Surigao Del Sur State University

Bislig Campus
Maharlika, Bislig City

Mathematics in
the Modern
World

MODULE 3
Adam C. Macapili
Instructor

Mathematics in the Modern World, Surigao del Sur State University

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 Module 3

Module Overview

Problem Solving and Reasoning

In this Module

• Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Problem Solving with Patterns
• Problem Solving Strategies

Most occupations call for good problem-solving skills. For example,

architects and engineers must solve many complex problems by designing and
constructing modern buildings that are aesthetically pleasing, functional and
comply with strict safety requirements. Two of the objectives of this module are
to help you become a better problem solver and to show that problem solving
can be a very enjoyable experience.
At the completion of this module, you should be able to:
• Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning;
• Use different types of rationale to justify statements and arguments
about mathematics and mathematical concepts; and
• Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

Are you ready? Then start the lesson now!

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 Lesson
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
1

Objectives:
• Use inductive reasoning to identify patterns and make
conjectures;
• Understand the differences between inductive and
deductive reasoning; and
• Use properties of algebra and deductive reasoning to
create algebraic proofs.

Introduction
Being a problem solver, you have to acquire knowledge of reasoning. In
this lesson will explain that there are two major types of reasoning, deductive
and inductive, which refer to the process by which someone constructs a
conclusion as well as how they consider their conclusion to be valid. Deductive
reasoning allows one to begin with a few general ideas, called premises, and
to apply them to a particular situation.

ABSTRACTION

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is drawing a general conclusion from
a repeated observation or limited sets of observations of
specific examples. Basically, there is a given data, then we
draw conclusion based from these data or simply from
specific case to general case. The conclusion drawn by using
inductive reasoning is called conjecture. The conjecture may
be true or false depending on the truthfulness of the argument. A statement is
a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for
which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a
false statement. Some examples of inductive reasoning are shown below.

Example 1: 1 is an odd number.

11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Therefore, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.

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Example 2: Essay test is difficult.
Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.

Example 3: Michael is a Math teacher.

Michael is bald.
Therefore, all Math teachers are bald.

Note: Logical reasoning may be valid but not necessarily true.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the
list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive
reasoning.

Example 4: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number.
Thus, we predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15,
which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers
differ by 3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers
is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15
differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger
than 15, which is 21.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in the list,
it is also used to make a conjecture about the arithmetic procedure.

Example 5: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number
by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution:
Suppose we pick 6 as our original number. Then the procedure would
produce the following results:
Original number: 6

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 Multiply by 8: 6 × 8 = 48
Add 6: 48 + 6 = 54
Divide by 2: 54 ÷ 2 = 27
Subtract 3: 27 − 3 = 24
We started with 6 and followed the procedure to produce 24. Starting
with 7 as our original number produces a final result of 28. Starting with 10
produces a final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In
each of these cases the resulting number is four times the original number. We
conjecture the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Example 6: Find a counterexample

Verify that each of the following statement is a false statement by finding
a counterexample.
For all numbers 𝑥:

a. |𝑥 | > 0 b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥 c. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find
one counterexample to verify that the statement is false.
a. Let 𝑥 = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have
found a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers 𝑥, |𝑥 | > 0” is a false
statement.
b. For 𝑥 = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have
found a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 2 > 𝑥” is a false
statement.
c. Consider 𝑥 = −3. Then √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to −3,
we have found a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers 𝑥, √𝑥 2 = 𝑥”
is a false statement.

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is drawing general to specific examples or simply
from general case to specific case. Deductive starts with a general statement
(or hypothesis) and examines to reach a specific conclusion. Some examples
of deductive reasoning are shown below.

Example 7: All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.

Example 8: John is sick.

If John is sick, he won’t be able to play basketball.
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 Therefore, John won’t be able to play basketball.

Example 9: All Math teacher are bald.

Michael is a Math teacher.
Therefore, Michael is bald.

Note: Logical reasoning may be valid but not necessarily true.

Example 10: Use of Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces
a number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution:
Let 𝑛 represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8𝑛
Add 6 to the product: 8𝑛 + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide the sum by 2: = 4𝑛 + 3
2

Subtract 3: 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛
We started with 𝑛 and ended with 4𝑛. The procedure given in this
example produces a number that is four times the original number.

APPLICATION

Task: Problem Solving

Directions: Solve the following problems. Write your answer

in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.

a. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ?
b. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ?
c. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ?
d. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
e. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ?

2. Find a number that provides a counterexample to show that the given

statement is false.
1
a. For all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > 𝑥.

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 b. For all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 3 ≥ 𝑥.
c. For all numbers 𝑥, |𝑥 + 3| = |𝑥 | + 3.
d. For all numbers 𝑥, −𝑥 < 𝑥.
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
e. For all numbers 𝑥, = 𝑥 + 1.
𝑥−1

3. Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning

or deductive reasoning.
a. The Gilas Pilipinas have won five games in a row. Therefore, the
Gilas Pilipinas will win their next game.
b. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon.
Therefore, Figure A has exactly five sides.
c. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, so Duke
like to hunt.
d. A number is a neat number if the sum of the cubes of its digits equals
the number. Therefore, 153 is a neat number.
e. Cats don’t eat tomatoes. Tiger is a cat. Therefore, Tiger does not eat
tomatoes.

4. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always

produces a number that is equal to the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply a number by 6 and add 8. Divide the
sum by 2, subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.

5. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always

produces the number 5.
Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and multiply the sum by
3. Subtract 7 and then decrease this difference by the triple of the original
number.

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 in this module. Now if you
are ready, please proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will discuss about
Problem Solving with Patterns.

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 Lesson
Problem Solving with Patterns
2

Objectives:
• Identify number patterns in a given sequence; and
• Solve mathematical problems involving patterns.

Introduction

Numbers are everywhere in our daily lives and mathematics is based on

numbers. Mathematics is useful to predict and number pattern is about
prediction. Number pattern leads directly to the concept of functions in
mathematics in relation to different quantities which is defined as a list of the
same numbers following a particular sequence. Number pattern can also be
applied to problem-solving whether a pattern is present and can be used to
generalize a solution to a problem.

ABSTRACTION

Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

Patterns can be in the form counting up or down and the

missing number is of the form of completing count up or down.
One of the famous number patterns is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, … the Fibonacci sequence. Some types of pattern are
prime number pattern, imaginary number pattern, geometric
number pattern, and growing number pattern.

An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive

integers. The function values 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , …, 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 , … are terms of the
sequence. If the domain of the function consists of the first 𝑛 positive integers
only, the sequence is a finite sequence.

Example 1:
Identify whether the following are finite or infinite sequence.
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
b. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
c. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15
d. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
e. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …
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 f. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …
Solution:
(a), (b), (c) are finite sequences; and
(d), (e), (f) are infinite sequences.

A general sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , …, 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 , … having the first term

𝑎1 , the second term 𝑎2 , the third term 𝑎3 , and the 𝑛th term, also called the
general term of the sequence, is 𝑎𝑛 .

Example 2:
Write the first three terms of the sequence whose 𝑛th term is given by
the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 1
Solution:
1st term: 𝑎1 = 3(1) + 1 = 4
2nd term: 𝑎2 = 3(2) + 1 = 7
3rd term: 𝑎3 = 3(3) + 1 = 10
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, 10.

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

▪ What is the next term?
▪ What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which
shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. The
differences in rows may be the first, second, and third differences. In the first
differences, each number in the first row of the table is the differences between
the closest numbers just above it (subtract the upper left number to the upper
right number). If the first differences are not the same, compute the successive
differences of the first differences (called the second and third differences). The
following examples will show how to predict the next term of a sequence, and
we look for a pattern in a row difference.

Example 3:
Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …
b. 2, 4, 9, 17,28, …
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, …
Solution:
a. Sequence 3 7 11 15 19 23

1st differences 4 4 4 4 4

The next term is 23.

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 b. Sequence 2 4 9 17 28 42

1st differences 2 5 8 11 14

2nd differences 3 3 3 3

The next term is 42.

c. Sequence 6 9 14 26 50 91 154

1st differences 3 5 12 24 41 63

2nd differences 2 7 12 17 22

3rd differences 5 5 5 5

The next term is 154.

Example 4:
Determine the 𝑛th term formula for the following polynomial numbers in
the 𝑛th figure: (a) triangular number, (b) square number, (c) pentagonal
number, and (d) hexagonal number.
Solution:
We first define what polygonal number is. A polygonal number is a type
of figurative number represented as dots or pebbles arranged in the shape of a
regular polygon.
a. Triangular Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 1
𝑛=2 1+2=3
𝑛=3 1+2+3 = 6
𝑛=4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
𝑛=5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
𝑛=6 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21
1
which can be generalized as 𝑇𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + …+(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑛 = 2 (𝑛2 + 𝑛)

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Expanding the triangular number sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, …

b. Square Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 12 = 1
𝑛=2 22 = 4
𝑛=3 32 = 9
𝑛=4 42 = 16
𝑛=5 52 = 25
𝑛=6 62 = 36
1
which can be generalized as 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑛2 − 0𝑛) = 𝑛2

Expanding the square number sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, …

c. Pentagonal Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 1
𝑛=2 1+4=5
𝑛=3 1 + 4 + 7 = 12
𝑛=4 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 = 22
𝑛=5 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 = 35
𝑛=6 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 = 51

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 1
which can be generalized as 𝑃𝑛 = 2 (3𝑛2 − 𝑛)

Expanding the square number sequence: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 90, 117, …

d. Hexagonal Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 1
𝑛=2 1+5=6
𝑛=3 1 + 5 + 9 = 15
𝑛=4 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 = 28
𝑛=5 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 = 45
𝑛=6 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 = 66
1
which can be generalized as 𝐻𝑛 = 2 (4𝑛2 − 2𝑛) = 2𝑛2 − 𝑛

Expanding the square number sequence: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91, 120, 153, …

APPLICATION

Task : Problem Solving

Directions: Solve the following problems and write your

answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.

a. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, …
b. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, …
c. −1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, …
d. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, …
e. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, …
f. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, …

2. Use the given 𝑛th term formula to compute the first five terms of the
sequence.

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 𝑛(2𝑛+1)
a. 𝑎𝑛 =
2

𝑛
b. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛+1

c. 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑛2 − 3𝑛

d. 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛3 − 𝑛2

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 in this module. Now if you
are ready, please proceed to Lesson 3 of this module which will discuss about
Problem Solving Strategies.

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 Lesson
Problem Solving Strategies
3

Objectives:
• Examine the process of problem solving; and
• Apply Polya’s problem-solving strategy.

Introduction

This lesson covers some examples of problem-solving strategies using

the Polya’s Four Steps in problem solving. But what is Polya’s Four Steps in
Problem Solving? You will find the answer to this question in this lesson.

ABSTRACTION

Polya’s Problem-Solving Startegy

George Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics
educator who strongly believed that the skill of problem
solving can be taught. He developed a framework known as
Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving. This process
addressed the difficulty of students in problem solving. He
firmly believed that the most efficient way of learning mathematical
concepts is through problem solving and students and teachers become
a better problem solver.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem
2. Device a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution

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 Polya’s four steps are deceptive simple. To become a good
problem solver, it helps to examine each of these steps and determine
what is involved.

Understand the Problem

✓ Can you restate the problem in your own words?

✓ Can you determine what is known about these type of
problems?
✓ Is there missing information that, if known, would you
allow you to solve the problem?
✓ Is the extraneous information that is not needed to solve
the problem?
✓ What is the goal?

Device a Plan

✓ Make a list of the known information.

✓ Make a list of information that is needed.
✓ Draw a diagram or Make a table or a chart.
✓ Make an organized list that show all the possibilities.
✓ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
✓ Work backwards
✓ Look for a pattern
✓ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each
variable represent.
✓ Guess at a solution and then check your result.

Carry Out the Plan

✓ Work carefully.
✓ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
✓ Realized that some of your initial plans will not work and
that you may have to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.

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 Review the Solution

✓ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the

problem.
✓ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
✓ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.

In order to become a good problem solver, one should

follow Polya’s four steps which help to examine each of the steps
and determine what is involved. Usually, a mathematical problem
is presented in words whether orally or written. We will solve the
mathematical problem using mathematical symbols, and then
interpret the answer. This process is summarized as shown
below.

Process of Problem Solving

Example 1:
Suppose the UAAP basketball championships is decided on a
best of five series game. In how many different ways can a team win the
championship?
Solution:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

There are many different orders to win the championships. The
team may have won three straight games or maybe they could
lose the first two games and won the last three gamws.
(LLWWW). There are also other possibilities such as WWLW,
WLWW, or WLWLW.
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 Step 2: Devise a Plan.
Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that
each of the different orders is accounted for only once.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

Each entry in the list a must contain three W’s and may contain
one or more losses. Use a strategy to each order. One strategy
is to start to write W’s, then write L if it is not possible to write
W. This strategy produces ten (10) different orders shown
below.
WWW (start with three wins)
WWLW (start with two wins)
WWLLW (start with two wins)
WLWW (start with one win)
WLWLW (start with one win)
WLLWW (start with one win)
LWWW (start with one loss)
LWLWW (start with one loss)
LWWLW (start with one loss)
LLWWW (start with one loss)

Step 4: Review the Solution.

The list above is organized and contains no duplications. It
includes all possibilities, we can conclude that there are ten (10)
different ways in which a basketball team can win the UAAP
championship in the best of five games.

Example 2:
If the length of the top of a rectangular is 15 inches more than its
width and the area is 1,350 square inches Find the dimension of the
table.
Solution:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

We are looking for the length and width of the rectangular
table; and we will let l be the length and w be the width. It is
indicated in the problem that the length is 15 inches longer than
the width (l = 15+ w).

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will apply the area of the rectangle formula; Area = lw.
Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that
each of 1,350 = lw = (15 + w) w.
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 Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.
1,350 = (15 + w) w
1,350 = 15w + w2
w2 + 15w = 1,350
(w + 45) (w – 30) = 0
w + 45 = 0; w – 30 = 0
w = - 45; w = 30

since measurement cannot be negative, the width of the

rectangle is 30. The length is l = 15+ w = 15 + 30 = 45 inches.

Step 4: Review the Solution.

the width of a rectangle is 30 inches and the length is 15 inches
longer than the width which is 45 inches. The area of a rectangle
is Area = lw = 30(45) = 1350 square inches. Thus, the width is 30
inches and the length is 45 inches.

APPLICATION

Task: Problem Solving

Directions: Use Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy to

solve each of the following problems. Write your answer in a
separate sheet of paper.

1. There are 364 first-grade students in Park Elementary School. If

there are 26 more girls than boys, how many girls are there?
2. A shirt and a tie together cost $50. The shirt costs $30 more than the
tie. What is the cost of the shirt?
3. If two ladders are placed end to end, their combined height is 31.5
feet. One ladder is 6.5 feet shorter that the other ladder. What are the
heights of the two ladders?
4. In a UAAP Volleyball league consisting of 8 teams, each team plays
each other teams exactly two times in the elimination round. How
many league games will be played in the elimination round?
5. A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a
student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with “false” and the other three with “true”?

CONGRATULATIONS!
You have just finished this module.

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 Module
Summary

You have completed the third module of Mathematics in the Modern

World covering the Problem Solving and Reasoning. Summarizing the
important points covered in this module include:
• Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples. A conclusion based on inductive
reasoning is called a conjecture. A conjecture may or may not be correct.
• Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying
general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
• A statement is a true statement provided it is true in all cases. If you can
find one case in which a statement is not true, called a counterexample,
then the statement is a false statement.
• A difference table shows the differences between successive terms of a
sequence, and in some cases, it can be used to predict the next term in
a sequence.
• Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy are (1) Understand the
problem, (2) Devise a plan, (3) Carry out the plan, and (4) Review the
solution.

REFERENCES
Sirug, W. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World, CHED Curriculum
Compliant. Mindshapers Co. Inc.
Mathematics in the Modern World, Philippine Edition.

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