) final slip = 0,46 . 0,83 (I + 0,8) + 0,54 . 0,83 = 1,14 ltlitt

EC5:Part 1- 1: 6.6 (2) Do;,t/el spacillgs clllcl clistatlces

ccnuc member outer mcmbers

The same joint configuration as for example I , except centre member made of
plywood of 20 nrrrr thickness.

Ulti~nateiinrit state desigtl

Embedding strength of plywood (y,,=1,3; k,,,,,,, = 0,9):
EC5: Pan 1-1: 0.5.1.3 (2) = O,11(1 - 0,01 12) . 650 . 9 = 43,6 IV/,ti,rr2
1,3
ECS: Part 1-1: 6.2.1 (1) 0 = 43 56 = 3,66
11,91

design load-carrying capacity of the joint

Sel-viceability liltlit state clesigrr

E C ~ Part
: 1 - 1 : 4.2 (2) pk = J m = 477 kglm3
EC5: Port I - I : 4.2 (1)
Ksw =
1 . 477'~~
- - 12 = 6251 N/mm
20

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under tlie EU Contctt Programme

 Vnfues for lid,./ in service class 2
EC5: Pnrt 1-1 : 4. I ( 6 )
timber plywood
permanent 030 1 ,00
short-term 0,OO 0,OO

EC5: Part 1-1: 4.2 (4) r$,, = 0,46 0,52 . \/(I + 0,8)(1 + 1,O) + 0,54 0,52 = 0,74 llzrn

Dowel ii = 24 11tnt = 360 Nhmt~"

Glued laminated timber according to prEN 1194:
GL 24 p, = 380 kghn3
Steel plate t = 15 trr1i7
Service class 1 ; load duration class: short-term k,,,, = 0 ~ 9
Load Tor the governing load case: permanent load G, = 130 liN
variable load Q,= I95 kN

Dowe! spctcings ctrid distances

-
EC5: Port I 1 : 6.6 (2) c1,=1201il111(5(1)1 ) c d < o , < 7 d
a, = I00 ~ t t r t t(4,2 d) > 3 d
n,,,= 170 ?7117? (7,l c/} f)> 7 d and > 80 117r1r
a, = 100 111ri1 (4,2 rl) > 3 cl

E C ~Part
: 1-1: 6.2.1(2) Einbedding strength (y,, = 1,3):

EC5: Par1 1 - 1: 6.2.1(3) Yield momenl (y, = I , I ):

E C ~ Pnrt
: 1-1: 6.2.1, (2) Design load-cnrrying capacities per shear plane per dowel

STEP/EUROFORTECH - :In initiative unrlcr the EU Comcll Progranlmc

 design load-carrying capacity of the joint:
RdJoi,,, = 2 . 10 * 23,8 = 476 id\r > 468 idV

A check should also be made on the strength of the steel plate (see EC3: Part 1.1
"Design of steel structures - general rules and rules for buildings" (ENV 1993-1-1)).

Servicenbilihl lirtrir store desigtl

F,,,per shear plane per dowel

values for k,,. in service class 1

permanent: k,,, = 0,60 short-term: kfleJ= 0,000

EC5: Part 1-1: 4.2 (4) I%" - 325

13' - 1,83 {(I i O,60) 195 . 1,83
1 + - = 2,02 11tm
325

Excin~ple4: Bolted steel-to-timber joint

The same joint configuration as for example 3, except bolts instead of dowels

Balr spacirigs nrld distnrlces

EC5:P;utI-1:6.5.1.2(4) a , = 1 2 0 n t 1 1 ! ( 5 d ) 4 c / 5 a l C 7 c 1
n2 = 100 mm (4,2 cl) > 4 cl
a,,,= 170 m1n (7,l cl) > 7 cl and > 80 frrrri
cr, = 100 m ~ t i(4,2 d) > 3 d

Ultil~lcrteliinit state desigii

Design procedure see example 3

Setviceability li~lritstctte clesigrl

I;,,, =
16,3 kN
K,,, = 8890 N/~ttnz
rri, = 1 mm +
16300 =
- 2,83 rnnt
EC5: Pan 1-1: 4.2 ( 5 )
8890

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 Screwed joints

STEP lecture C8 Objective

J. Ehlbeck, W. Ehrhsrdt T O describe the load carrying behaviour and the load-carrying capacity of screws.
Universilat lCarlsruhe
Prerequisite
C3 Joints with dowel-type fasteners - Theory

Summary
The lecture describes the load-canying behaviour of screwed joints and presents the
design rules given in EC5.

Introduction
Wood screws are especially suitable for steel-to-Limber and panel-to-limber joints,
but they also can be used for timber-to-timber joints. Suck screwed joints are
mainly designed as single shear joints.

Screws with a diameter greater than 5 ntm should be turned into pre-drilled holes
to prevent splitting of the wood. The holes should be pre-drilled over the length of
the unthreaded shank with the diameter of the smooth shank and over the threaded
portion with a diameter of about 70 per cent of the shanlc diameter. Screws should
be inserted by turning and not by driving with a hammer, otherwise tile load
carrying capacity, mainly the withdrawal capacity, will decrease significantly.

Requirements referring to design and material of the screws will be fixed in a

European product standard. In the design equalions d should be taken as the
diameter of the screw measured on the smooth shank. Tile diameter d of coach
screws varies from 8 to 20 nml, the diameter of countersunk head or round head
screws varies from 4 to 8 m m z . The root diameter of the screw in the threaded
portion cl, is about 70 per cent of the diameter measured on the smooth shank. The
depth of the thread Ill varies from 0,125 d to 0,14 d, the threadpitch h, from 0,4 d
to 0,5 ci. The length of the threaded portion is about 60 per cent of the total length
of the shank.

I I I
Figtire I Typical \i~ooclscrews: (a) conclr scre\v (6) cortnfersrolki~ead(c) ralrrtd earl.

At present the relevant national product standards do not specify any values
regarding fastener properties with respect to the load carrying capacity. It is

STEPRUROFORTECH - an initinlive undcr [he EU Cornell Programrnc C8ll

 assumed that the design rules for screwed joints in EC5 are applicable for screws
according with the British Standard BS 1210 "Wood screws" and the German
Standards DIN 96 "Halbrund-Holzschrauben rnit Schlitz", DIN 97 "Senk-Holz-
schcauben mit Schlitz" and DIN 571 "Sechskant-Holzscl~rauben".

Load carrying hehaviour

Laterally loaded screws have nominally a srnaller load-carrying capacity than nails
or round steel bolts with, because the yield moment in the threaded portio11 is
smaller than the yield moment of the smooth shank.

For srnail diameters the angle between the force and the grain direction has no
significant influence on the load-carrying capacity. For larger diameters there is an
increasing influence on the embedding str.engtti of the members. Therefore, joints
with screws having a diameter less than 8 vim can be designed principally as nailed
joints, whereas for diameters greater than or equal to S nlnr the decreasing
embedding strength for increasing angle between force and grain must be taken into
account. It should also be taken into consideration, that screws taper to tlie point,
so that there is almost IIO contact in the region of the point.

For applying the lules in EC5 it is assumed that:

- the screws are turned into pre-drilled holes and

- the length of the sn~oothshank is at least equal to the thickr~essof the
member under the screw head

LateralIy Ioaded screws

For screws with a diameter less than 8 mnr the rules for nails apply, for screws with
a diameter equal to or greater than 8 nrtn the rules for bolts apply. In designing
spacings and endledge distances the diameter of the smooth shank is decisive. The
penetration of' the screw should be at least 4d.

The design load-carrying capacity should be taken as the smallest value found from
the formulae given in STEP lecture C3. To calculate the value of the yield moment
an effective diameter of cl,,.= 0,9cl should be i~sed,provided that the root diameter
of the screw is not less than 0,7cI. This effective diameter assurnes that the thread
itself also contributes to the yield moment. If the length of the ~11100thsllank in the
pointside tnernber is not less than 4 4 the shank diameter may be used to calculate
the value of the yield moment.

For calculating the Ioad-carrying capacity tlie depth of penetration t , or t, should be

reduced to an effective depth of penetration, to take account of the influence of the
tapering point of the screw. It is recornti~endedthat the depth of penetration be
reduced by about 1,5d.

Tile following value for the characteristic yield moment should be used:

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.5.1.2~ Or

where A,+k is the characteristic tensile strength of the screw material and
d is the diameter tneasured on the smooth shank (nominal screw diameter).

STEPIEUROFORTECI~I- an iniriativc under the EU Comcu Programme

 Axially loaded screws
Screws ilre especially suitable for carrying withdrawal loads. To determine the
design value the effective depth of penetration is assumed to be tile lengtl.1 of the
threaded portion of the screw in the member receiving the point. The influence of
the point is taken into account by deducting one diameter from the effective length.

The design withdrawal capaciry of scl-ews driven at right angles to the grain should
be taken as
Rd = hd UeJ.- 4 N (3)
The design value of tile withdrawal parameter should be calculated from the
characteristic withdrawal parameter taking into account the load duration class, the
service class and the partial safety coefficienr .y,,

ECS: Part 1-1: 6.7.2b

cl is the screw diameter in tmn ineasured on the smooth shank

lfl is the threaded length in rltr?? in the member receiving the screw
p, is the characteristic density in kghn3

IF a depth of penetration of more than 10d is taken into account, the stresses should
be checked against the design tensile strength of the screw material in the root area.
The head pull through effect for axially loaded screws with sheet material should
be checked using the equations for annular ringed shank and threaded nails. For
timber to timber joints it may be necessary to use washers to avoid high pressure
perpendicular Lo the grain.

Combined faterally and axially loaded screws

For screwed joints with a combination of axial load F,, and lateral load Ft,, the
following condition should be satisfied:

EC5: Pan 1-1:6.3.3b

where R,,, and R , , , are the design load-carrying capacities of the joint loaded with
axial load or lateral load alone.

Design example
Screwed joint of a wind bracing. It is assumed that the spacings are in line with the
relevant design rules.

I;,, = 222 kN (short-term), Service class 2, k,,,c,L) = 0,9, p,= 350 lig/)n3
4 screws I$ f 2 x 120, it= 400 ~ h n m '(producer's specification)
d > 8 nltn; the rules for bolts apply

Lateral load:
t = 6 nznz (thin steel plate)
t , = 1 - t - 1,5 d = 120 - 6 - 1,5 12 = 96 nzln
+

0,4 1 - t = 0,4 . 120 - 6 = 42 m m s 4 d = 48 tnitz

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Co~nertProgramme

 The yield moment shouid be calcr~latedwith an effective diameter d,/
dd = 0,9 d = 10,8 mrtt

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.5.1.2~ M,,,, = 0,8 4 -1

- = 0'8 10 g3 . -
400 2 1 = 61100 N~llnt
c5 y , 6 1,l
pk ktt,od
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 6.5.1.2b -f;lC = 0,082 (1 - 0,01 6)------ = 0,082 (1 - O,I2) 350 ' Oy9 = 17,5 ~/t!tttt'
YM 1,3
EC5: Part 1 - 1 : 6.2.211
(@-1) A,,, t , d = 0,41 17,5 96 12 . lom3= 8,26 kN
EC5: Part 1 - 1: 6.2.2b Rd = mill
1,I J w d = 1,1 42 . 61100 . 17,5 . 12 . 10') =5,57 kN
Axial load:
I,/ = 0,6 120 = 72 nrnr < 10 d = 120 mrn

No need to check against tensile strength of screw rnateriat

EC5: h r t 1- 1: 6.7.2b &,, = (1,s + 0,6 d) 6Y AI

Od (1,5 + 0,6 12) 9 = 113 N , I ~ Z I ~ Z
1,3
EC5: Pan 1-1: 6.7.2a
R a ~ ~=&,, ($ - 4 = 113 . (72 - 12) - loe3 = 6,76 kN
Interac tion:
2
0,707 22
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.3.3b
( 4 5 , + ( Oy707 22
4 . 6,76 ) = 0,49 + 0,33 = 0,82 r 1

Conciuding summary
- Screws are remarkably suitable for withdrawal loads.

- Screws with a diameter > 5 mnt shall always be turned into pre-drilled holes.

- The length of the smooth shank s110uId be greater or equal to the thickness
of the member under the screw head.

- Under lateral loading for screws with a diameter less than 8 nlrti the rules for
nails apply, for screws with a larger diameter the rules for bolts apply.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Con~cltPrograrnmc

 Ring and shear-plate connector joints

STEP lecture C9 Objectives

I-I.J. UInss To show the different types of timber connectors placed in precut grooves and the
Dclfi Ulliversity fabrication of respective joints. To explain the background of the models used to
of Tedlnolagy calculate the characteristic strength values of ring and shear-plate connector joints.

Prerequisite
C15 Mulliple fastener joints

Summary
Various fomx of ring and shear-plate timber connectors are identified. The load-
carrying behnviour of connections with ring, or shear-plate connectors, and bolts is
described. The possibie failure rnodes for different load-grain angles and their effect
on the design values of the connection strength are discussed. Special attenti011 is
given to the required spacing, end and edge distances of the connectors in a joint.

Introduction
Ring and shear-plate connectors are used in later-ally loaded timber-to-timber and
steel-to-timber joints, generally in conlbinatio~lwith bolts. While ring connectors
nre exclusively applied in timber-to-limber joints, shear-plate connectors may be
used for steel-to-timber joints as well as for timber-to-timber joints. Shear-plate
connectors are nonnally installed before the osselnbly of tile structure and the joints
are demountable (see Figure 1).

Ring and shear-plate connectors are itvailable in a variety of sl~apesand sizes, with
diameters ranging from 60 to 260 m n ~ They
. are always circular because they are
placed into precut grooves produced by rotary cutters and ore made from aluminum
cast alloy, steel or cast iron. Those connectors comn~onlyused in Europe are
specified in prEN 912 "Timber fasteners - Specifications for connectors for timber".
In prEN 912 ring connectors are denoted as Type A wilereas sltcar-plate connectors
are listed as Type 3.
The production of ring and shear-plate connector joillts comprises severaI sreps.
First, the bolt hole and the connector groove are drilled into the wood (see Figure
2 left). For the connector grooves proper cutters are necessary, corresponding to the
shape of the ring cross-section. Then, the connectors are placed into the grooves
and the titnber members to be connected are put together. Finally, the bolts are
inserted into the holes and tightened (see Figurc 2 right). As an alternative to bolts,
coach screws ruay be used to hold the connection together.

Fi~rii-c2 Driliiitg o f !lie bolt llole orld c u t t i i ~rlrc

, ~ grooite ,for ;lie coarrectnl. (Icfif rrrrrf
a.sse1111)ly
of CI rir~gcottrlecror joirtt (ri,qhrJ.

Load-carrying behaviour and calculation model

The load in a ring connector joint is transferred Frorn one timber rt~embertl~rough
embedding stresses into the ring connector and f'ur-ther through the shear resistance
of tile ring into the other timber member. In shear-plate connections, the load
transfer is slighriy differerrt: after the transfer of the load into the connector, the bolt
is loaded through embedding stresses between shear-plate and bolt, and the load is
transferred ~hroitghthe shcur resistance of the bolt. Then, either the steel metnber
or the second shear-plate is loaded by the bolt. In shear-plate connections the hole
diatnerer in t l ~ eshear plate consequerltly corresponds to the bolt diameter plus n
srnall tolerance. Due to this tolerance, an initial slip can be expected in shear-plate
connections.

Based on observations during tests, the Failure of ring and shear-plate connections
in lension is described by a inodel assuming a shear block failure of the wood in
front of the connector. This rnodel is to be included in a future version OF EC5 or
in National Application Documents. The ernbed~nentstresses which in reality are
unevenly distributed over the half diameter of the ring ore assumed to be uniformly
distributed and acting parallel to the load direction. The embedment stresses are
then transferred through shear stresses into the tension member (see Figure 3). The
capacity of the bolt is ignored, since the bolt is usually placed in oversized holes
and only just starts bearing when ihe connection fails. Figure 4 shows a failed
tension test connection wit11 shear failure both in the middle and one side me~nber.

Assurning the shear block failure as the governing failure mode for tension joints
the capacity of the connection consequently depends on the shear area in front of
the connector and oil the shear strength of the wood. The shear area within the con-
nector is disregarded since in most tests the wood core within the connector shears
off before the ultimate load of tl~econnection is reached.

STEP/EffROFoRTEC1-I - ;In iniliativc undcr the EU Conlclt Pragrammc

However, the shear block failure occurs only if the embedding strength of the wood
in front of the connector is sufficiently large. Otherwise embedding failure will
govern the load-carrying capacity of the connection, as it will with larger end
distances, a,.

I;igtirc 4 Slteur failrrre of rttidd/a atid side r~rnrlber-iil a ring cortrrector lortclcd iir
tcr tsiott.

The load-carrying capacity of a ring or shear-plate connector loaded in tension

parallel to the grain can consequently be written as:

where

R, is the load-canying capacity of one connector,

, is the apparent or average shear strength,
A, is the shear area per connector,
f;, is d ~ eembedding strength,
dc is the connector diameter and
It, is the depth of the connector embedment.

The apparent shear strength decreases with increasing shear aren. Based on tests
with ring connector joints by ICuipers and Verrneyden (1964), he following
relationship between the apparent shear strength and the shear area is assumed:
fi, = K A;"~' (2)
where K is a parameter describing the shear strength of the wood.

Hence, the load-bearing capacity of a ring or shear-plate connector results as:

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an i n i ~ i i ~ i vundcr
e thc EU Comctt Programlnc C9/3
For a joint with one connector per shear plane the shear area is (see Figure 3):

where a , , is the distance to the loaded end.

For joints with several connectors arranged in a line, the shear area for the second
and each further connector is:
= (dc + 2 I ~ Ja, - n d: 1 4 (5)

where a, is the connector spacing parallel to the grain.

Ring or shear-plate connector joints loaded at an angle of more than 30" to the
grain or in co~l~pression,respectively, show different failure modes. Connections
with load-grain angles between about 30" and 150" show a splitting failure mode,
where in most cases the member with a loading co~nponentperpendicular to the
grain shows a tensile failure perpendicular to the grain (see Figure 5).

Cornpression joints mostly fail in a combined embedding-splitting failure mode (see

Figure 6). Here, the splitting occurs only after considerable embedding deformations
under both the connector and the bolt. For ring or shear-plate joints loaded in
coinpression, the bolt therefore contributes to the load-bearing capacity of the con-
nection. This load sharing between bolt and connector can be observed only for
joints loaded in compression showing larger defonnations at failure ar~da distinct
plastic behaviour when compared with joints loaded in tension or at an angle to the
grain which generally fail in a brittle failure mode. Because also in compression
joints the wood core within the connector shears off before the ultimate load of the
connection is reached, the embedding area of the bolt is reduced by the area within
the connector.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an iriitiativc ttndcr tilt EU Comctt Progrnmme

Strength and stiffness values from tests
The results reported Itere ore based on tests performed in the Stevin-Laboratory of
Delft University of Technology and in the Danish Building Research Institute bet-
ween 1957 and 1991. One shear-plate diameter, 67 1?11n,and two ring diameters, 72
1?1r?t and 112 rttrtt, were used. A total number of 948 lcsts were evaluated. A detailed
description of these tests and their results is reported in Blass ec al, (1994). The
tests to establish the embedding strengtli of tlie wood under the connectors were
performed at Brighton College of Technology (Iiilson, 1969).

E~~~belicli~rg
str-e~igih
Based on 139 tests with varying timber density, Hilson ( 1 9692) gives the following
relationship between the embedding strength under a ring or shear-plate connector
and lhe timber density at 13% moisture content:
f, = 82 ( p / 1 0 0 0 ) ' ~IV/?rz1n2
~~~ with p in k ~ / r t t ' (6)

Eq~~ation (6) can be replaced by a more simple linear relationship:

f;, = 0,078 p ~tnzrtt" with p in kghn"7)

If the bolt contribution is ignored, iln approximate value of the joint strength may
be obtained by using an artificial value for.6 ~nultipliedby the projected area of tlie
connector. Frotn Hilson (1969b) the mtio of the tl~eoreticalconnector contribution
to dleoretical joint strength including the bolt, based on 30 tests, averaged 0,804.
The resulting value of .f,
fh = 0,078 / 0,804 p = 0,097 p N/nt1n2 with p in kg/~/ln"8)

agrees well with the results of the cornpression Lests reported in Blass el: al. (1994)
which result in the folollowing characteristic value of the embedding strength:
= 0,095 pk ~ / n z m ' with p, in kgh? (9)

In the following, a value of 0,09 p, is used for the embedding strength A,,.

Co1ntection sb.engflr
From the ultimate load and the timber dimensions, the parameter K in equation (2)
was determined for each tensile tesr specimen. From all the values of the parameter
K, a characteristic value was tlien determined as the 5-percentile value. Based on
service classes 1 & 2, a specified minimum timber member thickness and a
characteristic density of the timber of 350 kg/rn3, the characteristic value of the
parameter K was found to be:

STEPIEUROFORTECH - nn initiative undcr the EU Comctt Progrrlntme Cw.5

 Based on this value for K, and a characteristic embedding strength.6,. = O,09 PI, the
characteristic load-carrying capacity of a ring or shear-plate connector loaded in
tension parallel to the grain is:

where A , is the shear area per connector according to Figure 3 and equation (4) or
(5) in ~ i t r n ' .

Limiting values for the member thickness have been introduced since, with small
member thicknesses, a splitting instead of a shear block failure mode, or embedding
failure, is more likely to occur and consequently the cotlnection strength decreases
(Scholten, 1944). The evaluation of the test results is based on a rninimuln side
member thickness of 3 fi,, and a minimum middle metnber thickness of 5 h,, with
11, as defined above.

Although the calculation rnodet which assurnes a shear block failure of the wood
in front of the connector describes only the behaviour of tension specimens loaded
at an angle of up to about 30", it has been applied to all connector joints with load-
grain angles up to 150". This means that joints loaded at an angle to the grain with
a splitting fiiilure mode have also bee11 evaluated on the basis of the assurr~edshear
block failure. The model nevertheless gives fairly uniform results wiilt respect to
the 5-percentile value OF the parameter K.

This can be explained by the fact that the end distance and the connector spacing
similarly influerlce tlie ultimate load if splitting is the governing failure mode. Irt
this case an increased end distance obviousiy increases tlle ared Ioaded in tension
perpendicular to the grain. Only if the end distance becomes very large and the
failure inode does not include splitting, can a further increase of connection strength
with increasing end distance not be expected.

The results of the tension test evaluation show no indication of an influence of

number of conllectors for up to three connector units per joint. The same applies
to the compression joints where a clear relation between the 5-percentile value of
the parameter K and the number of connector units per joint cannot be established.
This does not mean, however, that there exists no influence of number of fasteners
per joint on the characteristic load-carrying capacity of ring and shear-plate
connections. Until further research can clarify the influence of number of
connectors, the effective number rrCl of more than two connectors in line with the
load direction should be assunled as:
11, = 2 + (1 - rt / 20) (rr - 2) (12)

where 11 is the number of connectors in line with the load.

Corrrrectioti ~'fi,!firess
For serviceability calculations, as well as for mechanically jointed components, slip
moduli of the different types of mechanical timber co~~nections are necessary. For
serviceability limit states calculations, the slip modulus K,,,corresponds to the slip
modulus k, according to EN 2G89Z. For tile design of mechanicaily jointed com-
ponents in ultimate limit states, the instantaneous slip modulus K,, is talcen as two
EC5: Part 1-1: 5.3.3 thirds of the corresponding value of the slip rnodulr~sK,,.,.

C9/6 STEP/EUROFORTECI-I - ;m iniliativc undcr rllc EU Cornett Programme

 Since the stiffness \~aluesof the tested connections vary considerably, the influence
of different parameters on the conneclion stiffness is difficult to estimate. Conse-
quently, a si~ilplerelation was chosen to represent connection stiffness as a function
of the connector diameter and the characteristic density of the timber. The influence
of load-grain angle, timber rnoislure content, member thickness and tile number of'
connector units per joint was neglected. Based on a value of 350 kS/r?r3 for the
characteristic density, the followir~gaverage v a l ~ ~ofethe slip modulus k , according
to EN 2689 1 was deterri~ined:
Ic, = 0,6 d, pk (Nlant) (13)

where rI,. is the connector diameter in nim and p, is the characteristic density of the
respective strength class in kg/m3.

Design equations
If equation ( I 1 ) is applied to a ring or shear-plate connector joint loaded in tension
parallel to the grain with a distance to the loaded end n,, of' 2 cl,., a side niember
thickness of' 3 It,., a middle meluber thickness of' 5 h,, and a characleristic density of
the tirnber of 350 k8h:/,n" the characteristic Ioad-carrying capacity per shear plane for
those connectors listed in prEN 912 is given by:

Disreoarding the contribution of the bolt, the characteristic load-carlying capacity

?'
of a r ~ n gor shear-plate connector joint can be written as:

EC5: Part 1-1: Fig. 6.3.1 .?;I where a is the angle belween load and grain direction,
35 di5 k p k, k, (N) with (I,. and I:,, in t1tm (16)
R~,o.k 31,s d, he kp k, (N)

For joints with one axis of connectors loaded in co~npression(I 50" S ol < ?lo"),
only [he embedding strength criterion is applicable:
Rc,og = 3 1 3 dc h, kp k, IN) with rl,. and It,. in it1111(18)

For compression joints will] more than one axis shear failure between tlte rings is
possible and both conditions of equation (16) have to be verified in this case.

The lnodification faclors for timber density, distancc to the loacled end (only for
tension joints) and inember thickness are defined as follows:

where p, is the chriracteristic density of' rlle timber strength class in kg/rit3

For joints lor~dedin tension only (-30" < cr, S 30") rr modification hctoi- for end
distance may be applied:
k,t3 = tnin
I 1,25
5
2 (Ir
where a,, is the distance to the loaded end with a minimum value of 1,5 d,.
(20)

I
I
-
I,
(21)
k,=min 311~.
- '2

5 Itc

where t , and rZ are the side and middle member thicknesses, respectively, and h, is
the depth OF the connector embedment. Equation (21) is applicable only, if t , and
t? are larger than 2,25 11, und 3,75 h , , respectively.

Concluding summary
- Ring connector joints are used in luterally loaded timber-to-timber
connections while shear-plate connector joints can also be applied in steel-to-
timber connections.

- Timber and connector dimensioits, spacing, end distances and density are the
pri~naryinfluences on the connectioil strength.

- Connection stiffness depends mainly on connector diameter and timber

density.

- Tile L'dilure mode of joints loaded in tension is a shear block failure of tlte
wood in front of the connector unless large end distances lead to an embed-
inent failure mode. Joints with Load-grain angles between about 30" and 150"
show a splitting failure mode of the inember loaded perpendicular to the
grain. Because of the brittle failure mode and the initial slip of the bolt in its
oversized hole, load sharing between bolt and connector is not taken into
account.

- Ring and shear-plate connector joints loaded in compression show a

combined embedding-splitting failure mode.

References
Blass, H.J., Ehlbcck. 1. and Schlagcr. M. (1'194). Strength and stiffness of' ring and shear-plate
connections. Molz :11s Roh- und Werksloff 52: 71-76.

Hiison, 0.0.(196911).The bchaviour of sofiwoods loaded in compression parailcl to the grain arid
supported against lateral rnovemenr. Journal of thc Ins!. of Woad Scicncc 4 (4): 11-23.

Hilson. B.O.(1'169b). Tile ultimate strcngltl of timber joints will1 split-ring connectors whcn loadcd
parallcl to (he grain. Journal of the Inst. of Wood Scicncc 4 ( 1 I): 6-26.

Kuipers, J. nrid Vcrmcydcn, P. (1964). Rcscarch on timberjoints in ltle Netherlands. Rapport 4-64-15,
Ondcrzock v-7, Stcvin-Luborntoriurn. Tcchnischc Hogcschool Delft, Neihcrlands.

Scholtcn, J.A. (1944). Timbcr-Connector Joints - Thcir SLrcngth and Design. Tt'cbnici~iBullclir~No.
865,USDA Fnresl Service, Washington, D.C., USA.

STEPEUROF0RTECt.l - itn initiativc undcr thc EU Comctt Programme

 Toothed-plate connector joints

STEP lecture c 1 0 Objectives

14.1. Uloss To show the different types of toothed timber connectors and the fabrication of re-
Dclfi University spective joints. To explain the background to the characteristic strenglh values of
o i l'cci~nolopy toothed-plate connector joints.

Prerequisite
C3 Joints with dowel-type fasteners - Theory
Summary
Various fonns of toothed timber connectors are identified. The load-bearing
behaviour of connections with toothed-plate connectors and bolts is described. The
failure modes and their impact on the design values of the connection strength are
discussed. Special attention is given to tile required spacing, end and edge distances
of the connectors in a joint.

Introduction
Like ring or sl~ear-plateconnectors, toothed-plate connectors are used in laterally
loaded timber-lo-timber and steel-to-timber joints, generally in combination with
bolts. While ring and shear-plate connectors are placed into precut grooves (see
STEP lecture C9), toothed-plate connectors are pressed into the timber members to
be connected. Double-sided toothed-plate connectors are used in timber-to-timber
joints; single-sided connectors may also be used if the connectors are installed
before the assembly of the structure or if the joints sl~ouldbe demountable (see
Figure 1). Single-sided con~lectorsare also used for steel-to-limber joints. Because
of the need to press the teeth into the timber, toothed-plate connectors can only be
used in timber with a characteristic density of not more than about 500 kghn3.

Toothed-plate connectors are available in a variety of shapes and sizes, with

diameters ranging from 38 Lo 165 mm. They are mostly circular, but square and
oval shapes are also available. The connectors are made either from cold rolled
band steel, hot dipped galvanised mild steel or malleable cast iron. Those

STEP/EUROFORTECI4 - arr initii~tivcunder rhe EU Comet1 Programme clo/f

 e dEurope are specified in prEN 912 "Timber Fdsteners -
connectors colnrnonly ~ ~ s in
Specifications for connectors for timber". I11 prEN 912 toothed-plate connectors are -
denoted as Type C,

Toothed-plate connector joints are manufactured in a similar way to bolted joints.

First, the bolt hole is drilled into the wood. Then, the connectors are placed between -
the timber members and the connection is pressed together. Because the pressing
of the connector teeth into the timber requires considerable force, either a hydraulic
press or a high strengtii bolt is used. Only for small connector diameters, up to -
about 65 mni, can the usual 111iId steel bolt be used. If bolts are used to press the
connector teeth into the wood. large washers have to be used because of the
otherwise high stresses perpendicular. to the grain and the consequent csushing of
the wood. After pressing, the mild steel bolt is inscrted into the tirnber members
-
and tightened. Coach screws may be used in connection with toothed-plates as an
alternative to bolts.
-
Load-bearing behaviour and calculation model
The load in a double-sided toothed-plate connector joint is transferred from one
timber member through embedding stresses into tile teeth of the connector and -
Further through the plate into the teetl~on the opposite side and the other timber
member. In single-sided toothed-plate connections, the load transfer is slightly
different: after the trr~nsl'erof'the load into the connector, tile bolt is loaded lhrongh
einbedding stresses between connector and bolt and the load transferred by shear
-
in the bolt. Then, either the steel member or the second toothed-plate is loaded by
the bolt. In singIc-sided colinections tile hole diameter in the toothed-plate -
consequently corresponds to the bolt diarneter plus a sinall tolerance. Due to this
tolerance, an initial slip can be expected in single-sided connections.

The failure of toothed-plate corinectioris nor~nallyis caused by an e~nbedinent

klilure of the wood under both he connector tceth and the bolt, eventually
conibined with tooth bending. In tension joints with small end distances, however,
splitting and shear out oS the wood in front of the bolt is the governing fairure
mode. Generally since toottled-plate connector joints show a plastic failure mode,
both bolt and connector contribute to the load-carrying capacity of' the joint. Figure
2 shows a Sailed coltipressiori specimen with embedment failure under the connector
teeth and the bolt and plastic deforniations of connector teeth and bolt.

Figure 2 E~t~berltrrer~tfnilrrre of tire ~rjoodutrcler tire corlrrcctor tcetJ1 N ~ I C I111e001t. Tfic

bolt crtrd !Ire corrrlectnr tectlr c11.c d e f ~ r t ~ l pl~~sticull)~.
ed
The model used to describe the load-carrying capacity of toothed-plate connections
is based on the assuinption of a load-sharing between toothed-plate connector and
bolt. The co~lnectionstrength is consequently written as:
5,k = 4 , k + &,k (1 )

where

R, is the characteristic load-carrying capacity of the toothed-plate connection

containing both toothed-plate and bolt,
R,, is the characteristic load-carrying capacity of the tootiled-plate connector and
R,, is the load-carrying capacity of the bolt according lo EC5 based on the cha-
racteristic values of the embedment strength and the fastener yield moment.

The characteristic load-carrying capacity of a circular toothed-plate co~~nector

can
be described by the following empirical relationship:

where

A is n factor depending on the connector type and determined through tests and
(I, is the connector diameter.

Strength and stiffness values from, tests

The test results I-eportedhere ore based on tests performed in the Stevin-Laboratory
of Delft University of Technology and in the Danish Building Research Institute
between 1957 nnd 1991. Only tests with one type of toothed-plrtce connector, the
Bulldog connector, were evaluated. Circular connectors with diameters between 50
rlrrn and 1 17 m.tni, two square shaped connectors wit11 100 m111and 130 lrrr?i side
length and an oval connector 70 rrti11 by 130 mt11 were tested in spruce (Picea nbies)
specimens. A total of' 486 tests have been evaluated. A detailed description of the
test results and their evaluation is reported in Blass et al. (1993).

Carri~ectiorlstrengtil
From the timber di~nensionsand using a characterislic density of 350 1kgh11~the
characteristic load carrying capacity of the boll was detern~inedfor each tested
specirnen according to EC5. Tile load-carrying capacity of' tile bolt was then
deducted from the ultiniate load of the connection before calculaling the parameter
A for each test specimen. Bnsed on service classes I & 2 and a specified minin~um
timber member thickness, the characteristic value of the parameter A was found LO
be:
A, = 18 N/nrm '*' (3)
Limiting values for the member thickness have been introduced, since snlall
member thicknesses result in a splitting instead of an embedment failure mode ilnd
consequently the connection strength decreases. Tlie evaluation of the test resulls
is based on tile same n~ini~num timber ~~lelnber tl~icknessesas for ring and shear-
plate connector joints, namely a minimum side member thickness of I ,5 ti,. and a
minimum middle member thickt~essof 2,5 h,.. 11,. is the connector height for double-
sided toothed-plate conneclors and twice the connector heigl~tfor single-sided
toothed-plate connectors.

The results of t l ~ etest evaluation show il slight decreilse in the clirrr.c~ctcriuticloaci-

carrying capacity per conneclor will1 increasing number of connectors for up to

STEPIEUROFORTECI.1 - an inifinlivc under thc EU Cornclt Progrnmmc C 1013

 tllree connector units per joint. The decrease in the civerage load-carrying capacity
per connector with increasing number of connectors is more distinct.

Until further research can clarify the influence of the number of connectors, the
effective number ti,, of more than two connectors in line with the load direction
should be assumed as:
r t , = 2 + (1 -
tz 1 20) ( a - 2) (4)

where 11 is the number of connectors in tine wilh the load.

Although the number of tests with load-grain ~ u ~ g l between

es 30' and 180" is quite
small, the 5-percentile value of the parameter A seems to be independent of the
load-grain angle.

Co~lrzectio~z
stijji1es.s
For serviceability calculations, as well as for mechanically jointed coliiponents, slip
lnoduli of the different types of mechanical tilt~berconnections are necessary. For
serviceability limit states calculations, the slip modulus K,,,,
corresponds to the slip
modulus k, according to EN 26891. For the design of mechanically jointed coni-
ponents in ultimate limit states, the instantaneous slip modulus K,,is taken as two
EC5:Part 1-1: 5.3.3 thirds of the tor-responding value of the slip modulus K,,.

Since the stiffness values of the tested connections vary considerably, a simple
relationship was chosen to represent conllection stiffness as a function of the
connector diameter arid tile timber density. Load-grain angle, timber moisture con-
tent, member thickness and the number of connector units per joint were ignored.
The following average value of' the slip modulus k, according to EN 26891 was
determined for connector types C1 to C9 according to prEN 912:
k, = 0,3 d, p, (Nlam) (5)

Based on a comparison of stiffness values for different toothed-plate connectors in

DIN 1052 ( 1988) the slip modulus k , for connector types C I O and C I I according
to prEN 912 may be assumed as:
ks = 0,445 d, pk (Eu'l~rmr) (6)

where clc is the connector diameter in rtrnl and p, is the cllaracteristic density of the
respective strength class in kghn3.

Design equations
The following equations to determine the characteristic strength of a toothed-plate
connector joint per shear plane apply:
Rj,cr,k= 'c,li Rb,a,k
+
(7)

EC5: Port 1-1: Fig. 6.3.1.h a is the angle between load and grain direction,
R is the characteristic ioad-carrying capacity of the connector joint and
R,, is the chancteristic load-carrying capacity of the connector:
ReTk= 18 k, k,, k, d:'l (N) (8)

for connector types C1 to C9 according to prEN 912 and

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH an initiative under thc EU Con~ettProgti~mn~c
 for connector types C10 and CI 1 according to prEN 91 2 with d, in tmn.

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.5.1 R,,,,, is the load-carrying capacity of the bolt according to EC5 based on the cha-
racteristic values of the embedment strength and the fastener yield moment.

Minimum spacings and distances for connector types C1 to C9 according to prEN

912 are given in Table I , those for types C10 and C11 in Table 2. Additionally,
EC5: Pad 1-1: 6.5.1.2 minimum spacings and distances for the bolts have lo be colnplied with.

a, Parallel to !he grain (1,2 + 0,3 I cosa 1) d,

a? Pcipendicular to the grain 1,2 d,
03.r -90" S a 5 90" 1,s clr *)
a,, 150°1a1210" 1 2 (Ic
90" c a < 150" (0,9 + 0,G I sina 1 ) 4
210" < a < 270" ( 0 3 i0,6 f sinrw 1 ) ciC
a,, 0°<ar11800 (0,G + 0,2 sina) (1'.

a , all oUler values of a 0.6 rf,

) For tension joints (-30' I a < 30') the end distance a , , may he further reduced 10
I , I d,, if thc characteristic load-carrying capacity is reduced proportionally.
- -

Taliie 1 Mirtir~rrmrspacit~gsnt~ddismmtcc.~
for coi~neoortype CI lo C9.

a, Parallel to the grnin (1,2 + 0,8 1 cosa 1 ) 4

a2 Perpendicular to ~ilegrain 1,2 clc
a,, -90" 5 a 5 90' 2 (i, *)

I 150'5 a I2 10" l,2 d'.

90" < a < 150" (0,4 + I ,G I sina I ) cl,
210" < a c 270" , Isina I ) (lc
(0,4 + 1 G

o,~, 0" 1 a I180" (0.6 + 0,2 sina) (I,

(I,, all other valucs of a 0,6 d,

) For tension joints (-30' 6 a I 30") {he cnd distancc a , , rnay be further reduced to
1,s (1, if tile cllaracteristic load-calrying capacity is reduced proportionally.

The lnodification factors for timber density, Ioaded end distance and member
thiclcness are defined as follows:

kP = min

where p, is the characteristic density in kg/lt13 of the respective timber strength

class.

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For tension joints (-30" 5 a < 30") a modification hctor for the distance to the
loaded end may be applied. For connector types CI to C9 according to prEN 912
this factor is given as:

ke3 = rnin '3.r (1 1 )

Mere ( I , , is the distance to the loaded end with a minimum value of

where (1, is the bolt diameter in IIUIZ.

For connector types CIO and C1 1 according to prEN 912, the modification factor
for tension joints (-30" 5 cx 4 30") is:
r I
k,, = min
i 2
-
rL3,f

[IL.

with a minimurn value for the distance to the loaded end, a,,!:

where dl, is the bolt diameter in n ~ m .

k, = tnin

I
where t , and tI are the side and rniddle member thickness, respectively, and h, is
the connector height for double-sided toothed-plate connectors and twice the
.-

connector height for single-sided toothed-plate connectors. Equation (7) is

applicable only, if t , and t2 are larger than 1 , l 11, and 1,9 It,, respectively.
-
Concluding summary
- Double-sided toothed-plate connector joints are used in IateralIy loaded
timber-to-timber connections while single-sided toothed-plate connector joinls -
can be used in steel-to-timber connections and in demountable timber-to-
tirnber joints.
-
- Connector and timber dimensions as wet1 as the load-carrying capacity of the
bolt are the primary influences on the connection strength.
--
- Connection stiffness depends mainly on connector diameter and timber
density.
-
STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative under thc ELI Cornclt Programrnc
- Toothed-plate connector joints can be used for timber with a characteristic
density of not Inore tlian aboilt 500 I c ~ ~ T I ~ .

- The failure mode of toothed-plate connector joints is an einbed~nentfailure

of the wood under the connector tee111 and the bolt. Tension joints with small
end distances, however, sllow o splitting or shear out failure mode of the
wood in front of the bolt. Appropriate values of loaded end distances are
therel'ore essential.

References
Blass, I-I.]., Ehlbeck, J. and Schla~cr,hcl. (1993). Characteristic strengl11 of ~ooll~ed-plnle
connector
joints. Hotz als Roll- ilnd Wcrkstofi 51: 395-399.

Dctitsches Institr~t Sur Normling (1988). DIN 1052 Tcif 2 Ho1zb;luwcrkc - Bcrcchnunp kind Aus-
fiihrung. 13cull~Berlin, Getmany, 27pp.

STEPIEUR0FORTECI-i - an initiative i~ntlerthe EU Co~llettProgramme

 Punched metal plate fastener joints

STEP lecturc CI 1 Objectives

L.R.J. Whnlc To develop an understanding of the design principles appropriate to joints
Gang Nail Systems UK made with punched metal plate fasteners, and to provide a working familiarity
with the design method given in EC5.

Prerequisite
C1 Mechanical timber joints - General

Summary
The principal factors influencing tile strength of punched metal plate fastener
joints are introduced. The test methods used to establish plate properties are
described, along with the method used in EC5 to establish required plate sizes
for joints based on botll their anchorage strength and their net cross-sectional
steel strength. Finally, some general plate dimensioning rules are given, along
with a description of the means by which the slip of puncl~ed metal plate
fastener joints can be predicted under load.

f ntroduction
A punched metal plate fastener is defined in prEN1075 "Timber Structures -
Joints made of punched metal plate fasteners" as a fastener made of metal plate
having integral projections punclled out in one direction and bent perpendicular
to the base of the plate, being used to join two or more pieces of timber of the
same thickness in the same plane.

They are generally manufactured from pre-galvanised mild steel or stainless steel
strip with thicknesses varying from 0,9 rrlrrt to 3,5 nun (Figure 1). The innovation
of using plates with pre-formed (integral) "trails" first took place in the USA in
the late 1950's as a development of 111e conventional hand nailed steel or
plywood gusset plate. Botl~systems brought about the ability to form in-plane
timber connections, but punched metal plate fasteners were better suited to
factory pre-fabrication of trusses and were able to transfer member forces with
s~nallerconnection areas, with consequent cost savings in materials.

Figure I 'Ijlpicul pmlclted tltctal plate firsferret-.

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Nowadays, punched metal plate fasteners are widely used throughout the
industrialised world to form tniss connections as well as joints in many other
plane timber stnlchlres (Figure 2a). Many different forms of punched metal plate -
fastener- have been developed, involving a variety of nail patterns, nail lengths
and nail shapes. The strength of a11 such plates is dictated by certain key
influerlcing variables however, enabling a common design approach to be -
established in EC5 appropriate for all fasteners of this generic type.

Factors influencing the strength of punched metal plate fastener

joints
-
Load is transferred in a punched metal plate fastener joint first from the member
into the plate teeth, then fioni these teeth up into the pIate steel and across the
joint interface, then back down into the teeth in the member on the other side.
-
The limiting strength of a punched metal plate fastener joint will therefore be
detennined by one of two criteria; either its anchorage (gripping) capacity in any
of the jointed members or its net sectional steel capacity at any of the interfaces -
between these members. The factors affecting each of these strength criteria
(with reference to Figure 8) may be sum~narisedas follows:
-
Aizchornge
- a is the angIe between the force and the lengthways direction of the plate
(defined as being parallel to the direction of the plate slots) i.e. the angle
at which the individual plate teeth are being loaded. This affects the area
-
of timber being loaded by each plate tooth.
- p is the angle between the force and the grain direction i.e, the angle to -
grain at which the plate teeth are loading the timber.
- The individual species or the strength class of the timber being jointed i.e.
its resistance to loads applied via punched metal plate teeth. -
- A,, is the area of effective punched metal plate teeth in any member i.e.
the plate contact area on any member, less any allowances for ineffective
~iaits on the edges or ends of the timber and for any misplacement
tolerances when positioning the plate. The effective contact area is defined
as the smallest area arrived at, after first assuming that the plate could be
~nisplaced from its correct position in any direction by a set tolerance
(typically k 5 rtlttt), and that simultaneously any plate area which
encroaches within a set distance (dependent upon the plate type) of tile
member edges or ends tnust be disregarded (see Figure 2b).
r,,,, and I,, are respectively, the distance from the centroid of A,, to the
furthest point of Ad, a n d t h e second moment of area of A,,. about its
centroid i.e. the shape characteristics of A,./. Note: These particular -
properties only matter when moments are being transferred by the punched
metal plate fastener.
-
Steel cnpnciol
- y is the angle between the lengthways direction of the plate and the joint
interface i.e, this dictates the net sectional steel area presented along the --
joint Iine.
- 1, a,, b,,,, are respectively, the net projected plate length along the joint
interface, and in directions parallel and perpendicular to the plate direction -
at the joint interface i.e. the length of plate available at the joint interface
to sustain loads in the two orthogonal plate directions.
-
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 - The steel type used to manufacture the plate i s . the strength cl~aracteristics
of the steel material itself.

Figlire 2 Typical joint - (a) picrorinl vieru arrrl (b) ai~clrol-age areas.

For the purposes of design, these variables are included in a number of fomulae
which predict the strength of joints based on certain key characteristic plate
strength properties. These characteristic plate properties and the way in which
they are established from tests are described in the next section.

Establishment of characteristic plate strength properties from tests

EC5: Partl-1: D6.3(1) The following characteristic plate strength values are required in EC5 for the
design of punched metal plate fastener joints:

.frr.ap.r is the characteristic teeth anchorage capacity per unit area at various
angles a and P.
.A,o,k is the characteristic plate tension capacity per unit width of plate in
the lengthways direction (a = 0").
A.90,o.n is the characteristic plate tension capacity per unit length of plate in
the widthways direction (a = 90").
A.0.k is the characteristic plate compression capacity per unit width of
plate in the lengthways direction (a = 0").
fc,,o.k is the characteristic plate compression capacity per unit length of
plate in the widthways direction (a= 90").
L,o,k is the characteristic plate shear capacity per unit width of plate in
the lengthways direction (a = 0").
f;..~0.1: is the characteristic plate shear capacity per unit length of plate in
the widthways direction (a= 90").

Each of these plate properties should be established from standard tests,

described in prEN 1075. These 5-percentile test values are later converted to
design values by multiplyjng by the appropriate modification factor (A,,,,,) and
dividing by the partial coefficient for materials (y,,,). For the anchorage strength
these modification factors will relate lo the timber, but for the pIate strength they
should be taken as 1,O and 1,l respectively.

The anchorage strength n~ust be established over a range of a and P

values. If sufficient values on the x,,4,k
surface have been established then
simple linear interpoiation can be used between them, however fewer tests are
necessary if n presumption is made as to its form. EC5 contains suclr a

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH an inilialive under the EU Comett Programme C11/3
presumption which strictly requires the definition of just three constants from
tests as follows: -
a) f;,,,,is the characteristic anchorage strength for specimens loaded parallel
to grain (p = 0'). It is obtained from straight joints (Figure 3), typically
with plate angles a = 0°, 15", 30°, 45", GO", 75", 90". A lower bound bi- -
linear relationship may then be fitted to these data (Figure 4) yielding
fitted constants k,, and q,for use in the following predictive equations:
cxscX(, (1)
-

where k,, &, q are fitted constants.

-

Figllrc 3 Fig nrr 4

Statrdarrl test specirlrerts (P = 0"). Dcrii~atiartof car~~~tattt.~
kl,k2,a,,

b) is the cliaracteristic anchorage strength for specimens loaded parallel

f,,op,t
to the plate direction (a = 0"). It is obtained from T-joints (Figure 5), -
typically with "T angles" j3 = 15", 30°, 4.5". 60°, 75", 90".A lower bound
sinusoidal reiationship [nay then be fitted to these data (Figure 6) as
foliows: -

Figure 5 Figtwe 6
Stattdarcl lest specitrletts (a = 0'). Derivation of constattt C.

STEP/EUROFORTECM - an initiative under the EU Comctr Programme

 Generally f,,@, is close ~OA~,~,,,
and this being the case:

Having established fitted lines describing the lower bound relationship between
j
&, and f;,,9, (bi-linear) for straight joints, and the lower bound relationsl~ip
between &, and f;,,o, or il,mo (siilusoidal) for T-joints, an interpolation
procedure is provided in EC5 for arbitrary values between these extremes:

The characteristic shape of the fitted f;lqap,,,surface given by Equations (4) (5)
and (6) compared with that given by the raw data for a typical plate is shown in
Figure 7.

Figrcrc 7 sit$aces - iefi: tlreorctical and rigltt: e.~perirr~ozlal.

Typical f,,&,,,

Punched metal plate design

EC5: part-I: D ~ . s . I ( ~ ) Aizchol-age capacity

Induced stresses from both direct forces and moments acting on punched metal
plate areas may be calculated as follows:

FA is the resultanr direct force acting at centroid of A,/;

M, is the total moment acting at the centroid of A,

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme (21 lf.5

 Figure 8 Purict1ed riletot plare jhstoler juirrt - Geontetry and looclitrg.

Wit11 reference to Figure 8, the total nioment will comprise an intenla1

eccentricity induced moment, and may also extend to include an external
-
moment as desired:
MA =Fe+M (9) -
The internal eccentricity motnent may sometimes counter the external moment of
course. -

ECS: P ~ ~ L I -I:
D6.5.1(3) The following ultimate limit state anchorage conditions need then to be sa~isfied
in each member at a joint before an acceptable plate size and position can be
said to have been found: -

Pfate steel capacity -

For the purposes of verifying the plate steel capacity at a joint interface, EC5
resolves all applied forces and plate resistances into each of l t ~ eorthogonat plate
directions x and y (Figure 8): -
F,r= F cosa c 2 F,, siny (13)
/;l, = F sina +. 2 F , cosy (14) -
where:

/; is the resultant direct force on the joint (compression = negative).

Ft,, is the moment induced force in the joint where FA,=2M/I (Figure 8).

EC5:Parrl- l :D6.5.2(7,) The design resistances in these directions are catcuiated as follows:
(if tension)

R,,,, = tttas or (15)

f,,,,, (if compression)

S'rEPlEUROFORTECI1:- an initiative under the ELI Cornett Programme

 , (if tension)

R,:,, = ~ n n . ~ or

f,:),,,, (if compression)

Then, the following limit state condilion should be satisfied at each joint
intel-face:

Plate dimensioning ruIes

In addition to the above calcuIalion rules, the Eurocode includes certain ad-hoc
rules for dimensioning punched metal plate fastener joints:

EC5: Partl-1: DG.5.1(2) - In joints subject to a net compressive force, only 50% of the force needs
lo be lransferred through the plate, the remainder being transferred by
direct timber bearing.
EC5: ~ a r i l - 1 :DG.5.3(t) - ,411 joints should be capable of resisting a short-term handling force in any
direction, equal to:
F = 1,o + 0,1 L kN (18)
where:

L is span of the truss in metres.

EC5: Pnrtl-I: DG.5.3(2) - Irrespective of any other design requirements all punched metal plate
fasteners should overlap llle timber members by a lninirn~irnof 40 r n l l r or
by one-third of tile depth of the timber member, whichever is the greater.
ECS: parti-I: ~ 6 . s . x ~ ) - Splice joints on external (chord) members shouid cover at least two-thirds
of the member deptli.
Splice joints may be nod el led as rotationally stiff in the structul-a1 analysis
if they occur in a zone where the bending stresses are no greater than 0,3
ti~uestile ~neinberbending strength and provided that the assembly would
remain stable if the joints did act as pins, or if the splice joint is
overdesigned by 50% under the combined action of the direct forces and
moment present.

Joint slip
ECS: Partl-1: D2 Axial slip in punched melal plate fastener joints may either bc allowed for in
truss deflection calculntions by the use of prescribed dips, It,,., (in itttlt) 01. slip
nioduli, K,,.,(in N/r~int)established from joint tests and determined in accordance
with EN 26591 "Timber structures - Joints rnade with ~nechanicalfasteners -
General principles lor the deterinination of strength and det'ori~iation
characteristics".

These II,,,., or K.,c,,,values relate to the serviceability load level. Corresponding

values may also be detenilined at the ultimate load level, for use in second-order
(nonlinear) analysis, as follows:

STEP/EUROlzORTECI~i- an initiative undcr 111cEU Comctt Programme c11/7

In addition to tile axial slip ~nodulidefined above, rotational slip moduli rnay
also be determined for use in design, from tests described in prEN 1075.

Computer aided design

In practice most design of punched rnetal plate fasteners is undertaken by
specialist fabrication coinpal~ies using purpose written CAD packages. Many
such programs exist, capable of dimensioning the members of timber tnlsses and
-
deterniining the optimum size and position of plates in seconds. Access to this
technology is easy to gain via specialist fabricators, making punched rnetal piate
design convenient and easy to achieve in practice.
-
Concluding summary
- The design of punched metal plate fastener joints requires tile definition of
-
a two-dimensional teeth anchorage strength surface, and 6 separate plate
steel strength characteristics. Standard tests for each of these properties are
given in prEN 1075. -

- Plate areas on joints must satisfy three separate verification equations

accounting for- direct forces applied to the plate, and ~llomentsinduced --
from both internal and external sources.

- The net plate steei resistance at each joint interface is verified by an -

interaction equation written in terms of the applied stresses and plate
resistances in both orthogonal piale directions.

- The punched illeta1 plate design rules in EC5 are supported by many years
of research in Scandinavia (Aasheim and Solli 1990, Kangas 1991,
Kallsner and Karigas 1991, Kangas and Kevarinmarki 1992) and can be
said to represent the state-of-the-art as far as European knowiedge is
concerned.

References
Aasheim, E. and Solli, K.1-I, (1990). Proposal far a design codc for nail plates, CIB-W18A meetins
in Lisbon, paper 23-7-1.

I<n~lgas.J. (1991). Anchorage capacity of nail plate, CIB-WI8A rncciing in OxFord, paper 24-7-3.

KYllsncr, R. and Kangas, J. (1991). Theoretical and cxpcrimental tension and shear capacity of nail
platc connections. CIB-W I8A meeting in Oxford, paper 24-7- 1.

Knngns, J , and Kevwinmlrki, A. (1992). Design values of anchorage strength of nail platc joints
by ?-curve mcthod and interpolation, CIR-WI8A mceting in Ahus, Sweden, paper 25-14-2.

STEPEUROFORTECM - iln initiative under ~ h cEU Co~ncltProgramme

 Carpentry joints

STEP teclure C I:! Objective

J . Ehlbeck, M. Kromcr To describe design procedures for carpentry joints.
UnivcrsitBt Kirisrullc
Prerequisites
A6 Strength grading
A7 -
Solid timber Strength classes
B2 Tension and co~npression

Summary
Supported by drawings and figures, the most frequently used carpentry joints are
presented. By explaining the defonnation and load-carrying behaviour of such
joirlts, the possible field of application is described. Special execution rilles and
reco~nmendationsare given.

Design rules for ultimate limit state as well as serviceability limit state are
evaluated, and their application is demonstrated by typical examples.

Introduction
An ancient timber slructure usually consisling of single timber members is only
efficient if the individual parts are formed into a reasonable construction. Joints
transfer the inner forces caused by external actions from one member to another.
Two or more members of tile constnlction are assembled at nodes. In many cases
the forces will be passed on by contact of the joint areas or by friction. Some
carpentry joints are completed by fasteners made of iron or wood in order to ensure
a correct fit of the connection or to allow the transmission of additional forces.
Althouglr there are a lot of forms of carpentry joints, it is possible to reduce the
~x~ultifudeof joints to some basic types. Some typical basic carpentry joints, such
as half-lap joints, framed joints, tenon joints and cogging joints are sl~ownin
Figures 1 and 2. These joints are either used to lengthen singie members parallel
to grain or to join elements that meet each other at an angle. In the following
sections the defo~mationand load-carrying behaviour of framed and tenon joints is
explai~ied.

F i g I B N S ~fon11~
C of carlrettfry joints: (a) hay-fopjoi/rf, (b) coggi'rg jnitrf.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiativc under lhc EU Comcrl Programme C12/I

Figrrre 2 Brrsic jbrtrls of carpolrty joints: ( c )frczrrled joit~t,(dl tteilot~joiwr.

Framed joints
Framed joints are used to transrnit cornpression forces fro111one inember inclined
to another at a given angle. The compression force of the strut is trans~niltedby -
contact using the frontal area of the joint. The chord is loaded in shear. In the past
an additional tenon was used to keep the joint in the right position. Today this is
rnostly brougllt about by nails, so~tletirnesalso by screws, bolts or laterally nailed -
cover plates. Framed joints can be formed with a notch in the front area or in the
rear of the strut. Cornbinations of both approaches are also possible (see Figure 3).

Fiptre 3 I;t.uwed joitlfs ~ t ~ i trotcl~

th itt 111cfi.ottt cweu (lop leji), it1 the rear area (top
right) E I I I it1
~ co~t~bitrciliott
(botto~t~).

When designing a framed joint it is necessaiy to prove the load-carrying capacity

of the available areas of the joint. Thus, if' the strut has a slope between 30" and
60n,only the frontal area of the joint is taken into account. The size of the t'ro~ltal
area can be calculated from the effective width b,,[and the cutting depth t,. in the
chord.

STBP/EUROFORTECH - an i~litiiitivcunder tile EU Comelt Programme

The resulting compression stresses at an angle to the grain should satisfy the
following condition:

For optimising the joint it is recommended that the angle of the frontal area is set
to half of the angle between strut and chord. Thus, the angle a between force and
grain is the lowest possible for both the chord and the strut (a= P/2).

In this case the compression stress in the front area of the joint is:

If the notched area is at the rear of the strut the cut is made perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the strut. In this case, the angle between force and grain is the
same as between strut and chord. Then the compression stress is:
Fd cosp
(Tc,a,d =
bcl ft'

Using double famed joints, it is possible to transmit the sum of the two single
framed joints as described before. In this case it is important that the frontal area
as well as the rear area of the strut fit perfectly into the corresponding pxts of the
chord.

Assuming a ut~iforrnlydistributed colnpression stress in rile strut, the force is

transmitted into the chord by shear stresses. The average shear stress in the chord
is:

In double framed joints the shear areas should not coincide. Therefore, it is
recornmended that the following condition is satisfied:

When delemining the required lengtl~ I,, in the chord, the total horizontal
component of the compression force of the strut should be talten into account.

When designing tire strut, any eccentricities from the joint co~lfigtlrationmay cause
additional bending stresses in the strut. In the tension chord the reduced cross-
sectional area must be considered.

Design example
Joint of a compression member with a rectangular cross section b x k = 140 x 140
tttm, slope P = 45", with n chord B x It = 140 x I80 nrnl. Cutting depth r,, =
45 n ~ m shear
, length in the chord I,, = 250 ilrm. Timber of strength class C24
according lo prEN 338 "Structural limber. Strength classes" .

STEP/EUROFORTECW - an initinlive under thc EU Comctl Progmmme

Figlire 4 Desigti e,,mnlple of a frnttrccl joint.

Governing design value of permanent and medium-term load:

I;,,= 63 kN
Y,\r = 173
Serviceclass 1: k,,,,,=0,8

Characteristic material properties:

The characteristic values of compression and shear strengths are taken from
prEN 338 "Structural timber. Strength classes".
f ,= 21 N .f;,YU,I. = 5,7 N / u ~ n iArk
~ = 2,4 ~/ttttn'

The design values of the compression and sbear strengths are:

With an angle a = PI2 = 22,5" between the direction of the force and the grain of
chord and strut, the design compression strength shall satisfy the following
condition:

STEPlEUROFORTECH - ;m ii~itiativeunder the EU Comctt Programme

Verification of failure condition:

Fd cos p -
,z, =
63000 ' 'Or 45 ' = 1,27 N[UINI~
4 1,48 ~ [ n s a ~

bq 4 140 - 250

Tenon joints
In carpentry tenon joints are used for joining members transmirting transverse forces
in ceilings, walis and roof constructions. Today, due to economical reasons, tenon
joints are only used if they are produced by machines. Basically there are joints
with a central tenon or ones with a tenon at the bottom edge of a member. Joints
with a central tenon are nor~nallyused for joining members of the same depth,
whereas joints with a bottom tenon are used to connect members with different
depths, e.g. girders.

The depth h, of hand made tenons is usually one third of the beam depth A. In
modern constructions the tenon depth depends on the size of the processing
machines, The tenon lengths vary from 40 to 60 rnnr. If the tenon joint is
additionally fastened by a peg, greater lengths can be realised.

Mortises should only be arranged in the centre or in the compressive area of a

beam. For designing the beam the reduced cross-sectional area shall be talcen into
account.

The design of tenon joints can be carried out in line with end-notched beams.
Therefore, the following condition should be satisfied:

where 11, is the tenon depth. The factor k,, is a reducing factor taking into account
the geometry of the tenon joint, such as the beam depth h, the tenon depth If,, and
the distance s of the shear laad from the tenon corner.

For joints with a tenon at the bottom edge of the member, k,.=l. For joints with a
central tenon:

k,, = Inin

1 [jm
fi +
5

*,*

Furthermore it shall be proved that the design cotnpression stresses perpendicular

to the grain do not exceed the design compression strength.

'c.90,d ' kc,90 &,%,d (8)

For the most common tenon joints it may be assumed that k , , , = I .

STEP/EUROFORTECH - 811 initiative under ilic EU Comctt Progrnmrnc

Design example
Joint of: a girder with a rectangular cross section b x 11 = 100 x 180 nrrtl, with
central tenon (tenon depth / I , = 60 I , I ~ I I ) . Timber of' strength class C24 according to
prEN 338.

Governing design value of permanent and medium-term load:

V,= 3 kN
Service class I : k,!,,,= 0,8

Characteristic material properties:

The characteristic values of compression and shear strengths are taken from -
prEN 338 "Structural timber - Strength classes".

A,,,= 2,4 ~ / t t t n ~ ' fl.,9,., = 5,7 N/t?r~n' --

The design values of the shear and compression strengths are:

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative ur~dcrttlc EU Carnctt Programme

Then,

Verification of failure condition:

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - nn initiative under the EU Comclt Progrommc

 Joist hangers and framing anchors

STEP lecture C13 Objectives

E. Gehri To describe the form and load carrying behaviour of colnrnon cold-formed steel
ETI-1 Zurich fasteners for the connection of timber members. To present a design method for
joist hangers and framing anchors.

Prerequisites
C5 Nailed joints II

Summary
The application of corn~nonlyused cold-formed steel fasteners is shown. The load-
carrying behaviour and the capacity of joist hangers under vertical loading is
demonstrated, depending on the different components of the connection. A method
is given for the design of joist hangers loaded at an angle to the symmetry axis.

Introduction
Joist hangers, framing ai~chorsand other fasteners made from cold-formed steel
have widely replaced traditional carpentry joints due to their ease of use and to
avoid the need for complex machining of the timber members. Figure 1 shows
examples of timber connections using cold-formed steel fasteners. The steel is
usually between 1 and 4 rlzrlt thick and is either hot dip galvanised mild steel or
stainless steel.

Figllre I E S C I I I ofI ~cold-fot7t;ed

~C.~ stccf.fastcrrels.(a)frunzi~rgar~clrot:(b)joist hurrge~;
( d ) shear force splices, (e) cleat # angle brncket.
( c ) itltcgrol fa.~terte~;

The connection between timber and steel is generally nailed using for example
annular ringed shank nails without pre-drilling the nail holes in the timber members.
The nail holes in the steel Fasteners are pre-punched thus allowing simple assembly
on the building site.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programme C13/1

 Load-carrying behaviour
The load-carrying capacity of timber joints with cold-formed steel fasteners not only
depends on the nailed steel-to-titnber connection but also on the strengths of the
timber members and the steel. In particular tensile stresses perpendicular to the
grain are likely to cause failure in timber members before the capacity of the nailed
connection is reached. Connections prone to such failures include the framing
anchor and the joist hanger in Figure 1. Tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain
can be taken into account using the design methods given in STEP lecture C2.

In most practical cases mprure of the steel in the net cross-section is prevented by
the layout of the fastener. Because the number of pre-punched nail holes limits the
force transferred by the nails the steel net cross-section can normally be designed
so as not to govern the load-carrying capacity. However, in many connections
plastic deforinations in the steel fasteners will occur before the rnaxiinum load is
reached.

In most cold-formed steel fasteners there are at least two steel-to-timber interfaces
located in different planes used in the load transfer. The consequent eccentricity
causes a combined lateral and axial loading of the nails. -
Loud carlying clipacity of the ~zaileclsteel-to-rinzbe~.cortirectiorz
The design load-carrying capacity R,,,,, per nail for single shear joints with a thin -
steel plate ( i s . for r 10,5d where t is the thickness) should, according to EC5, be
taken as the smaller value found from the following equations:

For a thick steel plate (i.e, for r 2 cl) the design value of the load-carrying capacity --
should be taken as the smaller value found from the following equations:

If the steel plate thickness lies between 0,5 d ruid d a linear interpolation is
permitted. The difference between the load carrying capacity according to equation -
( I ) and (2), respectively, is caused by the clamping effect of the fastener in the steel
plate (see STEP leccure C3). Tests with nailed steel-to-timber joints (Ehlbeck and
Gorlaclier, 1982) have shown, however, that clamping of nails in the steel plate can -
also occur for steel plates with a thickness of r = 2,O 111r11 and annular ringed shank
nails with a diameter of d = 4,O t t t ~ if~ ,the nails are conically shaped close to the
nail head (see Figure 2) and are driven in tight fitting holes. In such a case, the load -
carrying capacities for thick steel plates, according to EC5, are reached.

ECS:Part 1-1: 6.3.1.2~ The characteristic embedding strength f;,,ld depends on the nail diameter d in nlnt
and the characteristic density of the timber p, in kg/In3 and is for non pre-drilled
-
nail holes:
fh,h = 0,082 pk d -Om3 ~ l t t t i ~ t (31
-
-
STEPtEUROFORTECH - at\ initiative under the EU Cornclr Programme
 Figrtre 2 A~~~zrrlar
rbiged shmlk trail for steel-to-tirtrbercolrt~ecriotlsrvifli a cotle sltaped
shnrlk close to rhe nail heacl,

Because of the variable cross section of the nail in the threaded portion and the
work hardening during manufacture the characteristic yield moment of the nails has
to be determined by bending tesls. Calculating the yield moment from the plastic
moment of resistance and the tensile strength of the nail wire is not possibIe for
threaded nails. Werner and Siebert (1991) have published test results with annular
ringed shank nails produced by four different manufacturer~s.From the test results,
the following characteristic values For the yield moment M y , of galvanised and
stainless steel nails can be derived:
My&= 6,37 Nnr for d = 4,O mln and (4)

My$= 20,O Nnt for d = 6,O nvrz (5)

Here, d is the nominal or shank diameter of the nail.

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.3.1.4 The load-canying capacities of nailed joints according to EC5 have been
determined based on minimum nail spacings and distances. Since the nail holes in
cold-fornled steel fasteners are pre-punched, the nail spacings and some end or edge
distances are fixed. In designing joist hangers and framing anchors, care needs to
be taken to check the necessary nail spacings and distances. For the spacings cr, and
(I,, it is generally sufficient to check that the area A, per nail is greater than the
value given by the product of the minimum spacings a, and a, in EC5. It should
be noted that for steel-to-timber joints the minimum spacings given for rirnber-to-
timber joints may be multiplied by a factor of 0,7.
A, al a, (6)

The design witltdrawal capacity R , , , per fastener for annular ringed shank nails
according to EC5 is:
Rm,, = A,, d 1 (7)

where 1 is the pointside penetration or the length of the threaded part of the shank,
whichever gives the smaller value. The withdrawal capacity according to equation
(6) corresponds to a withdrawal of the nail in the rnember receiving the point. The
failure mode related to head pull through does not govern the withdrawal strength
in the case of common steel-to-timber joints with steel plate thicknesses of at leas1
2,O nltn. Werner and Siebert (1991) give the following relationship for the
parameter.f,, for annular ringed shank nails:
f,, = 65 p2 (8)
where p is the timber density in kS/l,i3.

Joist hangers
Joist hangers are frequently used as support for sawn timber or glulani beams. Joist
hangers are produced in many different shapes and sizes. Figure 3 shows an
example of a joist hanger for a timber-to-timber connection.

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cornet1 Prograrnrnc c 1 313

Figur-c!3 Joist Itutrger-s for- n .seco~~clary -
beut~r rtjuirr beattt cor~~rccriori.

The load acting in [he plane of symmetry of the joist hanger connection is -
transferred from the secondary beam through both the nailed connection and contact
with the bottom plate into the joist hanger and then through the nailed connection
into the main beam. For joist hangers with only a few nails in the secondary beam,
the major part of the load is transferred through contact with the bottom plate. For
-
the design of a joist hanger it can be conservatively assumed that the shear force
acts along the line of nails in the secondary beam connection. IF the load is mainly
-
transferred through contact, however, the resulting force will normally be closer to
the main beam. The connection between the joist hanger and the main beam is
consequently loaded by an eccentric force leading to combined lateral and axial
loading of these nails. -
Joist hangers with straps passing over the main beam often have fewer nails in the
main and secondary beatn connection. In this type of joist hanger, the loads are -
mainly transferred by contact into the main beam. Generally, the load carrying
capacities OF this type of joist hanger have to be derived from tests.

Since the secondary beam nail end distance does not normally satisfy the minimum
--
value specified in EC5,a reduction in load-carrying capacity of the nailed steel-to-
timber connection is to be expected. If the nails start to deform, however, the
bottom plate of the joist hanger will be loaded by an increasing contact force and -
take over a larger portion of the load. Riberholt (1975) presented a mechanical
model for estimating the contribution of the contact force in the bottom plate. The
capacity of the nailed connection and the contact Force in the bottom plate can be -
added since both components have a plastic characteristic.

As an example, the verticai design load-carrying capacity is determined for the joist
hanger in Figure 3 with a steel plate thickness of 2 null in service class I and for
short-term load-duration. The nails used are annular ringed shank nails of the type
shown in Figure 2, d x I = 4,O x 50 rrlili with a characteristic yield moment II/ly,,=
6,37 NIILThere are 12 nails in the secondary bean1 and 24 nails in the main bearn
connection. The timber of both the main and the secondary beam has a
characteristic density of 380 kS/t~13.There is a gap of 3 1 7 1 ~ 1between the end grain
of the secondary beam and the side surface of the main beam.

Nailed seconrlary bear~rco~znectiorz

Since the shear force is assumed to act in the centre of the nailed seconda~ybeam
connection, each nail is loaded by the same vertical force.
-
-
STEPlEUROFORTEC1-I - an iniliaiivc under the EU Comctl Progra~nrne
Nail spacing perpendicular to the grain: n2 = 20 0,7 . 5 rl = 14 tltrtl
1 ~ 7 1 ~>
1
End distance: a,,. = 32 t~irn < 10 d = 40 r f ~ r n

The load-carrying capacity of the nailed steel-to-timber connection is calculated on

the basis of the required minimum nail distances and the assumption that the
contribution of the bottom pfale may be disregarded. This approach, which has been
adopted by German Technical approvals and proved to be conservative by
numerous tests with joist hanger connections, is subsequently followed to calculate
the load carrying capacity R,,,,, of the secondary bean? support.
R5b.d = l1,b R,ad (9)
Here, It,,, is the number of nails in the secondary beam connection and R , , , the
design load-carrying capacity per nail. Because of the clamping effect of the nails
in the steel plate, equation (2) is used to determine the lateral load carrying capacity
per nail. Following the ptacedilre presented in STEP Iecture C4 tile capacity of the
secondary beam connection for the joist hanger in Figure 3 results conseque~~tly as
R,,,, = 12 * 1,22 = 14,6 kN (1 0)

Nailed rnnilt beall1 corr~tectiort

The eccentricity of the force causes a combined lateral and axial loading of the nails
in the main beam connection. The moment is transferred through the axial forces
in the nails and the contact force between the end grain surface of the secondary
beam and the side surface of the main beam. Tests have shown that after the
closing of the gap the bottom edge of the secondary beam bears against the side
surface of the main beam. The consequent distribution of the nail withdrawal loads
is shown in Figure 4.

Figrirc! 3 forces irr the rrcliled nlnirt bear)?cortrtection. Fc is

Distribrlliort of'~~itlldra\vnl
!lie cotlmct forre.

The horizontal contact force I;,acts at the bottom of the secondary beain, the exact
position depending on the bearing area. It is assumed that this position, which is
also the centre of rotation of the secondary beam end cross-section is located I0 ntnt
above the bottom of the secondary beam, The withdrawal forces of the nails are
assumed to increase linexly with increasing distance from the centre of rotation.
The maximum withdrawal load for the uppermost nails can then be written as:

where

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initialive under the EU Comett Programme

 V is the force transferred by the joist hanger,
e is the eccentricity of V with respect to the main beam connection,
~i,,,, is the number of nails in the main beam connection,
zi is the distance of the nail i from the centre of rotation and
z,~, is the distance between the uppermost nail in the main beam and the centre
of rotation.

EC5: Part 1-1: 6.33 The condition for colnbined laterally and axially loaded nails is:

and the lateral load per nail becomes:

Replacing V by R,,,,,,,,rtnd substituting F,, and F,,, in equation (12) by the expressions
in equations (1 1) and (13), respectively, the load carrying capacity of the main
beam connection becomes:
1
Rt,,b,d =
(14)

i=I
For the joist hanger in Figure 3, the capacity of the main beam connection
co~~sequently results as

Rn,b,d =
35.133
l(907' . 175326
1

+ (
1
24 . 1220
r
= 22,2 IdV
(1 5)

The secondary beam connection consequently governs the design. The load carrying
capacity of the joist hanger is
I$,,,d= 14,6 IdV

Joist harrgers loaded at an angle

In most cases, joist hangers used in floors or flat roofs are loaded by a vertical
force acting in the direction of the symmetry plane. If joist hangers are used in
pitched roofs, however, the load acts at an angle to the principal axes of the joist
hanger (see Figure 5).

In this case, the load carrying behaviour differs substantially from the case of
uniaxial loading. For joist hangers similar to the one shown in Figure 3 Ehlbeck
atid Gorlacher (1 984) have studied the behaviour of joist hangers loaded at an angle
to the principal axis. The load carrying capacity of a joist hanger loaded at an angle
of 90" is according to Ehlbeck and Gorlacher (1984):

where

Rj,,,, is the load-carrying capacity of the joist hanger loaded at an angle of 90°,
R , is the load-carrying capacity of the joist hanger loaded in the symmetry axis,
IT,,, is the depth of the secondary beam with a maximum of 1,5 Ir,, and
, is the depth of tile joist hanger.

-
STEPIEUROFORTECH an i~litiativcunder thc EU Comcll Programme
 i
I
I
Figrtrc 5 Joisr l~nrigerloa~feclcis arr atrgle.

For joist hangers loaded at an angle a between 0" and 9O0,the load carrying
capacity corresponds to the following interaction equation:

where F,,, and F,,,,, are the design values of the load components parallel and
perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the joist hanger, respectively.

Framing anchors
Friuning anchors are used to connect crossing timber members for example to
transfer wind suction forces or as supports for timber beams. In most cases two
diagonally positioned framing anchors are used in one connection. There are
framing anchors with one and two rows of nail holes, respectively. The type with
one row can only transfer tensile forces whereas the type with two parallel rows is
able to transfer additional moments.

When designing framing anchors, three different components have to be taken into
account:

- load-carrying capacity of tile nailed connection. Under the assumption of the

load acting in the comer of the framing anchor, the nailed connection is
loaded by a force and a moment (see Figure 61,

- load-carrying capacity of the steel net cross-section and

- load-carrying capacity of the timber members. The tensile stresses

perpendicular to the grain can be taken into account following the design
procedure demonstrated in STEP lecture C2.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative tinder the EU Comet1 Programme

For certain types of Framing anct~ors,Ramhiid (1986) has derived design rules for
framing anchors based on an elastic distribution of the laterat nail loads. Based on
this approach, the following simplified rides can be used to calculate the load
carrying capacity R,,,, of one framing anchor under tensile load:
Rb,, = 0,7 n RIa for il~lchor~ with one nail row (19)

R/,,, = O,5 ti R,,, for anchors with two nail rows (20)

where n is the number of nails per leg and R,,,,,, the lateral load carrying capacity per
nail.

Concluding summary
- Due to easy assembly on site, cold-formed steel fasteners in combination with
threaded nails have replaced traditional carpentry joints.

- Nailed connections in cold-formed steel fasteners are mostly loaded

eccentrically. In the design of these connections, the steel cross-section as
welt as the timber members, whicll are often loaded by tensile stresses
perpendicular to the grain, have also to be checked.

References
Ehlbeck. J. ilnd Gijrlachcr, R. 1982. Mindcstnitgclabstrndc bci Slahlblcc11-liolzn;~gel~~ng.
Rcscafch
Report, Vcrsucl~snnstaltfur Stahl, Holz und Stcinc, Univcrsitst Knrlsruhe, Gcrmnny.

Ehlbeck. 1. and Giirl:~cher, R. 1984. Tragfiihigkcit von Ralkcnscl~uhen untcr zwcincllsigcr

Cur Stahl, Molz und Stcine. Univcrsitiit Ki~lsrullc,
Beanspruchung. Rcscarch Rcporl, Vcrsuciisi~ns~alt
Gcrmnny.

RibcrllolL, It. 1975. Bcrcct>nungvon Stahlblcch-HoizVcrbindungstcilcn in Dilncm;irk. Baucri rnil Hoiz

87534-536.

Riimllild, K.T. 1986. Zum Tragkraftnachwcis von AnschlUsscn mit gcnrtgeltcn Sparrcnpfe~tcnankcrn.
Baucn mit Holz 88:524-529.

Werner, I-I, and Siebcrt, W. 1991. Ncue Untcrsuchut~geninit Niigcln fur den Holzbau. I-1017. ais Roh-
und Wcrkstolf 49:191-198.

-
STEPlEUROFORTECH nn initiative under the EU Comctt Programme
 Glued-in bolts

STEP lecture C14 Objective

C.J. Jolinnsson To describe the behaviour, design and manufacture of glued-in bolts primarily
Swedish Nniional Testing in glued la~ninatedtimber.
and Research Institute
Prerequisites
A4 Wood as building material
A8 Glued laminated Limber - Production and strength classes
A 12 Adhesives
C2 Tension perpendicular to the grain in joints
C7 Bolted and dowelled joints II

Summary
An introduction to the major fields of application is presented together with the
manufacturing procedure for glued-in bolts. The behaviour is described with
emphasis on factors influencing the short-term strength of axially loaded bolts.
The effect of changing moisture content in the wood is also mentioned. Finally
the design of axially and laterally loaded bolts is shown.

Introduction
Glued-in bolted connections have been used in the Scandinavian countries and in
Germany for more than 20 years. The major area of application has been in
glulam structures. Figures 1 and 2 shows some examples. The bolts are used to
prevent cracks in tile apex zone of curved beams and in end notched beams or to
transfer forces illto a structure or part of a structure as in a column-foundation
joint and in a frame comer. The bolts can be loaded either axially or laterally or
by a combination of both.

Advantages obtained by using glued-in bolts include:

- High local force transfer.

- Very stiff connection when loaded in the axial direction.
- Good fire properties. The surrounding wood protects the steel.

Figure I Girted-i~ibolts (1.7 a rrreutis of pr-evortir~gcrack.

STEPfEUROFORTECI-i - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

Fig~rrz.2 Gl~red-irrbolts Or ttiorrierrt siifl col~trrrr~-Juri~~~lu~ioti
joirlr crrrd rtro~~le~it
stif
framrc cortrel: (a) Space filled rvitlr tnortar: (b)Stcel.fittirrg.

Materials and manufacture

It is difficult to achieve sufficient adhesion between a smooth steel surface and
glue. Therefore threaded bolts are preferred in order to obtain a mechanical bond
between the bolt and the glue. Bolts with a diameter of between 12 and 24 tr1rn
are common. The bolts are glued-in either by injection of the glue as is shown in
Figure 3 or by screwing in the bolt. In the first case the holes are normally I
rum larger than the diametcr of the threaded part of the bolt to givc sufficient
clearance for the injection of' glue. In the other case the hole is smaller than the
bolt diatneter, normally by an amount equal to the depth of the thread. Glue is
poured into the hole and the bolt is screwed in. To allow for distribution of the
glue the bolt has to have a channel cut along its length. The glue can also be
applied along the depth of the hole arid the length of the bolt with a b ~ u s hand
then it is not always necessary to use grooved bolts.

Figure 3 I~ljectio~r of gilrcd bolt corr~zecfiori.( ( I ) sealirlg, (b) glrie ortt. (c) glire irr,
( d ) block ro preverri rlre bolt froin bcirrg forcer1 orrt bjj fhe gllie.

Different types of adhesives, such as phenol-resorcinoi, two-component polyure-

thane and two-component epoxy, are being used. The choice of adhesive has to
be related to the production rnethod and how the bolts are loaded. With the
injection method, where the hole is larger than the bolt diameter, the withdrawal
strength of the bolt to a very large extent depends on the strength and durability
of the glue line. In bolts that are screwed in, the forces between wood and bolt
are t12nsferred mechanically to a great extent in areas where glue is missing or if
the properties of the glue are insufficient.

The pi~enol-resorcinol adllesives have a long history of use in structural

applications, for instance in glulam. Riberholt (1988). however, suggests that
phenol-resorcinol should not be used in connection with the injection method

STEPiEUROFORTECH - an ir~itiarivcunder the EU Comet1 Programme

and oversized holes, due to the strength reducing effect of the initial hardening
shrinkage of the glue. Two-component polyurethane adhesive is sensitive to
elevated temperature (Aicher 1992) and should therefore be used with caution
especially in bolts under high permanent loads if the injection method is used.

In laterally loaded bolts the choice of adhesive is less important as the forces are
mainly transferred via compression in the glue line.

Strength of axially loaded bolts

Flrctors ir?fl~tertcitzgtlte slior't term strsl~gtlz

Gcrold (1992) has analysed a large number of test results and his conclusions
can be sumrnarised as follows:

- The strength of bolts loaded in tension and co~npressionis the same.

- Strain measurements along glued-in bolts confirm that the shear stress
distribution corresponds with that obtained with the Volkersen (1953)
theory (see Table I). The axial strength is influenced by the difference in
stiffness between steel and wood, the glued length of the bolt and the
stiffness of the bond between bolt and wood.
- The axial bolt strength also to some extent depends on the wood density.
- In geneml rhc axial strength is solnewhat higher for bolts glued-in
perpendicular to the grain direction than parallel to the grain direction.

/
+
e
-ig-d
Components
wilh equal
stiffness EA
C ---

Conlponents
- -- --

wit11 different
stiffness
F-F
I;

lg

d
lbrce

glued length of the

bolt

bolt dinmetcr

Components with equnl stiffness

!zziZzF Bond with Bond wit11 Shorl glued

high stiffness low stiffness length
Long glued
lcngth

Table I Build stress ciisrribution irt tlre joirtt nssz~~ltirlgliaear elostic

helrnvioirr- of all tnaterials nccorciirrg to the Voikerserl (1953) rheo~y
(Gerolcl 1992). The clrrsl~edIbze represents the nvernge sl~earstress
( F / (lgcix)~.

According to Riberholt (1988) the axial strength can be estin~ated with the
following equations which are based on regression analysis of test results from

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comet1 Programme C14/3

bolts with diameters of 12 and 20 rt11il and with a ratio of: glued-in length to
diameter of 15:
Far,, = 0,784p d f i (1

for two-component polyurethane and other ductile glues, and

for two-component epoxy, phenol-resorcinol and other brittle glues where F,,,,
is obtained in N and the symbols are defined as fo\lows:

rl is the bolt diameter in nun.

1, is the glued-in length of the bolt in ~ t t n l .
p is the density of the surrounding wood in kghn3.

Equations ( I ) and (2) are valid for I, 2 200 am. For lower values the equations
tend to overestimate the axial bolt strength.

Efjcecr of cha~zgiitgmoisture corztent

Gerold (I992) indicates that shrinkage and swelling due to changing ~noisture
content may cause considerable shear stresses in the bond between bolt and
wood. Glued-in bolts should therefore be used with caution in service class 3
applications.

Laterally loaded bolts

The load-carrying capacity of laterally Ioaded bolts n~ainly depends on the
embedding strength. By gluing in the bolts an almost infinite coefficient of
friction is obtained between the steel and the wood surfaces. For bolts
perpendicular to the grain direction Rodd et ol. (1989) shows that this leads to a -
considerable increase of both the embedding strength and the stiffness (see
Table 2).

Bolt diameter in nlnl Load parallel to the grain Load perpendicular to the grain
direction direction
Strength Stiffness Strength StiFfness -
increase increase increase increase
fiictors factors factors factors

Table 2 Stretrgtil a t ~ d stifft~ess increase factors (glitelf-it~bolt/pluiri bolt) for

lorerally louded bolts glrrcd-irt perpetidicular ro rile nlentber irz sprclce
tiniber (Rodd er al., 1969).

Design of glued-in bolts

Axially loaded bolts

The following design rules are suggested by Riberholt (1988). The characteristic
axial capacity in tension and compression is given by:

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comctt Programme

 for I, r 200 mnt

Rar,k = f;vl Pk Is for ig c 200 azml

where R,, is in N and where

f,,, is a strength parameter for Equation (4) in N / I ~ I ~ For

I " ~ brittle
. glues, such
as phenol-resorcinol and epoxy t l ~ evalue is 0,520 and for non-brittle
glues, such as two-component polyurethane the value is 0,650.
f,,,, is a strength parameter for Equation (5) in Nhnrrr. For brittle glues, such as
phenol-resorcinol and epoxy the value is 0,037 and for non-brittle glues,
sue11 as 2-component polyurethane the value is 0,046.
p, is the characteristic density in IrS/ln3.
hole diameter
in lnml
\
bolt diameter
I, is the glued in length in mrjt,

Equations (4) and (5) are valid provided that the minimum distances are
according to Figure 4.

Minimum distance

"4 2d

Figure 4 Mitti~trntrrdi.m~jccsfor n-rjally loaded bolts.

In addition to this the following points should be considered:

- For bolts parallel to the grain direction it should be shown that the total
force in a group of bolts is less than the tensile strength of the effective
area behind the bolts.
- Due to stability failure in a compressed bolt the axial stress in it should
not exceed 400 IVhntna.

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme C I 4/5

 - Experience from tested bolts shows that the withdmwal failure mode is
rather brittle when the glued-in length is short. If the force distribution
over a group of bolts is statically indeterminate, the glued-in length should -
be at least cf2, d in nlnr.

Lcrtcrally 10aclt.d bolts. -

Gltiecl-~II
bolts perpell~lic~lar
tu the grairr:
EC5: Part 1-1: 6.5.1 The design load-carrying capacity of bolts glued in pel-pendicular to the fibre
direction tnay be calculated accordii~gto EC5. The effect of the glue may be
co~lsideredby increasing the embedding strength by a factor I,2.

Glued-it1 bolt^. parallel to the glaiit:

Riberholt (1988) suggests the following design rules:

The characteristic load-carrying capacity for a bolt carrying a force acting a

distance s from the wood surface is

where

M,,,is the characteristic yield tnornent of the bolt in Nrilnl.

hole diameter
cl= rnax in min
\
bolt diameter
f, is the embedding strength parameter in Nhtzt?t2.
fh = (0,0023 + 0,75d"sS)p,

Minimum distances should be according to Figure 5.

Minimum distance

Figlire 5 cfistnncesfor laterally lunrled bolt^..

Il/li~zitr~lrm

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comett Programme

Splitting can occur, see STEP lecture C2. Riberholt (1988) sltows how the load-
carrying capacity can be i~nprovedby bonding plywood sIeeves to the end grain.

Protection against corrosion

For bolts loaded axially it is essential that corrosion is prevenred. Riberholt
(1988) points to the risk of the bond between steel and wood being destroyed by
expansion of rust. Glued-in bolts therefore have to be prolected against
corrosion, for example with zinc coating. Riberholt (1986) found that some
adhesives, for exa~npleepoxy, also give a good protection against corrosion.

Concluding summary
- The connections are produced either by injecting the glue in an over-sized
liole or by screwing in the bolt.

- Adllesives with suFficient strength and durability properties should be

used.

- The axial strength is influenced by the difference in stiffness between the

wood and tire bolt, the glued-in length, the stiffness and strength of the
bond between boll and wood and the density.

- Changing inoisture content may cause considerable shear stresses in the

bond, especially for bolts placed perpendicular to the grain direction.

- For Iateratly loaded bolts the glue causes an increase in the embedding
strengtli of at least 20%.

- Glued bolts normally have to be protected against corrosion by zinc

coating.

References
Aicher, S. (1992). Testing ol Adi~esivcsfor Bonded Wood-steel Joints. In: Proc. or the Meeting
fUFRO S 5.02, Bordeaux, France.

Gcrold, M. (1992). Verbund von Holz ond Gcwindcstnngcn aus Stahl. Bautechnik 69(4): 167-178.

Ribcrholt, H. (1986). Glued Bolts in Glulam. Report No. R210, Technical U~liversityof Dcnmnrk,
Dcpartrnent of Stmclural Engineering. Lyngby, Denmark.

Riberholt, H. (1988). Glued Bol~siil GIulnn~- Proposal Ibr CIB Code. In: Proc. of tile CIR-WI8
Meeting. Pzrksvillc, Vancouver Island, Canada. Paper 71-7-2.

Rodd, P.D.,Hilson, B.0. and Spriggs, R.A. (1989). Resin Injected Mechanically Fastened Timber
Joints. In: Second Pacific Timber Engineering Conficrence. Auckland, New Zealand.

Volkersen, 0. (1953). Die Schubkrartverteilung in Lcim-, Niet- und Bolzenverbindungen. Energic

und Technik (1953). 68-71, 103-108, 150-154.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - an initiative under thc EU Comet1 Programme

 Multiple fastener joints

STEP I C C L U ~ CC15 Objective

1I.J. Biass To develop an understanding of the conlbined action of several fasteners in line
Delft University within a timber joint and its effect on the connection srrengtll.
of Technology
Prerequisite
C3 Joints with dowel-type fasteners - Theory

Summary
An idealised elastic solution of the interaction of ~nultiplefasteners in timber joints
is given. The main parameters influencing the load-bearing capacity of multiple
fastener joints are plastic fastener behaviour, creep, rnwufacturing inaccuracies and
variations in load-slip behaviour of single fasteners. The rules for multiple Fdstener
joints for different types of fasteners according to EC5 are presented.

Introduction
Mechanical timber joints generally contain more than one fastener. Even if the load
on the joint is acting at the centroid of the connection, tile load distribution between
the fasteners is non-uniform. The ultimate load of a multiple fastener joint equals
the suln of the single fastener loads at failure. If tile single fastener loads at failure
show large differences and some of tilose fasteners are loaded well below their own
failure load, tile ultimate load of the multiple fastener joint is smaller than the sum
of the ultimate loads of the single fasteners. This fact is the reason for reducing the
load-carrying capacity per fastener in multiple fastener joints for certain fastener
types. Principally, the different influences on the load distribution in multiple
fastener joints apply both to joints with only one type of fastener as well as to
joints containing different types of fasteners.

Elastic solution
Lantos (1969) developed a model to calculate the load distribution in timber joints
at an allowable load level assuming the same linear-elastic load-slip behaviour
without initial slip for every single fastener and assuming that nonnal stresses are
uniformly distributed over tile cross-sections of the connected membess. The
validity of his analysis is Iinlited to Llle range within which the behaviour of the
fasteners can be considered elastic and to loads acting parallel to the grain of the
timber members. Crarner (1968) took n similar approacl~,taking into account the
non-uniform distribution of the normal stresses over the cross-section and their
influence on the extensional stiffness of the members. Because the elastic solution
of Lantos forms the basis for the reduction of rile load-canying capacity of lnuIliple
fastener joints in EC5, the solution for joints with constant fastener spacing is
given. A more general solution can be found in Wilkirison (1986).

In Figure 1, a two-member joint is shown. The load transfer between member i

(M,)
and member 2 (h.l,)occurs in discrete steps at the fastener locations. Each step
represents the load transferred by the respective fastener. Considering the part of the
joint between fastener i and i + I in the defonl~edposition, member 1 is loaded by
the total joint load ininus the loads transferred by fasteners I to i, resulting in an
i the original length s. Accordingly, member 2 is elongated from s
extension r t I mof

STEMEUROFORTECH - an initiative t~nderthe EU Comett Progliin~me C1511

 to s + 11,~~. In addition, the loads transferred by fasteners i and i -t I , respectively,
cause fastener slip values of rcxi and L$;~,,.
-

F i r 1 V i e ~ of
v irrtdefolnled corlrlectiort (top) arrd secriotr shorvitig cleforrtrecl positiarl -
(bottonr) M; Metnbcr I ; M,: kleniber 2.

Comparing the elongated meraber iengths plus the respective fastener slip values
yields:
UAi + S + 112,1 = S '+ lLt,i + llL1+l f 1)
-
Replacing the fastener slip by

where Ff is the load [ransferred by the fastener and K is the slip modulus, and
\ replacing the elongation of the member between two fasteners by
-
'n,
IL = - (3)
E A
where Fn,represents the load transferred by the member between two fasteners, --
yields the load on the most stressed fastener at the end of the fastener row for
connections where the connected members have the same axial stiffness EA:

with

STEPiEUROFORTEChI - an initintivc under the EU Cometr Programme

The complete derivation of Equation (4) for different inember stiffnesses is also
given by Lantos (1969). Figure 2 shows an example of the load distribution in a
joint containing ten fasteners based on the Lantos solution. The toad concentration
at the beginning and the end of the fastener row is clearly visible.

Fig lire 2 beticreet~sirrg lr.jhsterier.~accordir~gto Larrtn.~.F i . rhc

Load disrr-il~lrfiorl ~ load
and id is rlrc d~'fo~.rr~czrion.

The idea behind this elastic solution is that the 111oststressed single fastener should
not be loaded above its allowable load level. Since the allowable load is reached
first in tlie fasteners at the beginning or the end of the row, these then control tlte
magnitude of the allotvable load for the joint. The factors influencing the difference
in fastener loads according to the elastic solution are the longitudinal stiffnesses of
the connected members, the rlu~nberof fasteners in a row, the fastener spacing and
the slip modulus.

Main factors
Apart from the effect of the difference in longitudinal deformation in tile connected
members, there exist several other factors significantly influencing the load
distribution between d ~ fasteners
e in a timber connection.

Plctsric clefori~lntionscir?rl creep

Isyumov (1967) took a snore general approach to calculate load distribution between
fasteners arranged parallel to loading. He considered nonlinear load-slip behaviour
of the fasteners resulting in a redistribution of loads between the fasteners at higher
load levels. When the most stressed fastener at the end of the row begins to defonn
plastically, its stiffness decreases co~nparedto the stiffness of the other fasteners in
the joint. Since stiffer components attract more load in a parallel system, the
fastener loads in the middle of the row consequently will increase. This effect
counteracts the effect described by Lantos and Ieads to higher ulti~nateloads
compared with connections behaving elastically until failure.

The same is true for the influence of time dependent deformations in the
connection. Creep reduces the initial stiffness of the fasteners thereby causing a
fastener load redistribution. The magnitude of creep deformations generally
iucreases with the load level. Therefore, the first and last fastener in the row are
expected to show larger creep deformations leading to more balanced loads in the
connection.

STEP/EUROFORTECI.I - an inirialive undcr l l ~ cEU Come11 Programme C 15/3

The ultimate load of timber joints with dowel-type fasteners according to EC5 is
based on the work of Johansen (1949). He assumed rigid-plastic behaviour for the
fasteners as well as for the wood surrounding the fasteners (see STEP lecture C3). -
Consequently, the load-slip behaviour of dowel-type joints is assumed to be plastic
at ultirnate load level. However, considerable plastic deformations can only be
expected if the failure mode in the connectiorl corresponds to one of those described -
by Johansen and the spacing is sufficient for this purpose.

If splitting of the tirnber along the fastener rows occurs at load Ievels well below
the potential plastic capacity, a full redistribution of the load within the joint is
-
prevented. Consequently, splitting especially decreases the load-bearing capacity of
multiple fastener joints. Splitting in timber joints can be avoided by appropriate
spacings and end distances. The larger the spacing, the smaller the tension stresses -
perpendicular to the grain caused by the wedge effect of the fasteners. Thus, large
spacings contribute to a plastic connection behaviour and consequently increase the
capacity of ~nultiplefastener joints although the elastic rnodel predicts the contrary. -
A further possibility to avoid splitting and to reach a plastic connection behaviour
is to reinforce the tirnber in the joint area e.g. through glued-on plywood.

Significant plastic deformations in mechanical limber connections can be expected

for connections with nails and other dowel-type fasteners with a comparatively
small diameter as well as for toothed-plate connections. The plastic deformation at
railure in toothed-plate connections is the reason why the toothed-plate and the bolt
are considered to share the load, whereas for split-ring connector joints, whicil
generalIy fail in a brittle manner, a load sharing between split-ring and bolt is
neglected in the design. Creep deformations, however, occur in all mechanical
timber connections.

Figure 3 Locrcl clistriLirtiotr befrc!ee~r

.frrsteners shobt~blgplastic bel~u~lio~ir:
F is ttre loctd
c~trdit is tlw defortrratiori.

Fabrication tole/-arlces
If pre-drilled connections with for example bolts or split-ring connectors are used,
fabrication tolerances like misalignment of the bolt holes, lack of straightness of the
bolt holes and variations in the hoIe diameter and initiaI position of the bolts in the
holes further increase the variability in load distribution between fasteners.
Dannenberg and Sexsmith (1 976) as well as Isyumov (1967) ernphasised the impor-
tance of fabrication tolerances for the load distribution and the ultimate load of
bolted joints and connections with split-rings or toothed-plates. According to
Willtinson (1986), fabrication tolerances and different shapes of the load-slip curves
within a jojnt cause most of the non-uniformity of the load distribution, while the
influence of the different extensions of the connected members seems negligible.

In the elastic range, Cramer found fairly good agreement between his theory and
tests with carefuily prepared specimens, avoiding misalignment of the bolts and the
bolt holes. But, according to Crarner, even a small misalignment of bolt holes rnay
cause large shifts in bolt loads and therefore the dist~.ibutionof bolt loads in field-
fabricated joints is difficult to predict.

Fabrication tolerances, due for exa~nple10 misaligned bolt holes or split ring
grooves, cause an initial slip for some of the fasteners in the joint. When the joint
is loaded, those fasteners only start to carry load when the fastener slip exceeds the
initial slip values (e.g. bolt No. 4 in Figure 4). If the failure mode is by splitting
before significant plastic deformations occur, the fasteners with initial slip will not
contribute to the load-bearing capacity of the joint at all. According to tests
performed by Mass6 et aI. (19891, the ultimate mean load per bolt of joints made
from glued laminated Douglas fir decreased by more than 50% when the number
of bolts in a row parallel to the direction of loading was increased from one 10 four.
Those test results emphasise the necessity of appropriate spacings and end distances
securing plastic joi~ltbehaviour and a redistribution of loads especially for joints
with fabrication tolerances. Fabrication tolerances can be avoided by precisely
~nanufacturingtimber joints using computer controlled equipment.

0
10 20
F,ot
Figure 4 Esnntple of u ioacl distriblitio~iin n bolrrri joitrt nccordirrg to IVilki~worl
(1986). F, is die sitzgle fi~ste~rcr
laod aud i;,,,,is tlte total joir~rlorrd.

Vnriatiort iit lorr(!-slil:,behnviorrl- befiveen sittgle fasteners

Apart from fabrication tolerances which affect load distribution in pre-drilled
connections to a large extent, variable material properties within the wood and
between the fasteners cause variations in load-slip behaviour in a joint. ICnots,
splits, pitch pockets, local slope of grain or density variations in the timber also
cause variations of load-slip behaviour also in non-predrilled connections, for
example with nails. Figure 5 shows an example of the load distribution in a nailed
connection where the high density in knots causes particularly high fastener loads
in fasteners No. 4 and 8.

Although this variation of load-slip behaviour does not influence the mean value of
the ultimate load of multiple fastener joints, the more important characteristic value

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initinlive under the EU Cornett Programme c 1515

of the ultimate load depends on this variation.

Considering the extreme case of identical load-slip curves within a inultiple -

fastener connection, a large variation in the ultimate load of the connection will
result. This variation corresponds to ihe variation of single fastener joints,
independent of the number of fasteners. A large value for the variation of ultimate
loads means a low value of the 5-percentile as the characteristic ultimate load.
-

-
Considering the other extreme - the load-slip curves of the fasteners within a
connection show the same variation as the load-slip curves of different single
fastener connections - the variation i r i the ultimate loads of the multiple fastener
connection would decrease with increasing number of fasteners. This is because
-
with many fasteners in one connection the probability of having fasteners with both
low and high ultimate loads increases. In this case the characteristic value of the
ultimate load of the conrzectiotl would increase with increasing nuinber of fasteners. -
In reality, the load-slip curves of the single fasteners within a connection are neilher
identical nor statistically independent. The correlillion between the load-slip curves
consequently represents a parameter influencing the ultimate load of multiple -
fastener joints.

However, these considerations are only correct, il the failure of the joint occurs
after significant plastic deformations. If the joint fails in a brittle manner - e.g. by
-
splitting of the wood - the equalisation of forces between tlte fasteners is prevented.
In this case, the favourable effect of plastic deformations on the ultimate load
cannot be used. Therefore, fastener spacing as well as end and edge distances -
should be sufficiently large. The potential load-bearing capacity of a connection can
only be utilised, if splitting is avoided and plastic deformations are possible. The
combined positive effects of plastic deformations and variations in load-slip -
behaviour are the reasons for the fact that the characteristic load-carrying capacity
of nailed joints according to EC5 is independent of the number of nails in the joint.
-
Influence of number of fasteners
The design procedures for different types of multiple fastener joints according to
EC5 follow. The design procedure is based on the assumption of ideal pIasticity and
a subsequent downgrading for the effect of number of fasteners.
-
STEPIEUROFORTECt-1- an initiative under the EU Cor~leitProgramme
-
 Nniled nrld stapled joiirts
Any influence of the number of fasteners on the load-carrying capacity of nailed or
stapled con~~ectionsmay be ignored.

Bolted nrrcl ciowelled joints

E C ~ Part
: 1-1: 6.5.1.7- (3) For more than six bolts or dowels in line with the load direction, the load-carrying
cilpacity of the extra bolts oi- dowels, respectively, should be reduced by 113, i s .
for 11 bolts the effective number IT,,, is:

Sclsrved joillts
EC5: Purt I- 1: 6.7.1 For screws with a diameter less than 8 1771n the rules for nailed joints apply, that
means any influence of the number of fasteners on the load-carrying capacity may
be neglected. For larger diameter screws, the respective rule for bolted and dowelled
connections applies.

E C ~ P;~rt
: 1-1: 6.8 Tootl~ed-plateconnectar joirlfs
In connector joints, the load sharing between fasteners of the same type as well as
between different fasteners has to be considered. Since the failure mode of toothed-
plate connector joints in general is plastic, a complete load sharing between toothed-
plate and bolt is assumed. The capacity of the connection is the sum of the capacity
of the toothed-plate and the bolt. If the connection contains several toothed-plates,
a decrease in load-carrying capacity per toothed-platelbolt sil~lilarto the rule for
bolted and dowelled connections will be inserted in EC5. Until a definitive rule is
introduced, the effective number of connectors for inore than two connectors in a
line can be assumed as (Briininghoff et al., 1989):

Xirzg aird shenr-plate conirectar joirrts

The failure mode of ring and shear-plate connector joints in tension is often brittle,
the failure being initiated by a silear failure of the wood in Front of the connector.
Because the shear block failure often occurs at small displacements where the bolt
carries hardly any load yet, the capacity of the .bolt is neglected when designing
ring and shear-plate connector joints. For several connectors in a joint a decrease
in load-carrying capacity per ring or shear-plate will be introduced in EC5. Until
this rule is agreed upon, Equation (9) may also be used for ring and shear-plate
connector joints.

Concluding summary
- The characteristic load-carrying capacity of a ~nultiple fastener joint is
frequently less than the sum of the individual fastener capacities.

- The most important factors influencing the characteristic load-carrying

capacity of multiple fastener joints are plastic deformations in the connection,
creep, fabrication tolerances and variations in load-slip behaviour between
single fasteners.

- Plastic defornlations and creep tend to equalise the loads between the single
fasteners and are therefore beneficial for the load-carrying capacity of il
multiple fastener joint.

- Fabrication tolerances in pre-drilled connections may severely decrease the

 load-carrying capacity, untess significant plaslic defortnations take place
before the failure load is reached. Cornputer controlled high precision
marnufacturing largely reduces fabrication tolerances in pre-drilled
connections.

- Variations in load-slip behaviour within the joint increase the ~~~~~~~~~~~istic

load-carrying capacity of multipte fastener joints.

- The uneven Load distribution in the elastic range due to different longitudinal
deformations of the connected members hardly influences the ultimate loads
of tnultiple fastener joints.

- EC5 includes a decrease in load-carrying capacity with increasing number of

fasteners arranged in line with the load direction for bolts, dowels, large
diameter screws and conllectoc joints. The design of conr~ectionswith slender
dowel-type fasteners is not affected by the number of fasteners.

References
Briininghoff, H.ct nl. (1989), tlolzbauwcrke - einc i~us~hrliclie
Erllutcrung zu DIN 1052 Tcil 1 bis
Teil 3. Beutli Berlin ICBln, Gcrmany, 238 pp.

Cramcr, C.O. (1968). Load distribution in multiple-bolt tension joints. Journal of th Stnicturnl
Divisio~i,ASCE 94(ST5):1101-1117.

Danncnbcrg, L.J., R.G. Scxsmith. (1976). Sliear-plalc load distribution in laminated tirnhcr joints.
Report No. 361, Dcpnrtrnent of Slnictural Enginccring, Cornell University, Ithrrca, Ncw York.

Isyutnov, N. (1967). Load distribution in multiple shear-plate joints in tinlber. Forestry Braricl~
Dcpartmcnlal Publication No. 1203, Department of Forcstry and Rural Development, Ottawa, Ontilrio.

Johanscn, K.W.(1949). Theory of timbcr connections. Internation:~lAssociation ol' Bridge and Struc-
tural Engineering, Pub1ic;ltion 9249-262.

Lantos, G.(1969). Load distribution in a row of fasteners subjcctcd to lalerai load. Wood Scicncc
l(3): 129- 136.

Masst, D.1.. J.J. Salinns, J.E. Turnbull. (1989). L.~er;il strength and stilfness af single and rnultiple
bolts in glued-lnminatcd timbcr londed parallel to grain. Contribulion No. C-029, Engineering and
Stutisticai Rescarch Centre, Rescarch Branch, Agricullure Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wilkinson, T.L. (1986). Load distribution among bolts parallel lo load. jourmil of Strucluml
Engineering 1 12(4):835-852.

Notation
F, is the load on the first or last fastener in the row
F is the load acting on the joint
n is the number of fasteners in a row parallel to the load F
K is the slip inodulus
s is the fastener spacing
E is the member modulus of elasticity
A is the cross-sectional area of the connected ntember

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 Moment resisting connections

STEP lecture C IG Objectives

P. Rnchcr To present the main types of joints used to transfer moments and forces. To
CUST Civil Engineering examine the influence of the stiffness of moment-resisting joints on strvctural
Blaisc PascnI University beliaviour. To give the calculalion methods associated with force clistribution in the
joint area.

Prerequisites
A4 Wood as a building material

Summary
Palterns of 'fasteners are described for several types of moment-resisting joints.
Practical applications and general requirements are given for a .splice joint and
frame corner connections. Tile influence of joint stiffness on structural behaviour
is indicated. After an examination of the force and stress distributions in the joint
area, the calculation methods are presented. These methods define the forces acting
on the fasteners and the members, based on the assumption of elastic behaviour.
The design of a frame corner with the fasteners located in two concentric circular
patterns complements the lecture.

Introduction
In timber stluctures, the joints are normally designed to transfer forces stressing the
fasteners in the load direction. The analysis assumes the joints to be pinned because
of the concentration of fasteners in a sindl area li~nitingthe moment aim. However,
the development of glued-laminated timber and other wood-based materiaIs offers
many stmctural possibilities. To fulfil the code requirements, or to optimise the
construction work, designers increasingly use rotationally rigid joints. The type of
joint and the jointing tecl~nologieswill depend to a great extent on the layout of the
structure and how the connected members work.

Moment-resisting joints can work according to three types of force diagram

(Figure I). Depending on the rotation centre C of the joint, the resulting tnon~ent
of the fastener withdrawal (F,,) or lateral (I;,)loads balances the applied moment.

Relating to the diagrams in Figure 1, Figure 2 presents some examples of mornent-

resisting joints sucl~as; (a) a joint of handrail support to deck beam in a pedestrian
bridge, (b) a splice joint in a continuous beam or arch, and (c) a knee joint in a
frame. The diagrams (a) to (c), respectively, are associated with these joints.

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For tlie joint (2a), the action F arid the bending moment ( F a ) induce withdrawal
forces on the fasteners. In the example (Zb), fastener forces balance the bending -
moment. Normal and shear forces are transferred to the foundation by steel
hardware stressing the tiunber column in co~npressionparallel and perpendicular to
the grain. As large stresses perpendicular to the grain can occur, this recilnique is
--
used for tlie transfer of small bending moments.

In the last joint (2c), fasteners are designed to carry forces and bending rnoinents
given by thc structural analysis. The following sections deal with this kind of -
mon7ent-resisti~~g joint.

The trend now is to instali joints working in accordance with diagram (c) as the
traditional knee connection in frames. For this type OF connection, the designer must
be aware of the possible additional stresses perpendicular to the grain. They are
induced by swelling or shrinkage across the restrained cross-section. Either, these
stresses have to be tsrken into account in the calculations, or the height of the
restrained area should be limited. Apart from the possibility of spiitting, this type
of joint offers many advantages. For long-span stnlctures, they are an effective way
of overcoming transport limitations andlor of using economical timber sizes.
AIthough curved frames or arches work more efficiently, timber frames are often
designed with tapered members connected by rnornent-resisting joints. This design
maxiinises internal space in the bttilding.

For the joint calcuIations, the global analysis of the structure and the local analysis
of the connection shouid both be considered. The stiffness of the joints can affect
the structurnl distribution of forces and defonnations. The examination of the
fastener forces and timber stresses allows tlie derivation of the design rilles.

Structural influence of moment-resisting joints

Current design calculations assume the connections to be either pinned or fixed. As
embedding defonnations in the timber produce large joint deformations, the
modelling assu~nptions11ouId consider the joint stiffness. It affects the defom~ation
of the structures and ihe distribution of the forces in the case of indeterminate
structures (Leijten, 1988; Komatsu, 1992). To produce accurate designs, the joint
can conveniently be classified by considering the coefficient P,:

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where Kr is the rotational stiffness of the joint as defined in the following section
and El is the bending stiffness of the connected member with a span L.

The classification of the joinl as fixed, semi-rigid or pinned is examined in the

example of a two-hinged frame (Figure 3a). Neglecting the deformations induced
by normal and shear forces, the moment in the joint is given by:

where q is the unifo~mlydistributed load on the rafter.

The joint efficiency is lneasured by the ratio R,,, which reIates the molnent Mj to
the moment of a rigid joint corresponding to K, = m. For different layot~tsof the
frame, Figures 3b and 3c present the influence of the joint stiffness on the ratio R,,,.

(1

(El), fm,
=-
,-j
(El),

A substantial decrease in the moment in the joint occurs when the stiffness
coefficient p, is lower than 6. Considering this variation, o joint may be considered
as fixed when R,, t 0,85, which requires a p,-value from 8 to 12. In Lhe opposite
extreme, a pinned joint is assumed if R,, I 0 , 2 0 relating lo a mean value P, =
0,5.In all other cases, the structure shall be designed as a structure with semi-rigid
joints. Considering second order effects, this classification is related to braced
structures, i.e, those prevented from swaying. For unbraced slructures, EC3 specifies
P,
a minimum value of 25 for when assuming fixed joints.

Fi~rthennore,the assumption of semi-rigid joints gives the opporlunity for a moinent

redistribution in the timber structures. Related to the aspect ratio L/H of the frame
and the coefficient p,, tile relative values of tile moments in the joint and at mid-
span are given in Figure 4a. The upper curve is associated with the fully-rigid
frame.

Thus, the designer can choose a situation where the ~nomentsare equal in the joint
and at mid-span. In tile example, the joint shalt be designed to give a stiffness
coefficient respectively equal to 8 and 12 for the aspect ratio U H of 4 and 8. Figure

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4b shows that, simultaneously, the maximum deflection increases slightly. As the
joints alone no longer dictate the sizes of the members, the use of the timber can
be improved.

Figtire 4 Irlfiiierrces of'tlle jobr stifftress orr (cr) - tlre mtio between rile ~ ~ ~ o r nirie ~tile rt
joittt (q) ~ ~ C~I Il Il d(b) - IJIC 1.clfio( R , , ) i ~ ~ f w e edeflectiot~
urrd N I N I ~ C / - .(M,), tr
at nlid-span in sertli-rigid ctrld rigicl.5-uttre.

Local behaviour of the joints

To derive design equations, the mechanical behaviour of the joint is first examined
when resisting a moment. To counteract Llle applied moment, the fasteners are
loaded at a varying angle to the grain. Considering the orthotropic behaviour of Lhe
timber, the load on the fasteners depends on the slip modulus in the direction of
load (Ohashi and Sakamoto, 1989). In addition, the layout of the joint should be
taken into account. Two main types of joints are dis~inguished:

- splice joints where the timber members are parallel (Figure Sa),
- cross-grained timber to timber joints (FigureSb).

To achieve an elastic analysis, the members are assumed to be rigid since they are
stiffer and stronger than the joint. Therefore, the joint rotation results from the
rotational displacement o of the fasteners (Figure 5c). Defining the rotation centre
C as the geometrical centre of the joint, the equilibrium condition is given by:

where FhfJis the load on the fasaner j, and r ) its distance from the rotation centre.

Figure 5 Montettt-resisti~tg joirrts. (a) joirlt iviill~pamllel rller~iber~, (b) ~ro~.~-graittcci

( c ) ,g~orr~etr-ical
~t~cmtrcrs, cicfirritioru arid forces 011 fasterrcr:r..

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As the fasteners behave linearly, the folIowing relationships apply:

where K, is the slip modulus in the force direction (a,+ nf2).

From Equations (3) and (41, the load on he fastener i is expressed as follows:

with the rotational stiffness K, : II

j=I

For parallel members, the slip modulus is determined from the Ilankinson formula
(Ecluation 7). For cross-grained members, the compatibility of the embedding
deformations requires a modified slip modulus to be considered. If the members are
perpendicular to each olher, this slip ~ i i o d ~ l is
u sindependent of the fastener position
(Equation 8).

In addition to Lhe load distribution on the fasteners, the timber stresses have to be
considered in the jointed area. Figure 6 gives the stress distribution in shear and in
tension perpendicular to the grain resulting from a linear orthotropic model.

liigrrrz. 6 Stresses in rtronrclrf r-esisti~rg joirrt, ( a )fastorer pcifterru, (h) sheclr sire.sses on
tl~eltricldle plane of joilrts, nrrd ( c ) stresses itr rerisio~zpc)rpettrlicrrlcir lo [he
grui~rf 05 ttitrr frorrr the e f ~ d(Racl~crarrcl Gallit~rurd,1991).

Figure 6 shows that a rectangular pattern leads to the most dangerous coinbination
of shear and tension perpendicular to the grain. Locating the fasleners along tile
edges of the members results in higher stresses perpendicular to the grain near to
the end (Boult, 1988). For such patlerns, the risk of splitting can be reduced by not
placing fasteners in the joinr corner, by using small diameter fasteners, or by gluing
on some form of reinforcement.

To calculate the maximum shear stress, the fastener forces are projected on ttre y-
direction, considering half the joint. Using the previous notation (Figure 5), the
shear force V,, due to the fasteners is given by:

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Design calculations
The design has to refer to the value:

- K,,,.,,,
for he calculatio~iof structural deformations,
- I(,,,,,, to check the load-carrying capacity of the joini and tile second-order
effects (see STEP lecture B7).

Xotntiolzctl stijiress
For dowel-type fasteners, the rotational stiffness is calculated using the slip tnoduIus
K,,,specified in EC5. This low value can be assumed as an average for both the
directions parallel and perpendicular to the grain. If tile joint is made with one type
of fastener, Equation (6) gives the design rotational stiffnesses as:

Considering the connections shown in Figure 7, the rotational stiffness at the

serviceability limit state is (KesseI, 1991):
= KSCI( t i I r I 2 + 1z2 r2' ) joi11i type A (11)

where:

Figure 7 prrtterrts far- rtlotrierlt-rcsistitzgjoittfs. (a)jairrr rypc A, (bj

Gmtner~yof cott~r~rotr
B.
joirlt type

Load-ctrr-ryirtg crrpaci4,
The moment induces a load F,, perpendicular to the polar radius of the fastener.
The maximum value is calculated as:
K a , 'i
F*, = -M ~ r , d =
'-1
2 Mu,d joirlt lype A
Kr, U, d ti, ri2 + ti2 r2

- Jm M,,, joirtt type B ( 1 4)

( P.Te.T2+Pye>721

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In addition, shear and normal forces ( V and N) are assu~nedto be uniformly
distributed on the fasteners:

The total load is calcu1ated by [he vectorial suinmation of I;,,, FN and F,,.
Depending on the ratio N/V, the maxinium load is obtained for:

- the fastener located at an mgte a where tan a = N/V in a circular pattern,

- the furthest Fastener in a rectangular pattern.

To checlc the load-carrying capacity of the joint, the variation of tlie embedding
strength A,,,,, wit11 the angle a to the grain has to be considered (Heimeshoff,
1977). The joint must be clesigned for the largest value of the relative fastener load
Sf defined as the ratio of load to strength for a fastener localed at an angle a.
According to EC5 rules, Figures 8a and 8b show the variation of S, for dowel-type
fasteners (d=24 11in1) in a circular pattern. This variation depends on the fastener
slenderness h, = M,:,,lCf;,,,,,,t , Z GI). As illustrated by Figure 8, tlie critical fastener*in
rt circular pattern is located close to the longitudinal axis of the connected members.
In a rectangular or trapezoidal pattern, the critical one can be the same or the
furthest fastener depending on the joint components and the geometrical ratio dl?.

Figttrr S I~lflric~rcco f the fusteiler localiorr on tlre relative capnciry SJ (6)fur cirrrrlar
rario k = j;;y /
lIotterlr ~ r l dcfiflew~~t c,,= F,, /I;,,, . ((1) c(11111ec1ed
~ ~ ~ e t iC ~I ~b e ~ s
olr n~tglcof 90' a i d (b) 1109

With forces defined by Equations (1 3) to (1 S ) , lnornent resisting joints are designed

considering the load on the fastener located on the longitudi~lalaxis:
F,,, = /(F,, + FY)' + F; (16)

and acting at an angle to the grrtin :

a 1 =arEtYll
FA, F N Fv
+

] (17)

In the case of rectangular or trapezoidal pattern (type B), the furthest fastener
should also be checked for the load:

at an angle:

-
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As previously shown, the shear strength of the members has to be checked in tile
joint area. Considering Equation (9) and the equilibrium conditions, the design shear
force is given by:

joittt type A (20)

)
"Y
2 vye,
= M4r.d 2 (i - - 2 joint rype B
p,e, .+ Ct,e,

Sljecific rirles
As load direction varies with fastener location, the load-canying capacities per
fastener are not reduced with the number of fasteners used. Furthennore, placement
of fasteners for type A and B joints should be in accordance with modified
distances (Table 1).

Bolt, Dowel Ring, Shear-platc Toothcd-platc

Loaded end 7 el 2 dc 1,s el<
Edge distance 4 cl clC
Spacings:
oil a circular or rectangular pattern 6 el 2 el, 1-5elc
between patterns 5 cl I ,S el< I ,S (1,

Design example
A three-hinged frame (Figure 9) is designed with glued-laminated members of
strength class GL24. The calculation of the knee joint of the frame is to be
considered. Related to the short-term load duration class, the critical load
combinatioil gives the forces in the column (see STEP lecture A3) to be used for
the design:
M,,,= 622 .lo3 Nln V,,d= 138 +lo3N Nfr,d= 166 .lo3 N

Figlire 9 of the I,Pnle ( a ) arid layorit of the frattle cotvier (b).

Gen~i~eriy

The cilancteristic timber properties are: f,,,k = 2,82 Nlrna2 p, = 380 kdr,l3
Loacls on tlie .fasteners rind tinzber-
Considering the thickness of members (tz= 2 I , = 200 m~n),the designer chooses
slender dowels with a diameter of 24 t l r t ~ iincreasing the joint ductility.

With distances given in Table 1, the radii are: = 0,5 h - 4d =600 Nlrrl
r r - 5d =480 m m
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Maximum number of dowels per circle are: 2nr, 2n r-,
I Z ~ S - = 26 nz<- = 20
6d 6d

The load induced by the moment has the value:

l- I 600 622 .lo6 = 26,7 .lo3 N
FA, =
11 l P t 2 + 11, :'1 = 26 .6002 + 20.480~

Loads due Lo shear and norinal forces in the colunln are:

Considering the critical fastener located respectively on the longitudinal axis of

column or rafter, the design load is:

The maximurn shear force stressing the timber in the joint area has the value:

with:

and gives: F,,, = 288 .lo3 N

Fc~srt~ler.
copncity
In the direction parallel to the grain, the embedding strength has the following
design value:

Tile coefficient A,, is equal to 1,71. Then, tile load-carrying capacity (see STEP
lecture CG) is calculated considering for the fastener on column axis:

- angles between load and grain:

a , =arctan[(F,, + Fv,c)/FN,c]=83,l
a , = a t + n/2 -13,5= 6,6"
- the embedding strengths: A,,,,, = 9,65 N/I I I I ~ ~ " , , ~ , ~ = 16,2 N/ntnr
- the ratio p: P = [&.2,d 1& l , ~ , d ]=

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Tlie calculations result in the minimum strength per shear plane defined by:
R, = min [23,1 ; 38,9 ; 15,6 ; 20,6].ld = 15,6.103 N
For the fastener on the rafter axis, calculations result in:

angles between load and grain:

a1=20,8" a,=82,7"

- embedding strengdis: f,,,, , = 15,l N/mm2 f,,,2,d = 9,65 N/lntn2

- ratio (3: P = [fil,2,d I fil,l,d] = 0364

- a n d design strength: Rd = ITLin [36,3 ; 23,l ; 17,5; 20,3] - lo3 = 17,5 lo3N

For the chosen patterns, the load-carrying condition is clieclted:

on cotumr~: 5,
= 2.15,6.10~= 31,l.lo3 N > Fd,c = 29,9+103N

a11d on rafter: %,, = 2 .17,5 .lo3 = 34,9-1c3N > F,,, = 29,8.103 N

Tilnber shew
In the joint area, the strength of the timber is checked for the calculuted force F,,,,,:

References
Roult, B.F. (1988). Multi-nailed motnent resisting joinls. Procccditigs of [lie In~ernationalTimber
Engineering Coni'ercnce, Vol. 2, p. 319-338, Seattle, USA.

Heimeshoff, B. (1977). Bercchnung von Rahmenccken rnit Diibclanschlufl (Dubelkreis). A.G.H.

flolzbau Stalik Actucll, Gcnnany,Folgc 2.

I<esscl, M.H. and Willcmscn, T. (1991). Zur Bercchnung biegestcifer Anschliisse. Baucil rnit Holz:
342-352. Germany.

l<urnalsu, K. atld Kawamoto, N. (1992). An:ilysis of gluiarn semi-rigid portal fr:~mesunder long-lcml
load. Proceeding of CIS-W 18, Sweden.

Leijien, A.J.M. (1988). Steel reinforced joints witti dowcls and bolts. Proccedings of the Intcn~aLio~ial
Timbcr Engineering Confercnce, Vol. 2, p. 474-488, Sci~ttle,USA.

Ohashi, Y. and Sakamoto, 1. (1985)). Study on laminated timber moment resisting joint. Proccedings
of' thc Y'Pncific Timber Enginecring Conlercnce, Vol. 2, p. 37-42. Auckland, Australia.

kicfler. P. and Gallirnard, P. (1 997). Les asscrnblages de structures bois: a)- comportemctlt rntcaniqtie
des principaux types d'nsscmblages; b)- nnnlysc du fonctionnemcnt d'une couronne boulonnee.
Annalcs ITBTP,France, N"504, p. 29-40.

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 Timber connections under seismic
actions
STEP Lecture C 17 Objectives
A . Cecco~ti To provide an understanding of the behaviour of joints of timber structures in
Univcrsits degti seismic zones and the method of evaluating the performance in accordance with the
swdi cii Fircnze Eurocode 8 format.

Prerequisite
C3 Joints with dowel-type fasteners - Theory
Summary
The behaviour of timber structures under earthquake actions is mainly determined
by the behaviour of the connections under low cycle loadings. The different
~necllanismsfor dissipating energy such as plastic defoi~nationsin wood and steel,
friction between different parts it11d viscous damping, are quoted and evaluated.
Cyclic performances of different kinds of connections are considered, referring to
rhe available test data. Finally the ~netlzod of evaluating test results is given
according to Eurocode 8, Constructions in seismic zones, Part 1.3, chapter 5.

Introduction
The mode1-n approach to the design of structures in seismic regions considers that
buildings should resist the so-called "service" earthquake ("moderate" but "iiIcely",
i.e. with a peak ground acceleration having an average return period of 50 years)
witllout li~nitationsof use, serious deformations or significant damage. In addition
buildings should resist the "ultimate" earthquake ("severe" but "accidental", i.e. wilh
a return period of 250 years); in this case, there may be serious damage to the
structural elements, but there must not be complete collapse. When subjected to a
severe seismic motion, the structure "softens", increases its own period of
oscillation, "dissipates" kinetic energy and, thanks also to the cyclic character of the
input action, "has time" to invert its motion prior to develop deformations leading
to collapse. The capacity of a structure to developing plastic deformations within
its structural ele~nenesand to dissipate energy without breaking is an essential part
of its capacity to resist a seismic input (Ceccotti, 1989). It is demonstrated that a
structure with plastic and dissipative joints, if appropriately designed, can resist
ltigher seismic motions than the same strucfure with rigid and non-dissipative joints.
In principle this is true also for all kinds of structure. However especially referring
here to the case of timber structures, it is necessary to take into account some
f ~ ~ r t hconsiderations.
er

Under alternating load, timber elements exhibit a generally linear elastic behavionr.
Failure is brittle, primarily because of natural defects like knots, and there is little
dissipation of energy in the wood, except maybe in zones with compression
perpendicular to the grain. Glued joints also behave linearly elastically, and
therefore contribute neither to the plastic behaviour of the structure nor to the
energy dissipation. T11is means that timber structures composed of glued joints and
of inembers assembled with perfect hinges, for example, should be regarded as non-
dissipative, with no plastic performance whatsoever.

However, plasticity and capacity to dissipale energy can be achieved in the

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corlnections between the various structural elements if they are "semi-rigid" (as
most mecl~anicalones are) instead of "rigid" (as glued ones are). Well designed
joints with mechanical fasteners have, in general, a very pronounced plastic
behaviour.

Structures may be classified into categories taking into account their plastic
behaviour and their ability to dissipate energy (see STEP lecture D l 0 for more
detailed discussion). This is a fundamental aspect to consider when designing for
seismic loads as it allows a much more economic design, than if every part of the
structure had to be kept in the elastic range OF its behaviour. In terms of seismic
design codes this is done by designing for the design earthquake Ioad actions
divided by a beiiaviour coefficient q which reflects the above inelastic behaviour
and the gIobal ductility of the structural system. The design earthquake to be
considered is defined by taking into account the relevant seismic zone map
(produced by the national authorities). In Eurocode 8, the coefficient q is called the
"Action Reduction Factor" or "Beliaviour Factor", and each structurai category is
characterised by a particular value of q. According to the type of timber structure,
4 ranges from I to 3. For perfectly elastic structures, obviously q = 1. But if a
higher bel~aviourfactor is assumed, then sufficient plasticity and energy dissipating
ability in the joints must be guaranteed.

However, if design calculntions carried out for static loads anticipate forces on the
sections that are already higher than the ones expected in the case of seismic loads
(even when assuming q = l ) , then there is no advantage in requesting any particular
ductility from the joints. This may be the situation with many large stnlctures with
heavy snow loads. In these cases it is not necessary to make tests or foIlow
particular detailing rules other than the usual ones for static situations.

Apart from some particular cases, in general it is advantageous to consider an

appropriate actioii reduction factor, but this implies the need to demonstrate that
connections are sufficiently plastic and dissipative to match the foreseen q value.
This can be achieved with dedicated tests or, in the case of very well known types
of connection, by just following certain detailing mles as explained below.

Ductility
Mechanical joints in general exhibit a very plastic behaviour, provided that tile
usual requirements for end and edge distances are respected. This is due to the
embedding behaviour of timber itself, coupled with the plasticity and the ability to
dissipate energy of tile steel elements (see STEP lecture C3). The load-slip diagram
under non no tonic static loading is characterised by an initially steep incline (see
Figure la, I). Once the elastic limit of either the fastener material and/or the wood
embedding stress has been passed, the slope of the load-slip curve decreases until
a horizontal part of tlle diagram is reached, indicating the limiting resistance F,,,,,
of the joint (see Figure la, fI). This is foHowed by a decreasing part (see Figure
la, 111) which indicates that the joint has failed due to for example the splitting of
the wood or the breaking of the steel. (Of course this part can only easily be
recorded if the test is made under displacement control).

A definition of' ductility is given in Figure 1. A distinction is made between the

case when the characteristics are approximately bi-linear and the case when they are
completely non-linear.

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I I Crilurin for evcrhrufiort of stalic d~rctiliry;e.~c~~~rplesfor difjirrcrrt possible lorrrl-
slip C ~ I Y I(61)
J ~flvo ~10pe.sare ctlsily iclei~ti'ecl(bj rlre cia-vc hns n
. ~ ~Iqfere~rt
.
cotrti~lriurtslyclrcr~~~itrg D , is tlrc ciircfilit)~,v, tlre ~ilfirrtateslip arzd
arn~cr~lrre.
v, tlte yield slip.

The idea in the second case is to take trtn P equal Il6 tan a. The factor 1/6 is a
reasonable compro~nisebetween the different extreme curves. The uncertainties in
the determination of I:, in order to determine the ratio v,/v,. may be disregarded,
bearing in mind the other uncertainties present.

The eventual descending part of the curve after the maximum load has been reached
indicates that the joint is fractured but still resistant. Reference to a load 20% less
than tlle maximum, if a larger ductility is to be considered, is usually permitted.

Cyclic behaviour and energy dissipation

The cases in Figure I refer only to non no tonic loading, but some more complex
phenomena will happen under seismic actions when cyclic loading with an
inversion of the force is applied in a few seconds. Consider the case of simple
regular cyclic loading applied, in a quasi-static manner, to a nailed joint as shown
in Figure 2. On the first loading to a given level the wood fibres around tile nail are
compressed and crushed, leaving a cavity, in which the nail is unsupported during
subsequent loading cycles within the displacement range, The subsequent residual
strength in this range arises solely from the strength of the fastener acting as a
cantilever over the length of the cavity. As the previous displacement is exceeded,
the nails once more take up bearing against the wood fibres, and loading proceeds
approximateiy along the parent curve as it would during monotonic loading (slight
differences may be due to the pull-out effect of the head of the nail, as shown in
Figure 2b, and to strain I~ardeningof the steel during the alternating loading).

Figure 2 Cclvities in plyi~oodmrd fratrlitlg ndjace~rtto rlze trail irr IocicI c~rclirig.

Typical loops in the load-slip diagram, whether for low, inrem~ediateor high
deformations, are quite narrow, or "pinched", as shown in Figure 3. They differ
from the "fat" loops typical of miid steel, where the forces necessary to restore the
plastic deformations to zero are similar to tilose causing the plastic deformations in
the first place, (Figure 4c). The "pinching" of the nailed joint Ioops reflects the
"cavityt' phase of the deformation.

STEPEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comet1 Programme C17/3

Figure 3 Tvpicnl loud-clrforri~ntiorrloops for- d~per-er~t
loud 1esel.v for clolnli~elledjoitrts. -
Figure 4a represents the shape of a well designed dowelled joint, where energy
dissipation is due both to the embedding behaviour of the timber and the plastic
behaviour of the steel. If the dowel is so rigid and resistant that it does not bend,
-
and the dissipation of energy and ductility are those obtained from the embedding
strength of the timber only, then the load-slip curve is as shown in Figure 4b.

g-u-M-@. [+-3.
t't
-
Cc4 t'f 4'4
....... .......

It 11as been seen that the et~velopecurve for cyclic loading is assumed to coincide
-
with that for monotonic loading, i.e. it is independent of the loading history. The
difference between the two is norn~allyless than 10% unless there is so111e alteration
in the configuration of the joint {e.g. a very pronounced pulI-out effect on the -
fasteners) or some fracture due exclusively to low cycle fatigue, even though
mechanical timber joints are generally not vely sensitive to sttch effects.
-
There are exceptions to the above. An example is the many types of steel plates
with integral punched nails (teeth). In these plates, failure under repetitive loading
will often be caused by sudden tooth withdrawal or by brittle failure in the steel. --
Other examples are joints with light gauge steel straps and pre-perforated holes for
nails. In these, the alternating load ]nay cause pull out of the naifs. Another case
is that of timber framed walls with very brittle board materials where after cyclic
loading, important pieces of material are damaged and the original strength is lost. -
Therefore in order to have a harrnonised basis for the evaluation of the cyclic
behaviour of joints, a CEN Standard is under preparation, giving a simple neth hod -
for testing joints, in a quasi-static mode, performed under displacement control.
Figure 5 represents the specified cyclic history, with triple cycles of amplitudes that
-
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative under ltle EU Conlctl Progra~nme
are multiples of the yield slip v,..

Figure 5 pmcerlrlve for cyclic loadi~tgtests.

Rccor~trrtcr~derl

In Figure 6 AF represents the "impairment of the strength" at the same displacen~ent

level, between the envelope curve of the first loading and that of the third loading.

Figrirr h ltrt~~aintlerrt
of sirsrrgth betlrlea~file cnvelope r r i t ~ ~cor7.esponditlg
c to t h e w t
cycle, crlrve N, N I I tlte
~ third c~lcle.

In the inelastic range, the amount of dissipated energy per half cycle due to plastic
deformation (hysteresis) is rneasured by the slladed area E,, in Figure 7 . The ratio
between the dissipated energy and the available potential energy El:,,is called the
"hysteresis equivalent viscous damping ratio" v,,. Tlie Ilysteresis dissipated energy
E,, increases with an increasing amplitude of the loops, whilst v,.,, remains more or
less constant. Values of about 8-10% have been evaluated for well designed dowel
type fastener joints and for plywood framed walls.

i r e7 Dissipatior~ofcttergy by ily.sfewsis.

STEP/EUROFORTECH - nn initialivc under thc EU Coniett Progmmme C 17/5

Of course, in the elastic range, the hysteresis damping is in principle zero (Figure
3a). However, in the elastic range, some energy can also be dissipated. In low
amplitude dynan~icvibrations wilh no secondary structures in place, only a
"viscous" damping ratio of less than 1% can be measured. But the damping ratio
due to friction in the junctions between different elernents and through compression
perpendicular to the grain can easily I-each values of 4% and more. This is
especially the case with inany redundant ele~nentsand contact points, such as are
found in dwellings. This explains why in the elastic range a value of 5 % for the
damping ratio is usually assumed.

Betlaviour of different types of joint

As seen above, the cyclic perrorrnance of mechanical joints is characterised by good
ductility, lacli of sensitivity to repeated loads, and the ability to dissipate energy.

In order to avoid brittle failure due to premature splitting, the rules given in EC5
concerning end and edge distances should be followed; these distances have been
given in order to ensure ductile behaviour, otherwise the Johansen theory and the
derivations of the verification formulae giver1 by EC5 would not be valid (see STEP
lecture C3). At the present state of knowledge, there is no clear evidence that cyclic
loadir~gper se worsens tlie risk of splitting. However, the adoption of greater
spacings between rasteners, and larger edge and end distances would contribute to
increasing the splitting resistance and consequently the ductility of the joint.

Splitting can also be prevented by including in the connection area reinforcing

materials with high tensile strength perpendicular to the grain, suci~as plywood or
densified veneer wood. In this way not only is splitting better contlaolled, but also
plasticisation of the steel fasteners is ensured, Illus improving tlie yield performance
of $lie timber joinl in terms of ductility. Obviously the use of mild steel fasteners,
which have a larger deformation capacity, will in general be more suitable for
ductile and energy dissipating connections than hardened steel fasteners with Iow
ductility. In order to improve the ability lo dissipate energy, it is possible to lalie
advantage in design of the slenderness or dowel-type fasteners. Slenderness is
defined as the ratio between the thickness of tile wood member and the diameter
of the dowel-type fastener. Slender fasteners always tend to dissipate more energy,
because plastic hinges will always appear in the steel whereas if stocky steel
fasteners are used, they perform elastically without dissipation of energy in the
steel. Moreover, splitting is better prevented if the thickness of tlle timber tnetnber
is increased in relation to the diameter of the fasteners.

To avoid irnacceptable loss of strength under cyclic loading, three general principles
should be followed. These are to use details where elements cannot easily pull out,
to avoid materials liable to brittle failure, and to try to use those inaterials which
retain a consistent behaviour under repeated loading.

Now the cyclic behaviour of the most common types of mechanical joint will be
examined (for "detailing rules" see STEP lecture D10).

Nails, staples and screws

Apart from those made from hardened steel, nails, staples and screws show a
distinct plastic behaviour when loaded in mechanical timber joints. The length of
the shank should be increased if risk of pull-out is foreseen. Smooth nails are not
recommended, in order to prevent this. If the slenderness ratio of the nail is greater

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Cometi Programme

than 8, good ductility will be ensured (Figure 8).

Figrirc 8 Tjy>iccllcyclic behnvioitr of a rlniierl joirrt (ircril slcrrrlerrless 8,s).

In corinections between plywood panels and timber elements, ductile behaviour can
be obtained provided that the slenderness of the nails is higher than 4. Tests with
nailed shear walls show large ductilities, and large energy dissipation capncities
(Figure 9).

Dowels
Connections wirh slender steel dowels are able to yield in both the steel and the
wood, thus allowing a large amount of energy dissipalion. IF the slenderness of
dowel fasteners is higher than 8, the behaviour will certainly be of good ductility.
Irrespective of other parameters, such a slenderness will ensure mode three failure
(see STEP lectures C3 and DIO). Will1 stocky dowels and standard spacings,
plasticity will depend upon the ernbedding behaviour of the wood alone. With less
capacity for energy dissipation, tests are recommended for assessing the ductile
performance of such joints.

Bolts
In bolted connections, oversized holes due to fabrication tolerances cause non-
uniform load distribution. The consequent overloading of particular bolrs may cause
splitting of the wood under these bolts, preventing a redistribution of the load
within tl~econnection. In seismic regions, therefore, only precisely manufactured
bolted joints, and preferably those using slender fasteners, are recornrnended. Large
bolts (d >16 ntnl) have difficulty in deforming and hence in dissipating energy. It
is recommended that they shouId only be used in combination with tooilted ring
connectors.

STEPEUROFORTECH - an inilialive under the EU Cornctt Programme C 1717

Split ring and shear plate connectors
Because of the small plastic deformations which are possible, such types of fastener
are less suitable for use in dissipative zones.

Toothed plate connectors

Tf well designed, toothed plate connector joints can exhibit good plastic behaviour.
Attention must be paid to spacing mles, so that splitting does not occur.

Punched metal plates

Although load-displacement curves for joints with punched metal places show a
certain amount of plastic deformation, the possibility of a brittle failure of the plate
and the potential pull-out effect under cyclic loading indicate that prototype tests
are advisable if dissipative design is intended.

Seisntic behaviour of mechanical joints

Until now, consicferation has been given to the quasi-static evaluation of the cyclic
behaviour of joints. But a different loading than that is imposed in a real
earthquake. Obviously the influence of the loading rate cannot be taken into account
by these types of' cyclic Lest. On the other hand, the frequency content of the
seis~i~ic
input is also unknown.

It is emphasised, therefore, that cyclic tests seen1 actually to be st~fficient to

estirnate with enough accitri\cy the seismic behnviour of joints. With tile present
state of knowledge, it is felt that the actual behaviour of joints is likely to be inore
stiff and resistant under "instantaneous" loading than under short-term loading of
the sartie magnitude. It has not been shown that instaritiineous loading of the
velocity ratio induced by earthquakes has any significant i~~fluence in reducing
ductility. Cyclic tests are considered sufficient since they provide, with enough
accuracy, all of the parameters necessary to predict the behaviour of a structure in
a real earthquake.

In fact i T the "shape" of the cyclic behaviour of the joint is lcnown (RILEM, 1994)
a calculation prograinme for non-linear seismic analysis can be used and theoretical
calculations performed in order to find the strength of the structure under a given
earthquake i.e. tlie acceleration producing collapse (the problem of representing a
parlicular earthquake is not considered here which, of course, presents the same
difficulties for all materials and stluctures).

Another point to be e~nphasisedis that under a real earthquake the cycles will be
less "regular" than those in cyclic laboratory tests because the input will bc random
and irregular: so tlle n~iinberof entire cycles at the maximum displacement will in
general be very small, whilst the srr~allercycles will be more numerous. As an
example, Figure 10 shows thc Moment - Rotation history of a dowelled corner joint
of a portal St-a~ne,under the El Centro earthquake. This is based on a numerical
sin~ulation,and the eartl~quakeeffect was amplified by a factor of 1,s.

Requirements of Eurocode 8
In EC8 "Constiuctions in seisnlic regions" structures are c~assifieciinto categories
according to tile ability of their joints to be ductile and be capable of dissipating
energy in the plastic field. It is, in any case, recommended that structures be .-

designed to be sufficiently rigid to meet serviceability criteria. For structures

designed to take profit from their ability to dissipate energy ( q > 1) it is also
-
STEPfEUROFORTECH - an initiative undcr the EU Comctt Programrnc
recolnmended that the strength of the timber members sI~ouldbe higher than the
strength of the connecting joints. Tl1is implies that plasticity in the joints will be
achieved.

The properties of dissipative joints under seismic actions are as a rule required to
be de~nonstratedthrough testing, by ineans of agreed il~ternationaIsta~dards.By
such tests, it must be shown that the ductility is sufficient and that rhe joint
properties are stable under cyclic loading ut a reasonably high load/deformation
level. To ensure sufficient ductility, il is required that the ductility obtained fi-OITI
cyclic tests should be grealer than the assumed behaviour factor q multiplied a
factor of 3. This value is reduced to 2 for panel structures, because of the highly
positive effect in reducing inertia forces due to damping caused by friction, and due
to compression perpendicular to the grain between parts. Such effects are believed
to give a damping ratio more than the usual 5%.

In addition, it is stated that cor~rlectionsbetween elements must be able to deform

plastically for at least three fully reversed cycles at the above ductility ratio without
an ilnpairment of their strength of worse than 20%. By complying wit11 these
conditions, the designer is allowed to calculate the strengtll and stiffness ofthe joint
following the nonnal design rules of EC5.

Concluding summary
- For design purposes the seismic behaviour of mechanical timber joints can
sirnply be related to quasi-static behaviour under cyclic loading.

- Ductility of joints and dissipation of energy are the most important features
for dissipative design of structures to resist eartliqtrakes.

- If the cyclic behaviour of joints is srifficiently stable, seismic design can be

performed using normal EC5 design values for the strength and stiffness of
n~ecl~anical joints.

References
Ceccotti, A,, cdilor, (1989). Slruclural Behnviour o f Timber Constructions in Scislnic Zones. Proc, of
the rclcvnr~tCEC DG III - Univ, of Flor~cnccWorkshop. Fiorcncc, I ~ a l y .

EUROCODE 8 (1993). Constructions irt sci~nlicregions. Ui~derpreparation by TC 250 of CBN,

STEPlEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comelt Progra~nine C 1719

Brussels, Belgium.

RILEM TC 109 TSA (1994). Timber structures in scisrnic regions. RILEM Statc-of-tile-Art Report.
Material and Structures 27: 157-184.

Yasumura, M. el al. (1988). Experiment on a three-storied wooden framc building subjected to

horizontal load, lo: International Timber Engineering Confcrcncc, Seattle, 1988: 262-275.

STEPIEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comctt Programme

 Fire resistance of joints

STEP lcclurc C i 9 Objective

kl. l-iar11 To present the methods used Tor calculating the fire resislance of timber
Zivilingcnicur liir connections.
Bauwcscn
Prerequisite
A13 Beliaviour of timber and wood-based materials in fire

Summary
Tile relevant cl~aptersfrom EC5: Part 1-2 "General rules - Supplementary rules
For structural fire design" are described.

Calculation methods are given relating to standard fire exposure (standard

temperature-time curve) for unprotected joints with side members of wood and
wilh external steel plates as well as for protected joints. Special attention is paid
10 connections for which an increase of the cross-section is necessary. In one
example fire-test results and calculations are conlpared.

General
The load-bearing capacity of fasteners made of fire-unprotected steel is
considerably weal\-end by heat. All-round protection with wood or wood based
materials offers resistance to heat, thereby protecting the steel members. The
area of the non-protected surfaces of the steel-members is therefore relevant to
the fire-behaviour of fasteners made of steel. Figure 1 describes the relevant
yield point \.I'of steel dependent on tile temperature 6.

---
0,ZO - - _---- *- -
4.

0,oo - i I, *-..I--L.
0 260 ' 400 660 800
"C
1000

Relevar~tyield poi111'1' of steel itj c f e / ~ a ~ d e ~011t c the

e

ECS: Part 1-2: 4.5. t The following section relates to joints between members itt standard fire
exposure situations Formed using nails, bolts, dowels, screws, connectors and
steel plates. The EC5-rules are valid only for joints under lateral load and deal
only with forces which are transmitted symmetrically (see EC5: Part I - 1: Figure
6.2.1, g-k). This restriction in EC5 has in practice often to be replaced by a
logical, mathematical derivation of the fire resistance, e.g. in order to determine
the fire resistance of limber structures with single connections (see Figure 2).

STEWEUROFORTECI-I - an initialivc undcr the EU Comctt Programme C19/1

 Unprotected joints with side members of wood
EC5: Part 1-2: 4.5.2 Assuming that joints and their fasteners are designed according to EC5: Part 1 - I , A

tlley may be expected to display a fire resistance of I5 minutes (R15). Unless

otherwise stated all joints sl~ouldbe designed for RI5.
+
For a fire resistance of more than 15 minutes (more than R15) the end arid edge
distances should be increased by a, (see EC5: Part 1-2: Figure 4.4) which should
be taken as:
-
EC5: Part 1-2: Equation 4.2 ell = Po &,,, - 15) in rrltll (1)

where
%r.:, is the required standard fire resistance in minutes.
-
Po is the charring rate according EC5: Part 1-2: (see STEP lecture A 13,
Table I).

The minimum end and edge distances a, and a, of fasteners should be increased
by the extra distance equal to a/. No extra distance is required if the Following
condition for n, and a, is satisfied:
EC5: Part 1-2:
Equation 4.7

Equation 4.8

Tlie total thickness r , of he side members should satisfy tlie following

conditions:

Equatiort 4.4

where

Equation 4.6

The I7re resistance R30 is satisfied if

Ttie requirements of Equation (7) may be satisfied by increasing the number of

,-

fasteners in a joint, by cl~oosingfasteners with a higher- load-carrying capacity or.

by using coverings.

For fire resistance between R30 and R60,il [nay be determined by: .
EC5: Part 1-2: Equation 4.9
(8)
-4

Deterrtlincttio~tof tire q30-~raIl~t'~

If the conditions in ECS: Part 1-2: Table 4.2, 4.3 are fulfilled, ?I,, could be taken --
as:

-
STEPIEUROFORTECM an iniliutivc undcr thc EU Comcit Programme
-
EC5: Part 1-2: Tabic 4.2 11,,, = 0,50 for unprotected wood-to-wood joints with nails, non-projecting
dowels and connectors with nails.
EC5: Park 1-2: Tiiblc 4.3 1 1 ~=~ )I ,OO for unprotected steel-to-wood joints with nails or non-projecting
dowels.
EC5: Part 1-2: Tnblc 4.2, ,,,TI = 0,45 for unprotected wood-to-wood and steel-to-wood joints with bolts
~ n b i c4.3 and connectors with bolls.

Otherwise 1 1 has
~ to be calculated according to EC5: Part 1-2: Annex 3.

Unprotected joints with steel plates as middle members

30 or 60 niinutes fire resistance (R30 or RGO) of a joint with unprotected steel
plates as middle members (tliicltness 2 2 lnnt) is achieved if the widths B,, of the
steel plates given in Table 1 are observed.

unprotected edges in general tinprotected edges on one or two sides

EC5: Part 1-2: Anncx 8 5 Table 1 bVidrh b,, q/ s1er.1plo1e.y :r.~jitlr

rrrlpr-otecred er1gc.s.

Figrtrz. 2 S~eelplate joirrrs - defitritiort of b,,,

Sunimarising, the classification of unprotected joints with side members of wood

under R30 or R60 calls for a new design of the joint with n ti~ilesthe number of
actions (Table 2) than at normal tenlperature design.

N,l,n = 1 1
11 = --. - resp. -
E,, '1 3n '1 .I

wood-to-wood joints steel-to-wood joints bolts

nails, dowels nails, clowels

RGO 1
-= 5,OO
0,20

SI'EP/EUROFORTECI~I- iln initiiltivc under the EU Comctt Programme C 1 913

 Unprotected joints with external steel piates
ECS: Part 1-2: 4.5.3 For unprotected external steel plates which are directly exposed only on one
side, the Fire resistance R30 is satisfied for a plate thickness of:

I, 26 ttttll for joints with 11 I0,45

Otherwise calciilalion according to EC3, structural fire design, is required.

Example for an unprotected joint with side members of wood

Test member, tensile joint with dowels:

I I I I 1
t . . . I I . . . I .

Figiit'e 3 Tetrsile joitll 1vi1l1side ttrunbels of ~~,t,no~i

nrrci rlo\r~cI.sitr doti61~'S I I ~ N I ;

t, = 80 ttrttt t2 = 200 V I I I J (1 = 26 mln

1,,,,,, = 340 trrttr (10 tntn thick plrrg on encl~side) r ,,,,,,,,.= 70 nrtr~

prEN 338: Table I strength class: coniferous timber C 27:

.h,o.k = 16 N / ~ I I I ~ I ' pk = 370 IiC:/t~l"
dowel: .f;,.a = 360 Nhltrn'
distances: aI = 140 mtn N,,, = 85 rntlr
('3~ = I60 mnz
ECS: Pan 1-1:Tnhle h.6n nlinimurn distances:
l I t l =, , , = 7 d = 7 36 = 182 nzt?l
'~.c.nnn = 3 d = 3 26 = 78 trun

Derernzirtarion o j clt.sig~~
loali-cclr-ryirrg c ~ c i p ~ c ioff y ttun?zctl tenll?et-cltr.4,z.
a) design load-carrying capacity of dowels

Characteristic values:

EC5: Part 1-1:6.5.1.2~ MYqk= 0 , 8 j ; , , k -

(1
= O,8 -360 .-
26 " = 844Ntt2
G G

C 19/4 STEPIEUROFORTECII - an inilintivc under the EU Con~cllProgri~mrnc

 Design values:

EC5:Part 1 - I : 6.2.11 - I I = 0,8 ' 9*7 = 12,1 Nl,,lm 2

.6,,1.11 -
Ynr I ,3

EC5: Pari 1-1:6.2.lj Design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per dowel:

Design load-carrying capacity of dowels:

b) design load-carrying capacity of side members:

cross-section area A = 2 e220 - 8 0 = 35200 rni11~

area of dowel holes A,,,, = 2 26 8 0 = 41 60 tnm2
net area A,,,,, = 35200 - 41 60 = 31000 nlttl'

k~llfN!sl f;..,k = OS8 'I6 = 9,85~/111m2

EC5: Part 1- 1 : 6.2.11
AI 1-3

Rdsrlr= An?,Jsr.ll = 31 000 . 9,85 = 306 kN ...sin...side member

ECS: Part 1-2:4.5.2 Veriji'cation of 60 nti~zntcs.fi~a

resistarzce nccotdirlg to EC5: Port 1-2
= 60 ntirt
1 = 1 ,o

-
STEPtEUROFORTECI-I an initiative under rhc EU Comett Progrt~rnrnc
 Determination OF qlo:

EC5: Pirrt 1-2: Table 4.2 1,,,,,, = 2 tl,2.r,cr,r

+. tl = 2 . 106 + 200 = 4121tltt11 150 111111

,', - -'z - - ~200

- 7 , 6 9 2 6 condition not [net
d cl 26

==, Determination of qa in accordance with Annex B:

Determination of F
v(~,:
9
.

(7): verification: Vj,,2 5 7760

0,903 5 0,25

This condition is not FulfiIled, therefore a new joint has to be designed:

= 15 dowels in 3 rows
--
ti?
t1,3 = 100 ~ 1 1 1 1 (without: plugs)
t,,3,,lc,,c

STEPIEUROFORTECI-I - an initiative under thc EU Comctl Programme

 New dimensions of the side members and ~niddlemember:

brr,,,,= 6,,,,, = 2 (95 + 90) = 370 r r i r ? ~

= 2 (1 60 + 4 - 140 + I GO) = 1760 rvm
l.,rrr,2 +

cross-section area A2 = 2 .370 100 - = 74 000 mm'

area of dowel holes A,, .
= 6 .26 100 = I5 600 ianz'
net area Aner,~ = 74 000 - 15 600 = 58 400 l?vn'

= 139
verifications: - -------
Ell
- = 0,246
Rd.Q~~~f.l 565

Fire-test result of the test member: time of fire resistance: 62 minutes

at 1; = 94600 N (test member 6)

Increased timber consumption of the side members only:

Based on the reduced strength and stiffness method for members (given in EC5:
Part 1-2: 4.2 and Annex A) a logical, mathematical derivation of fire resistance
could be applied to joints; the reduced cross-section must be checked. Care must
be taken to maice sure that the steel temperature within the joint does not
increase more than 600 "C. This is confirmed not only by tests on dowelled
frame corners but also by calculation models. Hence it can be verified that the
cross-section does not need to be increased more than the necessary dimensions
for the load-carrying capacity for design at normal temperature.

Verification for R60 based on the red1l1tct.dstrer~gthnrtd stiJyi7ess rrrethocl

EC5: Part 1-2: Equarion 2.7 Ei,,= Ik Ed = 0'6 ' 139 = 83,4 kN
where 5 = 0,6 ...in most cases of civil engineering less than 0,G.
EC5: Part 1-2: Tabfc 3.1 charring rate p,, = 0,8 na?th/,nin

STEPiEUROFORTECH - an initiative under the EU Comeit Programme

 remaining cross-section:
b, = 220 - 2 .0,8 . GO = 124 r~un
-
t, = 80 - 0,8 60 = 32 nlm
cross-section area A = 2 . 124 32 = 7940 t?zrn2
area of dowel holes A,,,, = 2 .26 32 .
= 1660 nrm'
net area A,,, = 7940 - 1660 = 6280 nzm'
perimeter p, = 2 (2 - 3 2 + 124) = 376 rrlni

a) design load-carrying capacity of dowels:

Cllaracteristic value of the embedding strength:

Xk= = 19,7 N~IZ~IZ~

Reduction factor:

EC5: Par1 1-2: Equation A.5

knrod3,, -- 0 - 0 1 - p, -- 1-10'.. 1
-376
a

=0,856
330 A 330 7940

Coefficient for solid timber: kf = 1,25

Partial safety factor: I'M, = 1to

Design values:
EC5: Par1 1-2: Equation 2.1
jj,l,l,= k !{,, k,
4 = 0,856
- .1,25 .-19 7
-1-= 21,I Nlmm2
Ynrj I ,O
MA,:,= k My,,= 0,3 . 767000 = 230 Ni~r
assumption: k = 0,3 (Figure I: steel temperature: 600 "C)

Design load-carrying capacity per shear plane per dowel:

ECS: part 1-1: 6.2.1g R,,, r , d = 21,t . 32 .26 = 17500 N

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 Design load-carrying capacity of dowels:
, = 2 . 4 - 12,8 = 102 kN
R L , ,,,,,
verification: E J ; ~ < RL~,,,,~,,,:~
83,4 < 102

b) design toad-carrying capacity of side members:

verification: %I < &,o.~,

-
A
= 83 400
-
'~(i
< krill, L,o,k 16
kf - = 0,856 - I,25 .-
n ,, 6280 Yai,r 1 ,O

Protected joints
EC5: Pnrt 1-2: 4.5.4 Joints are considered protected if the fasteners are covered with protective plugs
or wood or wood-based panels with minimum af according to EC5: Pmt 1-2:
Figure 4.5 ( a) and b) glued-in plugs c) protective panels). For fastening of
protective boards the edge distance of fasteners should be at least equal to af
according to Equation (I).

Concluding summary
- The method given in EC5: Part 1-2, at its present stage is distinctly on the
"safe side" and consequentely is an uneconomical design for fire
resistances of R30 and even more so for R60.

- One test member, a tensile joint wjth dowels and side members of timber,
was checked according to EC5: Part 1-1. Subsequently this member was
calculated using two different methods for a fire resisrance of 60 minutes
(R6O). The tirst method reldes to calculation for joints (Part 1-2), the
second to the structural fire design of members. The first method results in
extremely oversized members because of the q-value applied. 1 for RGO is
only a quarter of that for R30, which is equal to 1 in the example.
Therefore the load-carrying capacity in nomlal temperature design has to
be four times that necessary - four times the number of dowels and
tripling of the timber dimensions.

- A comparison of the resuIts show that the second method is in very good
agreement with the fire-test results.

- Classification of timber members into fire resistance classes requires that

not only the single components they are built from, but also the
connections should satisfy the requirements for fire resistance. It is often
necessary to direct attention to joints and their fasteners, because the
dimensions of the members depend in most of cases, under normal
temperature-conditions, on tile design of their connections.

Notation
$WO
required standard fire resistance in minutes as contrast to thickness t .

Subscripts
<,tlr,l,* dowel.
side member, middle member.

STEPfEUROFORTECI-I- an initialivc under the EU Comctt Programme