MODULE I

INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1 Problem-solving

Lesson 2 Classifications of Problem-

solving Task

Lesson 3 Stages of Problem-solving

The Problem-solving
Lesson 4 Heuristics

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MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM-SOLVING

 INTRODUCTION

This module presents a brief introduction to problem-solving.

Here, mathematical problem-solving was defined, and discussions
about the different classifications of problem tasks were presented.
Also, George Polya’s stages of problem solving was introduced. In the
last part of this module, you will get to know the different heuristics
in solving non-routine problem tasks.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. distinguished a problem from a mere mathematical exercise;
2. defined a problem;
3. classify a problem according to construction and goal; and
4. understand the different problem-solving heuristics.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully
then answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have
benefited from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your
output to your teacher.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your teacher

via email or private message. If not contact your tutor at the College
of Education office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 PROBLEM-SOLVING

A PROBLEM TASK AND AN EXERCISE

Before we begin problem solving, let us first define a problem.

We do this by differentiating a problem and an exercise. An exercise is
a question that you know how to resolve immediately. Whether you get
it right or not depends on how expertly you apply specific techniques,
but you don't need to puzzle out what techniques to use. In contrast,
a problem demands much thought and resourcefulness before the right
approach is found. An exercise is a mathematical task where execution
of concepts and procedure is done but no more activity is involved after
the execution. On the other hand, a problem is a task given to the
students where the solution is not obvious. The notion that an exercise
and a problem are the same thing is a misconception. With this,
students believed that they are good in problem-solving because when
they found an answer for an exercise, they thought they have solved a
problem. But when given a problem-solving task they usually get stuck
and give up.

For example, if the students will be given a task to multiply

polynomials. The students will just apply the rules in multiplying
polynomials. If the teacher will ask the students to factor a trinomial,
the students will just recall the steps in factoring a polynomial. These
examples show that there is an application of learning. However, the
output was achieved by just recalling. If the students can do a task like
this, it does not mean that they can also do problem-solving. These
mathematical tasks are classified as an exercise. An exercise is a task
that is not a problem. However, skills used for exercises are very
important in solving a problem-solving task.

This module will help you develop your problem-solving skills

albeit the difficulties of learning it. Now, let us start by focusing first
on learning the different concepts which are very helpful in developing
your independent problem-solving skills.

Problem-Solving

The problem-solving activity is what the students do in solving a

problem task. According to Yeo and Yeap (2009), a ‘problem-solving
activity’ is divided into stages: Entry, Problem Solving Process, Review
and Extension.

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The question, “What is problem-solving?”, cannot have a

unanimous answer; it depends, indeed, on personal interests and
philosophy (Verschaffeli et al., 1997). The following are some of the
definition given to problem-solving:

1. Mathematical problem-solving could be viewed as the use of

strategies and methods to effectively meet a specified outcome or
goal accomplished by transferring skills and knowledge from one
situation to another (Jagals, 2013).

2. Problem-solving is a process, in which a learner reaches a correct

answer from a mathematical structure of given information
(Iskenderoglu, 2018).

3. To Verschaffeli et al. (1997), problem-solving is a way of teaching

mathematical knowledge or concepts, whereas, constructivism and
problem-solving was viewed synonymous, and also potential in
motivating students (Fien Depaepe, Corte, & Verschaffel, 2010).

Further, Mayer (1990) defined problem-solving as “a summary of

the cognitive processes focused on the change of the given state to the
final state where the solution procedure is not obvious.” In this point
of view by Mayer, the different standing obstacles in problem-solving,
for example, are the lack of knowledge and strategy in a problematic
situation, which will make the solution of the problem not obvious.

In connection to the fourth definition, according to Dostal

(2015), the process of overcoming the obstacles in problem-solving can
include not only cognition but also motivational and emotional aspects.

A problem will arise when a student has a specific aim but

struggles to achieve it –this situation is referred to as the ‘problematic
situation.’ The thinking process will begin when a student becomes
aware of the problematic situation. In this case, the problematic
situation will potentially transform into a problem that requires a
solution (Dostal, 2015).

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1

1. You might have your own version of defining problem-

solving. Define ‘problem-solving’ in your own words and
THINK how your definition is similar to the definitions given
above.
2. THINK and draw a concept map how problem-solving is
happening.

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Lesson 2

 Classifications of
PROBLEM-SOLVING

A PROBLEM AS ROUTINE OR NON-ROUTINE

A problem could be classified as routine or non-routine (Ünlü,

2018):

1. Routine problems are standard problems (Mwei, 2017),

which refer to problems that can be properly modeled and
solved by a straightforward way of applying one or more
arithmetic operations.

2. Non-routine problems are non-standard, involving

unexpected and unfamiliar solutions; students are generally
afraid of the idea of solving non-routine problems (Apostol,
2017).

Non-standard in this definition (non-routine problems) refers to

problems that require the sophisticated application of mathematical
algorithms, so the problem solver has to comprehend and grasp all the
parameters and conditions in problem tasks (Rosales, Vicente,
Chamoso, Muñez, & Orrantia, 2012). Also, Yazgan and Sahin (2018)
defined non-routine problems as problems for which there is no
predictable, suggested approach by the task or a well-rehearsed
method.

Henderson and Pingry (1953) wrote that to be considered

problem-solving, there must be a goal, a resistance in achieving the
goal, and acceptance of that goal. What is a problem for one student
may not be a problem for another – either because there is no
resistance or no acceptance of the goal. Schoenfeld (1985) also pointed
out that identifying a problem is always relative to the individual. With
this relativity, students might consider a non-routine problem, as
classified by the teacher, as routine problems when they can solve that
given problem based on what they have learned from textbooks. An
example is a problem to

‘Find the unit-digit of 34798.’

This problem might be familiar because the powers of 3 could

be encountered by the students many times after the concept of
‘exponents’ was taught to them. Powers of 3 are also discussed in
textbooks. It might also be solved by entering the figure in the
computer or a high-memory calculator. However, this cannot be solved
immediately without resources. This means that when there are no

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textbooks as resources or if the students have forgotten the way it was

solved as taught by a teacher, then the given problem might be
classified as non-routine problems.

Moreover, this problem (find the unit-digit of 34798) might be

wrongly classified by students as a routine exercise because of the
simplicity of the problem statement. It can be answered also using a
single operation – that is, by using 3 as a factor 4,798 times. However,
this is cumbersome and time-consuming, which makes it a task that
cannot be worked out every day as a routine exercise. Also, the
problem can be solved in multiple ways, and there is a way to solve it,
which is more efficient than the direct solution suggested by the task
(Mabilangan, Limjap, & Belecina, 2011).

A non-routine problem is defined as "a cognitively non-trivial

task; that is, the solver does not already know a method of the solution"
(Selden, Selden, Hauk, & Mason, 2000, p. 129). Non-routine problems
require problem solvers to use facts and procedures in ways that are
not known before. With this definition, however, any specific problem
is classified as routine or non-routine, not by the structure or content
of the problem, rather, by the previous experiences or encounters of
the solver. For instance, a problem that can be solved automatically
by a person who has experience working with the same or very similar
situations is more appropriately defined as a routine exercise
(Nancarrow, 2004; Selden et al., 2000).

Closed problem-solving tasks

Real-life context integration

Closed problem-solving tasks are problems which requires the

solver to find a specific or single correct answer. Non-routine problems
can be classified as closed. Closed non-routine problems include math
problems with and without the integration of real-world context in the
problem statement. Examples are problems on age, measurement,
time-distance-rate, work, mixture, and objects which are familiar in
the environment. An example of a mathematics word problem is:

“Hans makes furniture as a hobby. Last year he made 4-legged tables

and 3-legged stools as gifts for family and friends. When he finished,
he had used up to 37 legs. How many stools might he have made?”

Non-integration of real-life context

Also, there are problems which usually include data like

numbers, variables and symbols, and operations in a problem
statement. Examples of these non-routine problems are number
theory problems (consecutive numbers problem and digit problems),

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algebra problems (find-the-value and simplifying problems), and

geometry problems (figure problems). An example of a task is:

“Find the unit digit of 819,” and “The sum of five consecutive terms
of an arithmetic sequence is 30, and the sum of the squares of these
terms is 220. Find the largest of these terms.”

More on closed problem-solving tasks:

1. Recreational Problems
Also known as "brain teasers," these problems usually involve
little formal mathematics, but instead rely on creative use of basic
strategic principles. They are excellent to work on, because no special
knowledge is needed, and any time spent thinking about a recreational
problem will help you later with more mathematically sophisticated
problems. The Shake-hands problem is a good example of a
recreational problem.

“I invite 10 couples to a party at my house. I ask everyone present,

including my wife, how many people they shook hands with. It turns
out that everyone questioned-I didn't question myself, of course-shook
hands with a different number of people. If we assume that no one
shook hands with his or her partner, how many people did my wife
shake hands with? (I did not ask myself any questions.)”

2. Contest Problems
These problems are written for formal exams with time limits,
often requiring specialized tools and/or ingenuity to solve. Several
exams at the high school and undergraduate level involve sophisticated
and interesting mathematics. AN example for this is the problem from
IMO-HK 2011.

“Find the sum of all fractions in lowest terms with value greater than
10 but smaller than 100 and with denominator equal to 3.”

Open-ended problem-solving tasks

These are mathematical questions that are sometimes vaguely

worded, and possibly have no actual solution (unlike the closed-
problems). Open-ended problems can be very exciting to work on,
because you don't know what the outcome will be. A good open-ended
problem is like hiking in a mountain. Often partial solutions, how to
get in the peak, are all that you can get. An example of these is the
‘ell’ problem:

An "ell" is an L-shaped tile made from three 1 x 1 squares. For what

positive integers a, b is it possible to completely tile an a x b rectangle
using only ells? ("Tiling" means that we cover the rectangle exactly
with ells, with no overlaps.) For example, it is clear that you can tile

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a 2 x 3 rectangle with ells, but (draw a picture) you cannot tile a 3 x

3 with ells. After you understand rectangles, generalize in two
directions: tiling ells in more elaborate shapes, tiling shapes with
things other than ells.

Problems ‘to find’ and ‘to prove’

Within each classification state above, problems split into two

basic kinds: problems "to find" and problems "to prove.” Problems "to
find" ask for a specific piece of information, while problems "to prove"
require a more general argument. Sometimes the distinction is blurry.

Examples:
1. Solve the following system of equations for w, x, y, and z where w,
x, y, and z are positive integers:

2. Show that if 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, then 𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 4 is even.

If you think that example 1 is a problem ‘to find’ and example

2 is a problem ‘to prove,’ then you are right.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2

Look for three problems coming from different

classifications. When someone is trying to solve each
problem, THINK what particular ‘thinking skills; is
developed. Explain your answer.

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Lesson 3

 STAGES OF PROBLEM-
SOLVING

George Polya’s Four Stages

The purpose of problem-solving is achieving goals and producing

outcomes through knowledge and application of knowledge and skills.
This purpose can be made possible by letting the students perform
problem-solving activities. The problem-solving activity is what the
students do in solving a problem task. According to Yeo and Yeap
(2010), a problem-solving activity is divided into stages: Entry,
Problem-solving Process, Review, and Extension.

Further, the Polya’s problem-solving stages (Polya, 1945) are

understanding the problem, devising a plan, implementing the plan,
and going back. Understanding the problem will be done before the
actual ‘problem-solving process’ and going back occurs after the
process. However, devising a plan and carrying out the plan are the
stages under the actual problem-solving process (Yeo & Yeap, 2010).
Thus, Yeo and Yeap consider the entire problem-solving activity of
Polya as a composition of understanding the problem, the actual
problem-solving process, and looking back at the problem.

Understanding the problem

Devising a plan

Problem-solving Problem-solving
Activity Process
Carrying-out the plan

Going back

Figure 1. Stages of problem-solving

George Polya’s major contribution is his work in problem

solving. In 1945 he published the book ‘How to Solve It’ which quickly
became his most prized publication. It sold over one million copies and
has been translated into 17 languages. In this text he identifies four
basic principles (the stages). George Polya went on to publish a two-
volume set, Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning (1954) and
Mathematical Discovery (1962). These texts form the basis for the
current thinking in mathematics education and are as timely and

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important today as when they were written. Polya has become known
as the father of problem solving.

Ünlü (2018), defined Polya’s stages as follows:

1. Understanding the problem is the first step of the problem-

solving activity. In this step, it is crucial to understand which
information is given, what is happening in the problem, and
what is required for a solution.

This phase was done after receiving the task and before the students
will work on the Problem-Solving Activity. It involves Identifying and
Defining the Problem. In this stage, the students will usually ask the
following questions:
a. What is the unknown?
b. What are the data?
c. Is there enough information to find a solution? What is
the condition?
d. Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
e. Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
f. Is the condition insufficient, redundant, or
contradictory? Can I write them down?
g. Can I restate the problem in my own words?

2. The second step is making a plan. In this phase, a solution

plan is made considering the ways to solve the problem, and
the selection of a strategy or strategy for a solution is
decided.

In this phase, the students examined the solution and considered other
solutions. The students may find the connection between the data and
the unknown. They may be obliged to think about auxiliary problems if
an immediate connection cannot be found. The students should obtain
eventually a plan of the solution. The students may ask:

a. Have I seen it before?

b. Or have I seen the same problem in a slightly different
form?
c. Do I know a related problem?
d. Do I know a theorem that could be useful?

They usually look at the unknown and try to think of a familiar problem
having the same or a similar unknown.

a. Could I use it?

b. Could I use its result?
c. Could I use its method?

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d. Should I introduce some auxiliary element in order to

make its use possible?
e. Could I restate the problem?
f. Could I restate it still differently?

They may also go back to definitions. If they cannot solve the proposed
problem, they may try to solve first some related problem.
a. Could I imagine a more accessible related problem?
b. A more general problem?
c. A more special problem?
d. An analogous problem?
e. Could I solve a part of the problem?
f. Keep only a part of the condition, drop the other part;
how far is the unknown then determined, how can it
vary?
g. Could I derive something useful from the data?
h. Could I think of other data appropriate to determine
the unknown?
i. Could I change the unknown or data, or both if
necessary, so that the new unknown and the new data
are nearer to each other?
j. Did I use all the data?
k. Did I use the whole condition?
l. Have I taken into account all essential notions
involved in the problem?
m. A partial list of strategies that a student may use are
guess and check, make and orderly list, eliminate
possibilities, use symmetry, consider special cases,
use direct reasoning, solve an equation, look for a
pattern, draw a picture, solve a simpler problem, use
a model, work backward, and use a formula.

3. The third stage is applying the plan. In this stage, the

prepared plan is applied, and a solution is made by using the
determined strategy. The students then implemented or
Acted on the Plan. The student may think these questions:

a. Can I see clearly that the step is correct?

b. Can I prove that it is correct?
c. Can I use the skills I learned before correctly?
d. Can I apply these skills correctly?

4. In looking back to the problem phase, the solution is checked

whether the answer is correct or not.

This stage involves Looking at the Consequences and Testing the

Outcomes. The following questions may be very useful in
this skill:

a. Can I check the result?

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b. Can I check the argument?

c. Can I derive the solution differently?
d. Can I see it at a glance?
e. Can I use the result, or the method, for some other
problem?

Doing this will enable a student to predict what strategy to use to solve
future problems.

Ünlü continues that if at least one of the stages is not correctly

finished, then it will fail to solve a problem altogether.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3

Assuming that you haven’t known the four stages in problem-

solving, how did you solve problems before? How is it different
from what you have learned now? Write a reflection paper
discussing these questions and your point of views on problem-
solving.

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Lesson 4

 THE PROBLEM-SOLVING
HEURISTICS

ALGORITHMS AND HEURISTICS

Algorithms or solution algorithms are sets of rules, or step-by-

step procedures, for doing something. A "solution algorithm"
guarantees a correct solution. This is actually the upside of an
algorithm. Such step-by-step approaches can be useful in situations
where each decision must be made following the same process and
where accuracy is critical. Because the process follows a prescribed
procedure, you can be sure that you will reach the correct answer each
time. For example, when given an exercise to find the solution of a
system of linear equation with two variables.

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 8
{
2𝑥 − 9 = 𝑦

You might be following an algorithm like the elimination, substitution,

or resort to drawing a graph. If the steps to these algorithms are
properly executed, then you will surely find the correct value of the
variables.

However, the downside of using an algorithm to solve a problem

is that this process tends to be very time-consuming. So, if you face a
situation where a decision needs to be made very quickly, you might
be better off using different problem-solving heuristics. For example,

“The divisors of 360 add up to 1,170. What is the sum of the reciprocal
of the divisors of 360?”

The task is obviously solvable by using an algorithm, that is to

follow steps dictated by the problem-statement. First, is to get the
divisors of 360 and take their reciprocals. Then, add all the reciprocals.
However, the use of algorithm is cumbersome and time consuming.
This suggests that the solver might resort to thinking of a heuristic.

According to Polya (1945), “heuristic aims to study the methods

and rules of discovery and invention... Heuristic, as an adjective,
means 'serving to discover.' Heuristic reasoning is reasoning not
regarded as final and strict but as provisional and plausible only, whose
purpose is to discover the solution of the present problem." In
mathematics, “heuristics is a general way of solving problems, and is
particularly used to come to a solution that is hoped to be close to the

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best possible solution of a mathematical problem.” (Abonyi & Umeh,

2014). Heuristics are not algorithms – fixed finite sequences of
explicitly-given operations and decision-making capabilities at a given
level when solving problems. Heuristics do not solve a problem;
instead, it provides different perspectives in finding new insights about
the problem (Scandura, 1971; Sickafus, 2004).

Heuristic strategies are rules of thumb for making progress on

difficult problems. For example, for understanding a problem, there
are heuristic-strategies to be used, like focusing on the unknown, on
the data, and drawing a diagram. Further, for devising a plan, there is
exploiting related problems, analogous problems, and working
backward (Schoenfeld, 1987). Also, Polya (1945) proposed several
strategies as a tool in problem-solving. These are worked out a plan to
identify the ‘givens’ and the goals, to draw a picture, to work
backward, and to look for a similar problem. Other pieces of the
literature identified some of the heuristic-strategies as finding a
pattern, using analogies, considering extreme cases, modeling,
systematic guessing and checking, and logical reasoning (Engel, 1998;
Muis, 2004). According to Ünlü (2018), a problem solver should choose
an appropriate strategy in the second stage, devising a plan, because
to become successful in problem-solving, using an appropriate heuristic
strategy is important.

A Technique

According to Schoenfeld (1992a), problems as routine exercises

are organized to provide practice on a particular mathematical
technique that, typically, has just been demonstrated to the student
in the class. According to Mamona-downs and Downs (2005), a
technique is more specific than heuristics. A technique lays down
certain fixed steps for argumentation with an outcome space being
understood. A technique has an algorithmic aspect of how the steps
are imposed. An example of a technique is doing a task requiring
someone to apply a specific skill like evaluating 3 2 as 3.3 = 9 (Mamona-
downs & Downs, 2005). This made a non-routine problem more
complicated than routine because, according to Schoenfeld (1992a),
the application of routine problem skills is involved in the solution of
non-routine problems. For example, specific routine techniques like
evaluating 32, 33, and 34 are needed to answer the task about “find the
unit-digit of 34798”. However, coming up with the decision to do these
techniques and then later identify and analyze a pattern is not
procedural but analytical, which is actually required in a non-routine
task.

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Some of the HEURISTIC-STRATEGIES

Posamentier and Krulik (1998) suggested the following heuristics:

1. If there are unique endpoints and a variety of paths to get the

starting point by working back, a ‘working backward’ strategy is
suitable for the solution.

2. Finding a pattern is a strategy that problem solver seeks a pattern

and uses this pattern to solve a problem.

3. In adopting a different point of view strategy, it is required to

look at the problem from a different perspective.

4. Solving a simpler analogous problem strategy is a strategy that

problem solver changes the given problem into one that may be
easier to solve.

5. ‘Considering extreme cases’ strategy is solving a problem such as

where some variables are constant, and others are varying to
extremes.

6. Making a drawing strategy (visual representation) is using diagrams

or drawings to see relationships between situations.

7. Intelligent guessing and testing is a strategy where the problem

solver guesses the solution and tests to show it is correct or not.

8. In organizing data strategy, the given data from the problem

situation is reorganized in a way different from the way it was
presented.

9. Accounting for all possibilities is a strategy where the problem

solver considers all options and chooses the most suitable one.

10. In logical reasoning strategy, rules of logic are used in solving the
problem.

According to Yazgan and Sahin (2018), these heuristic strategies

are also known as non-routine problem-solving strategies used to
formulate pathways to a solution such that the solver could explore,
analyze, and probe aspects of non-routine problems. Furthermore,
Krulik and Rudnick, (1996) identified eight strategies that apply to
mathematical problem solving namely: computing or simplifying; using
a formula; making a model or diagram; making a table, chart, or list;
guessing, checking, and revising; considering a simpler case;
eliminating, and looking for patterns.

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Theories of mathematics problem solving (Newell & Simon,

1972; Schoenfeld & Herrmann, 1982; Xavier, 1967) have placed a major
focus on the role of heuristics. Surely, it seems that giving explicit
instruction on the development and use of heuristics should enhance
problem-solving performance (Xavier, Fernandez, & Hadaway, 1993).

Mathematics instruction stressing the use of heuristic-strategies

has been the focus of several studies. Kantowski (1977) used heuristic
instruction to enhance the geometry problem-solving performance of
secondary school students. Xavier (1967) and Smith (1974) examined
contrasts of general and task-specific heuristics. These studies
revealed that task-specific heuristic instruction was more effective
than general heuristic instruction. Jensen (1984) used the heuristic of
subgoal generation to enable students to form problem-solving plans.
He used thinking-aloud, peer interaction, playing the role of teacher,
and direct instruction to develop students' abilities to generate
subgoals.

THINK!

Look for mathematical tasks (finding one for algorithm and one
for heuristic is better). THINK whether the task could be
satisfied by using an algorithm or a heuristic. Justify your
answer.

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