Characteristics of Computer

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics of a
computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are:

1. Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second.
Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in
a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of
thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large
amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
2. Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can
accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
3. Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It
can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the
end.
4. Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and
also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the
primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large
amount of data permanently.
5. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same
ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next
moment you may play music or print a document.

Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.

Generations of Computer
The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but much
more powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms of the
generations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based on a new technological
development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and
efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computer. In the following
subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of :
1. The technology used by them (hardware and software),
2. Computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),
3. Physical appearance, and
4. Their applications.

First Generation (1940 to 1956):

Using Vacuum Tubes
1. Hardware Technology: The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes (Figure 1.4) for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punched cards
and paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts.
2. Software Technology: The instructions were written in machine language. Machine language
uses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions. The first generation computers could solve one problem
at a time.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required a large room for
installation.
5. Application: They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing device
of their time.
6. Examples: UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC).
The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a lot of
heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The machines were
prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since first generation
computers used machine language, they were difficult to program.

Second Generation (1956 to 1963):

Using Transistors
1. Hardware Technology: Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation
of computers.
Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The
second generation computers used magnetic core technology for primary memory. They used
magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The input was still through punched cards
and the output using printouts.
They used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in the memory of
computer.
2. Software Technology: The instructions were written using the assembly language. Assembly
language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding of the
instructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as compared to writing
instructions in machine language. High-level programming languages, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in microseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the size of
the computer was also reduced.
5. Application: The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high, though less
than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled manually in second
generation computers.
6. Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.
Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first generation
computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation computers.

1.5.3 Third Generation (1964 to 1971):

Using Integrated Circuits
1. Hardware Technology: The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
Figure 1.6 shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a
type of semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency of computer,
manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used to interact with the third generation computer,
instead of the punched card and printouts.
2. Software Technology: The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the operating
system. Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same time. High-level languages
were used extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assembly language.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in nanoseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: The size of these computers was quite small compared to the second
generation computers.
5. Application: Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were produced
commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
6. Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.
The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second generation
computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual components of the
computer were not required to be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of the computers was
also less compared to their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971 to present):

Using Microprocessors
1. Hardware Technology: They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon chip using
LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated in a small chip.
This era is marked by the development of microprocessor.
Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and components, and, designed using LSI
and VLSI technology. This generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC).
Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access
to memory. Secondary storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger
in capacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era. The computers were
linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This generation also saw the
development of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld devices.
2. Software Technology: Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS-Windows
developed during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface (GUI ).
GUI is a user friendly interface that allows user to interact with the computer via menus and icons.
High-level programming languages are used for the writing of programs.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time is in picoseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation.
Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.
5. Application: They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers became
available to the home user.
6. Examples: The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the computer like
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981,
IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.
The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and more reliable.
They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.
GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has resulted
in resource sharing and communication among different computers.

Fifth Generation (Present and Next):

Using Artificial Intelligence
The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-
organization. The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are
able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large memory
requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed
in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing speed. The
Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.
The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the
human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES),
Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.
The various generations of the computer in terms of technology and other features is tabulated at the
end of this chapter.

Primary Memory
1. Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and instructions during
the processing of data. Primary memory is semiconductor memory.
2. Primary memory is of two kinds—Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM).
3. RAM is volatile. It stores data when the computer is on. The information stored in RAM gets
erased when the computer is turned off. RAM provides temporary storage for data and instructions.
4. ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory. The storage in ROM is permanent in
nature, and is used for storing standard processing programs that permanently reside in the
computer. ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.
5. RAM stores data and instructions during the execution of instructions. The data and instructions that
require processing are brought into the RAM from the storage devices like hard disk. CPU accesses
the data and the instructions from RAM, as it can access it at a fast speed than the storage devices
connected to the input and output unit (Figure 1.18).
6. The input data that is entered using the input unit is stored in RAM, to be made available during
the processing of data. Similarly, the output data generated after processing is stored in RAM before
being sent to the output device. Any intermediate results generated during the processing of
program are stored in RAM.
7. RAM provides a limited storage capacity, due to its high cost.

Secondary Memory
1. The secondary memory stores data and instructions permanently. The information can be stored in
secondary memory for a long time (years), and is generally permanent in nature unless erased by
the user. It is a non-volatile memory.
2. It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drive, floppy drive and optical disk
drives are some examples of storage devices.
3. The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but may be required later for
processing, are stored in secondary memory.
4. Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary memory.
5. Secondary memory is also cheaper than the primary memory.

6. It takes longer time to access the data and instructions stored in secondary memory than in primary
memory.

Magnetic tape drives, disk drives and optical disk drives are the different types of storage devices.

Instruction Cycle
The primary responsibility of a computer processor is to execute a sequential set of instructions that
constitute a program. CPU executes each instruction in a series of steps, called instruction cycle
(Figure 1.22).
1. An instruction cycle involves four steps (Figure 1.23):
 i. Fetching: The processor fetches the instruction from the memory. The fetched instruction
is placed in the Instruction Register. Program Counter holds the address of next instruction to
be fetched and is incremented after each fetch.
ii. Decoding: The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded.
The instruction is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s
instruction set. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an
instruction is decoded.
iii. Executing: The decoded instruction or the command is executed. CPU performs the
operation implied by the program instruction. For example, if it is an ADD instruction,
addition is performed.
iv. Storing: CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.
2. Instructions are of different categories. Some categories of instructions are:
i. Memory access or transfer of data between registers.
ii. Arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction.
iii. Logic operations such as AND, OR and NOT.
iv. Control the sequence, conditional connections, etc.

A CPU performance is measured by the number of instructions it executes in a second, i.e., MIPS
(million instructions per second), or BIPS (billion instructions per second).

Application of Computers
Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer is a tool that
provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use computer to get information
about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books in a library, medical
history of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a word. The information may be
presented to you in the form of text, images, video clips, etc.
Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below:

1. Education: Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting education.
Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures. Computers are used to
develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance education using the e-learning
software, and to conduct online examinations.
Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global
access to the research material.
2. Entertainment: Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can
download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for
making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen
to music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc.
3. Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games
(like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training players.
4. Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on
different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different customers can
be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and the sound
effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the advertisements can be viewed
globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all
companies. In fact, the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for
generating revenues.
5. Medicine: Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about the
advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of patients
is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated
medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc.
Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery operations like
laparoscopic operations, etc.
6. Science and Engineering: Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex
scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for
simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing
complex calculations and for visualizing 3-dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like
the launch of the rockets, space exploration,
etc., are not possible without the computers.
7. Government: The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for e-
governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information to the users.
Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission of water and
electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The police department uses computers to
search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.
8. Home: Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use
computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and
relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are
embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,
security devices, etc.