MODULE 1-MIDTERM COVERAGE

ETHICS030
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Prepared by: Miss Diana B. Rodrigo

UNIT 1.1: INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

Unit Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should have:
1. defined and understood the concept of Ethics;
2. differentiated human acts and acts of man;
3. identified the different kinds and modifiers of human acts; and
4. recognized the role of human acts on becoming ethical.

LESSON Definition PHILOSOPHY

1 of Ethics
➢ Came from the Greek words, Philo and Sophia which means love and wisdom respectively.
➢ Literally means love of wisdom
➢ Systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for
comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of principles and conduct, and much more.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Epistemology
>>Addresses philosophical problems surrounding the theory of knowledge.
>>concerned with the definition of knowledge and related concepts, the sources and criteria of knowledge, the
kind of knowledge possible, and the degree to which each is certain.
2. Metaphysics
>>Concerned with the nature of ultimate reality.
3. Aesthetics
>>Concerned with the essence and perception of beauty and ugliness.
4. Cosmology
>>Study of the universe as a whole including its past and its future.
5. Social and Political Philosophy
>>Concerned with the nature of legitimate authority, the nature of society, and the relation between the
individual, the community, and the state.
6. Logic
>>Concerned with the nature of legitimate authority, the nature of society, and the relation between the
individual, the community, and the state.
7. Ethics

WHAT IS ETHICS?
➢ Came from “ethous” or “ethos” which means use, custom, way of behaving, or character.
➢ A practical science of the morality of human conduct/act.
➢ The study of what is right and wrong in human behaviour in the pursuit of good life.
➢ The morality of human acts.
➢ a practical science of the morality of human conduct.
➢ The good thing that we should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid.

REFLECTION TIME…
Given the above definitions of Ethics, write down 5 reasons why it is important. Specifically, why ETHICS030 should be a
part of the learning curriculum?

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 1. _________________________________________________________________________.
2. _________________________________________________________________________.
3. _________________________________________________________________________.
4. _________________________________________________________________________.
5. _________________________________________________________________________.

Take note…
Morality- the quality of human act. Moral- Good human act
-The quality of goodness or badness I a human act. Non-moral- Bad human act
Amoral- indifferent human act
Ethical- Used to describe a behaviour which conforms to accepted standards.
Unethical- Description of an attitude, behaviour, conduct or act which don’t follow the code of ethics.
Freedom- man’s ability to act in accordance to his will and/or preferences. This is synonymous with liberty.
Right- Something to which one has a just claim, such as a piece of property, to which one is justly entitled.
Obligation- Duty/Responsibility to which one is bound.

Assignment 1: Show the parallelism between these two definitions:

a. “education is life”- John Dewey
b. Ethics is life.
Which of the two is more meaningful to you? Why?

LESSON Human acts &

Types of Soul:
2 acts of man Man
Nutritive: for nourishment (present among
➢ Consists of nutritive, sensible, and rational souls. plants, animals, and men)
Sensible: for senses and emotions (present
➢ is a rational animal. among animals & men)
Rational: for reasoning (present among men)
➢ Is composed of body and soul.
➢ has the faculties, freewill and intellect.
*by faculties refers to capacities. Therefore, man is capable of thinking and decision-making.

HUMAN ACTS and ACTS OF MAN: Is there a difference?

Human Acts Acts of Man
➢ Voluntary in nature ➢ Involuntary in nature
➢ An act proceeding from man’s deliberate free will. ➢ Action merely happening in the body without the
mind’s awareness or control of the will.
➢ examples are dancing, speaking, alms giving, doing ➢ examples are heartbeat, digestion, metabolism,
crimes, etc. breathing, blinking, etc.

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Human acts are deliberate and intentional actions whereas acts of man are instinctive and are not within the control of
the will which may also include emotions like love, jealousy, and fear. The following are essential attributes for an act to
be a human act:
1. It must be performed by conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing and of its consequences. Children below
the age of reason, the insane, the senile, are considered incapable of acting knowingly.
2. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his own volition and powers. An action done
under duress and against one’s will is not entirely a free action.
3. The agent wilfully performs the act.
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
Elicited acts are those which are performed by the will and are not bodily externalized. They are as follows:
1. Wish>> A disposition of the will aspiring for something.
>>“ I wish for a trip to Manila.”; “I wish that no Filipino would die of hunger.”
2. Intention/ Voluntariness >> Purposive tendency of the will towards a realizable thing.
>>“I intend a trip to Manila.”; “I am going to vote for our officials this May.”
3. Consent >> Acceptance of the will of the means necessary to do the intention.
>> “I’ll go to Manila by boat.”; “I’ll renew my voters registration in order to vote this May.”
4. Election >> Selection by the will of the precise means to be employed in carrying out the intention.
>> “I’ll buy the boat ticket and board the ship earlier.”; “I’ll go to the precinct and cast my vote before lunch.”
5. Use >> Will’s employment of powers to carry out its intention by the means elected.
>> “I’ll go to the precinct by walking.”
6. Fruition >> the enjoyment of the thing willed and done.
>> “I’ll enjoy result of the election.”
IMPUTABILITY OF HUMAN ACTS
➢A human act is done by a person who is in control of his faculties: intellect and will. If so, a person assumes full
responsibility and accountability for his decisions. Hence, the imputability of a human act means that the person
performing the act is liable for such act. E.g., you went to SM for leisure despite the peak of the pandemic thus, if
you acquire the virus, you cannot blame the others for that.
VOLUNTARINESS
➢It came from the Latin word “voluntas,” referring to the will. Without voluntariness, an act is not a human act but
rather, just a mere act of man. Voluntariness may be perfect, imperfect, conditional, and simple.
1. Perfect voluntariness. The person fully knows and intends the act. It is perfect voluntariness when a student cheats
during examination to get a passing score.
2. Imperfect voluntariness. The person acts without fully realizing what he does, or without fully intending the act. A
drunken man for example might act irrationally without fully knowing what he’s doing.

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 3. Conditional voluntariness. A person does the act out of certain circumstances beyond his control. A child, who is
intimidated by his mother to study his lesson, acts with conditional voluntariness.
4. Simple voluntariness. The person does the act wilfully either he likes to do it or not. Examples may be polishing the
floor, undergoing in a rehabilitation centre, not taking prohibited drugs, etc.

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE VOLUNTARINESS OF A HUMAN ACT

1. Principle of imputability (evil indirectly willed)
➢You denied your baby’s travel history when suspected of a COVID-19. You thought that your baby’s too young for a
swab test. Consequently, your baby was placed in a regular ward but days later, more COVID symptoms have been
evident on your offspring and when swab tested, positive acquisition of the virus was reported. Because of your
act, a number of facility personnel have contacted with the baby and were placed in an isolation. In this case, you
never have wanted the evil result of your action, but since the first place, you should have had already foreseen
that your evil act may result to an evil effect, you still are morally accountable of the consequence even if you
never have willed the unwanted result.
2. Principle of imputability of a two-fold effect.
➢ Was it morally right to drop the atomic bomb which would shorten the war but which would destroy numerous
innocent lives? Is it morally right to do an act which entails bad as well as good consequences? The answer is YES,
but the following should be remembered:
o The act in itself should be good, or at least morally indifferent;
o The evil effect should not be directly intended, but morally allowed to happen as a regrettable side issue;
o There should be a reason sufficiently grave in doing the act; and
o The evil effect should not outweigh the good effect. (If the evil effect be greater, then the intention and
the motive in doing the act would be for evil than for good.)
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS
➢Perfect voluntariness, which is the ideal for a man to act deliberately, is not always possible. Sometimes, we act
because emotions hold sway, or our impulse tells us to do so. There are factors which influence man’s inner
disposition toward certain actions and those are called the modifiers of human acts.
1. Ignorance. It is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. It may be vincible, invincible, or affected
ignorance. Vincible ignorance is that which we can be easily reminded or informed of just like a street direction
when one is just new in a place, or a person’s name when one has newly met his companion. Invincible ignorance
on the other hand is that which we lack awareness of possessing it or, even if one is aware of such ignorance, he
still lacks the means of rectifying it. E.g. a cook may not be aware that the food he is serving is contaminated.
Affected ignorance is which a person keeps by positive effort just to escape responsibility, like refusing to read a
memo to be exempted from the requirements therein.

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 Principles involving ignorance:
a. invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A cook is not liable if he is not aware that the food he is serving
is contaminated.
b. Vincible ignorance lessens the voluntariness and corresponding accountability over the act. A waiter who
suspects that the food is contaminated has the moral obligation to ascertain the fact.
c. Affected ignorance decreases voluntariness but increases accountability over the act. A child who refuses to be
guided by his parents has only himself to blame for his wrongdoings.
2. Passion or Concupiscence. The tendencies towards desirable objects, or away from undesirable objects. It may be
antecedent or consequent passions. Antecedent is that which precede an act. It is the reason behind for such act
like sweet and lengthy conversations because of love, or overnight cries because of emotional pain. Consequent
passions are intentionally aroused and kept thus, considered to be voluntary. Consequent passion is the result of
doing such act, like being sexually aroused because of reading pornographic magazines.
Principles involving passion:
a. Antecedent passion renders voluntariness but lessens accountability over the resultant act. A “crime of passion”
is still voluntary but since passion interferes on the freedom of the will, one’s accountability is diminished.
b. Consequent passion increases accountability. A person who does a rape due to being sexually aroused for
reading pornographic magazine is still fully accountable in any way.
3. Fear. It is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by impending danger or harm to himself or his
loved ones.
Principle regarding fear.
a. Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary thus, has no accountability. A person who jumps in a
building out of panic is involuntary does, may not be considered as a suicide.
4. Violence. Refers to any physical force exerted on a person to make him act against his will.
Principles regarding violence:
a. Actions performed by a person who is subjected to violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered,
are involuntary and are not accountable. A person who is tortured to make him not tell the truth, is not morally
accountable if he tells a lie.
b. Elicited acts, or those which are performed by the will alone, are not subjected to violence and thus, are
voluntary.
5. Habits. The performance of certain acts with relative ease.
Principle regarding habit:
a. actions done by habits are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to counteract the habitual
inclination. A heavy-drinker is accountable for whatever consequence there may be for being an alcoholic. When

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 a person decides to fight his habit, actions resulting from such habit may be regarded as act of man and thus,
renders no accountability.

THINK TIME!

I need your thoughts and justification on these:

1. If a virgin is raped physically, entirely against his will, making all due resistance to the rapist, did she lose
morally her virginity? Cite the moral principle applicable to this.
2. Is a drug addict still morally responsible for his acts over which he has no more control? Explain your
answer.
3. Is one morally responsible for inflicting damages which he never intended to cause another? Justify your
answer.
4. Why is homicide through reckless imprudence a crime even if the driver never intended to kill? Explain
how and why the concept of an indirect involuntary act applies herein.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION:

1. Are legalized prostitution and other vices morally justified?
2. Is there such thing as involuntary felony?
3. In the light of the principle of the twofold effect, discuss the question as to whether or not each of the
following is morally allowable:
a. begetting test tube babies
b. sex changes
c. transplantation of vital human organs
d. nuclear warfare for defense

NORMS GOVERNING HUMAN ACTS:

Our actions are guided and are determined by the laws and our conscience.
1. Law. Is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by the one who has charge of the society (St.
Thomas Aquinas).
A law is an “ordinance of reason” because it is a rational deliberation intended to guide men towards what is good
for them.
A law is “promulgated” because it is known to people who are bound to observe it.
A law is passed by “one who has charge of the society” because it can only be valid if it is a legitimate exercise of
the authority.
2. Conscience. It came from the Latin word “conscientia” which means “trial of oneself”. It is a practical judgment of
reason upon an individual act as good and to be performed, or as evil to be avoided.
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 A “practical judgment” because the main function of conscience is to determine what ought to be done in a given
situation.
Types of Conscience:
1. Correct/ True conscience. Judges what is good as good and what is evil as evil.
2. False/Erroneous conscience. Judges incorrectly what is good as evil and what is evil as good.
3. Certain conscience. Implies that the person is sure of his certain decisions.
4. Doubtful conscience. It is a vacillating conscience, unable to form a definite judgment on a certain action.
5. Scrupulous conscience. Is extremely afraid of committing evil. It is therefore meticulous and wants proof
before it acts.
6. Lax conscience. It refuses to be bothered by the distinction between what is good and evil. It therefore
rushes on and is quick to justify itself.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE NORMS OF SOCIETY:
A. A certain conscience is to be obeyed, even when invisibly erroneous.
B. It is never lawful to act when in practical doubt. Moral certainty must be acquired.
C. One may employ the reflex principle that a doubtful law doesn’t bind, only when direct means are available of
fail to lead to certainty.
D. In question of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of an act to be performed or omitted- direct certainty being
unachievable and the reflex principle being employed- one may follow any solidly probable reason (opinion), even
to the neglect of a more probable one.
E. One may not follow a probable opinion even a most probable reason, when there is a question of a definite end
to be achieved and sure means to its achievement exist.

ANALYSIS TIME…
Determine the type of conscience exemplified by the following.
________________1. We ought to pay our debts and taxes, said our conscience.
________________2. The policemen is sure that killing the suspect is the best alternative under the principle of self-
defense, whereas such killing is in fact unnecessary.
________________3. Many Filipinos uphold on “bahala na” mentality when they act out of impulse and are unsure of the
consequences.
________________4. A husband cheats on his wife because his conscience tells him that it’s the macho thing to do.
________________5. Juan couldn’t pick an answer in an item of a multiple choice test.
________________6. Therese has always been painstaking in choosing her romantic partner because she is afraid of falling
for the wrong person.
________________7. White lies are still lies, thus, it should not be tolerated despite its intention is good.
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Assignment: Answer briefly.
1. What do we mean by “freedom of conscience?”
2. When are we excused for our erroneous conscience?
3. In what sense is our conscience the voice of God?

LESSON On
3 Values VALUE DEFINITION:
➢ It is the good of man’s positive attitude.
➢The goal or vision which motivates man to act.
➢The principle which guides man’s action and thinking.
➢ Is that which is important to us and are the bases of our choices, decisions, reactions and behaviour.
➢The intrinsic worth of a thing.
KINDS OF VALUES
Values are classified according to the level of human life to which they correspond.
1. Biological values. These are necessary to the physical survival of man as an organism. e.g. life & health, food &
shelter, work
2. Social values. These are necessary to the essential needs and fulfilment. e.g. leisure & sex, marriage, family & home,
parental authority, education
3. Rational values. These are necessary to the functions and fulfilment of the intellect and will. e.g. understanding and
control of nature, guide and control of oneself, solidarity with fellowmen, religion
4. Aesthetic values. The appreciation of the natural and artistic beauty of things. e.g. talent, elegance, grace,
symmetry, colour
5. Moral values. These are experienced in social or individual conduct. e.g. values of character and good will, concern,
sympathy, charity, justice
Here are other terms that are related to value:
1. Value system. Consists of independent values which are systematically arranged in a pattern in which are subject to
reciprocal or mutual variations.
o It is an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct; the dominant
motivation underlying the pattern of people’s behaviour.
2. Valuation. The experience of attributing or assigning value to a thing, idea or event, or a mere feeling of value.
3. Value judgment. A matter of appraisal, evaluating or assessing of the desirability of things.
4. Good. Possesses desirable qualities of which satisfy some preferable needs. Something which is positive or
advantageous to everybody at all times.

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 5. Ideal. A standard or model of perfection, excellence, beauty, or goodness.
6. Norm. A rational concept of what ought to be a; a guide to what should be.
Guides in Value Selection
Every man has to choose his values. He is wise indeed who chooses values according to their intrinsic worth. Our
preference should be guided by the following:
1. Permanent or lasting values must be preferred over temporary or perishable values. e.g. education over courtship
2. Values favoured by a greater number of people must be preferred over those that appeal only to few. e.g. discipline
over personal freedom
3. Essential values must be preferred over accidental ones. e.g. health over beauty
4. Values that give greater satisfaction musts be preferred over those that give short-lived pleasures. e.g. pursuing
your artistic hobby over fanatical devotion to a movie star

Take time to read…

Using Your Filipino Values Positively
Dr. Tomas Q.D. Andres
A Chinese proverb says that a journey of one thousand miles begins with one step. If the side of the Filipino values
has to have an impact on the national life, it cannot but begin from individual person who desires and acts to live them.
You must first be aware of the negative Filipino values. You can classify them as 8 T’s: “Tatamad-tamad, tatanga-
tanga. tutulog-tulog, tsitsismis-tsismis, tatago-tago, tratraidor-traidor, tsutsumi-tsumikap, and tataran-taranta.” These
values may have influenced you, in one way or another, and you must be sensitive to them.
But the most important part of your discipline in values is to be aware that values do not belong to one category.
There are goal values- your aim and purpose in life-, and instrumental values- the way by which you could attain the goal
you prescribe to yourself.
The problem with the Filipino is that he often confuses goal value with instrumental values. Goal values may vary
according to one’s status: if one is a struggling student, his goal value could be to become a doctor or a lawyer. But that
would forever remain a dream if he does not compliment it with an instrumental value. Students often falter in their
studies, or else spend years jumping from one course to another because their goal values are unclear- they do not know
what they want to be.
Ultimately, our goal values should be God and our fellowmen. Money and career are but instrumental values to
reach these goals and they are used negatively and become negative values if they are our goal values. Think of some of
our countrymen could fool poor people by having them hand in their hard-earned money for some promise of
employment abroad. Troubles erupt in our country because there is a misplacement of values.
You should establish your goal values and your instrumental values.

Text reflection: What can you say on the following?

1. What mistake is commonly committed by the Filipinos regarding values?
2. What is/are your goal value/s and instrumental value/s?
3. What do you think is/are your negative value/s which you should already get rid of?

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UNIT 1.2: ON BASIC CONCEPTS OF ETHICS
Unit Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should have:
1. explained the meaning of morality, non-morality, and amorality;
2. demonstrated the ability to demarcate moral from non-moral standards;
3. understood how to evaluate a moral dilemma when encountered;
4. known the actual operative on how one can respond when faced with a moral dilemma; and
5. recognized the role of freedom on human acts towards becoming moral.

LESSON Moral &

4 Non-moral Morality-is defined as the principle of what is considered to be right or wrong, of knowing of
Standards what is good from what is bad.
Standards- Viewed as the set of norms or practices that measure a series of possible merit or action. Moral standards
therefore are viewed as a set of principles that serve as the actual parameters or guides of how an action can be judged,
whereas non-moral standards are expressed and/or exhibited if there are inadequacies concerning the measures of how
an action is judged. The former is when a person uses his reason in evaluating an action while the latter is the complete
obverse, hence is arbitrary.
It was previously discussed that morality can be categorized into three. In rationally evaluating an action whether it is
moral (good act), non-moral (bad act), or amoral (indifferent
o Stealing is bad thus, non-moral.
act), take note of the following criteria:
o Taking down notes is good thus, moral.
➢ Act (itself): whether the action itself is good or bad.
o Eating cornik is neither good nor bad, thus
amoral.

➢End: The goal or purpose of the act. If one helps the needy for publicity or popularity,
Take note, an act is only good if and only if its his act of giving (which is supposed to be moral)
intention is also good otherwise, it becomes evil. becomes non-moral due to the evil intention for
the act.
➢Circumstance: The surrounding factor affecting one’s
o Having a boyfriend/girlfriend with no bad
choice.
intention but despite being prohibited by your
Take note, an act only becomes good if the act itself, parents in doing so (evil circumstance), becomes
the end, as well as the circumstance, are also good. non-moral.
o Increasing the price of facemask due to very high
Take note… Reasonableness becomes the actual backbone demand amid the pandemic becomes non-moral.
that makes an act ethical. Whatever is moral is always
reasonable and whatever is non-moral is non-reasonable. It is reasonable to ask for assistance when needed thus,
the act is moral. It is non-reasonable to steal when in need of money thus, the act is non-moral.

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 Justification time…
Analyse the following scenarios and identify whether what is asked is moral, non-moral, or amoral.
1. Mike dropped by the Jollibee for a take-out order of his lunch. He thought of only grabbing a large size burger
and a soda so he can eat already while on his way home. As he went out of the fast food chain, a child street
dweller immediately approached him and asked for some alms claiming that his stomach is already empty.
Despite the appeal, Mike just continued on his way through without even minding the poor child.
__________a. How do you consider the act of Mike when he ordered his lunch in a fast food chain?
__________b. How do you see the act of the child when he asked for alms from Mike?
__________c. How do you consider the act of Mike when he was never bothered by begging of the child and
just continued on his way instead?
2. Dianne failed to study for her final examination. She thought that she cannot fail the test otherwise, she’ll get
a failing grade and if so, her parents would be so mad at her. To help herself pass the examination, she
attempted to cheat on her seatmate’s answers but then, her seatmate had noticed her act of cheating so the
seatmate made sure that her answers are well-covered.
__________a. How do you judge Dianne’s act of missing to study for her final examination?
__________b. How do you see the act of Dianne when she tried to cheat on her seatmate’s answers for her
to pass the test?
__________c. How do you see the act of Dianne’s seatmate when she refused on letting Dianne cheat on her
answers?
__________d. How do you consider the act of Dianne’s parents if ever they would get too mad at Dianne for
failing her subject?

UNIT 2: THE MORAL AGENT

Unit Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should have:
5. Articulated the roles of culture in morality;
6. Identified the different universal values and explained why such are necessary for human survival;
7. Acknowledged the different levels and stages of morality one undergoes through; and
8. Recognized the role of conscience in moral decision-making.

LESSON Culture & moral

Principle: culture influences moral behavior.
6 behavior ✓ Individual behavior is connected to the persons situations (circumstances) that
contributes to his action. We frame our actions in accordance to the culture a group or a society has that, it has
been an influence to how do we behave in our everyday life.
e.g. we attribute the idea, “daw taga squatter ka” to someone who always talks loud.
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 A Filipino woman may be more reserved and conservative compared to those from Western countries,
because it is what a Filipino society expects her to be.
✓ Culture frames one’s understanding of good and bad (cultural orientation).
A Christian person may have a different perspective from a Muslim person.
A taga-uma has a different set of standards from a taga-syudad.
✓ On a global scope, considerations on women, marriage practices, and religious orientations are some significant
issues and experiences that show the concrete impact of culture on how one behaves morally.

Think time…

1. What different cultural practices across places that you know which concerns women,
marriage, and religion?
2. Cite at least 10 UNIQUE Filipino cultures.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

✓ Relativism is a doctrine that asserts validity of culture in the process of thinking.

✓ Simply, it is a doctrine which asserts that culture dictates ones behavior and even the morality of one’s
act.
✓ It is culture –specific such that truth is measured dependent upon cultural logic and consistency.
By cultural relativism, we are told that what can be true to one culture may not be necessarily true to
another. The position is of what is right or wrong is seen from what is prescribed of a certain culture.
It is right for an indigenous person to wear a “bahag” even if he would roam around their land. It is
their culture. But for someone who lives in a city, it won’t be acceptable if he wears such clothes when
going to a mall. He has a different culture thus, he should abide the norms and standards set by his own
group.
✓ What can be true to one culture may not necessarily be true to another.
✓ However, it is a myth to say, “culture dictates moral decision.”
Being a rational person who innately knows what is right from wrong, we already know how to act
morally thus, we don’t have to rely all our moral decisions to the culture that we belong to.

Final note on cultural relativism…

1. Cultural relativism asserts that there is no right and wrong culture because the truth someone
believes in depends on the validity and consistency of his /her own culture. Thus, cultural
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 relativism leads us to the value of respect. There is no superior nor inferior culture hence, we
should treat any culture fairly with our respect in the diversity of beliefs, ideas, customs, norms,
and standards.

LESSON Virtue Ethics &

Who is a MORAL AGENT?
7 Moral Development
✓ He is a doer/performer of a moral value.
✓ He has the full accountability for his action.
✓ He is capable of thinking what is good (or bad).
✓ He possesses the virtues which do not develop overnight.

What are VIRTUES?

✓ are formed character of a person who through time has consistently exercised the values commendable for
his/her own growth.
By hard work and perseverance, one tries to put his best in whatever he does. He doesn’t settle for a lowly
result because there is more that he can give.
o One has the virtue of hard work and perseverance if he tries to put his best in whatever he does at all
times.
o One has the virtue of patience if he consistently exhibits good character in any kind of waiting.

One who is not virtuous as he tends not to possess the virtues, is a vicious person. A vicious person does the vices.

VICE

✓ The opposite of virtue

✓ The inconsistency towards values
✓ The repetition of doing bad.
o Procrastination is to be slow or late about doing something that should be done which is usually because of
laziness. it is an inconsistency of the value of diligence thus, it is a vice.
o Smokers, gamblers, and alcoholics continuously engage themselves to bad habits thus, they are vicious.

Final note on moral agency…

✓ MATURITY, DECISIVENESS, and UPRIGHTNESS are certain qualities of an individual who has
grown through life.

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 ✓ The mark of a moral agent is the attitude or trait cultivated not incidentally or functionally but
rather regularly or habitually in the course of time and in the performance of good actions.
That’s why virtue become an element of a moral agent.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

✓ This theory proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg emphasizes the gradual progress experienced by the individual who
in turn can only realize his or her own status of personal development after passing through a lower level.
✓ It is composed of 3 levels of morality by which each level also characterizes 2 stages of moral development.
Kohlberg believes that the individual moves from on level to another, going through the varying stages of social
orientations.
LEVELS STAGES DESCRIPTION

PRECONVENTIONAL- The 1. Punishment and One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will

norms of morality are Obedience act in order to avoid punishment. a
understood through physical kindergarten would do his assignment to avoid
pain and pleasure getting baffled.
orientation. 2. Instrumental One is motivated to act by the benefit that one
relativist/individual may obtain later. “You scratch my back, I’ll
ism/naïve scratch yours.”
hedonism A child would do his assignment for him to be
allowed to play his play station.

CONVENTIONAL- Concerns 3. Interpersonal One is motivated by what others expect in

are the values of family, of concordance behavior- good boy, good girl orientation. He
the nation, of the group, or in values how he appears to others. Nancy lets her
short, the society where one answer be copied by her friends so that they
belongs. would thing she’s kind.

4. Law and order One is motivated to act in order to uphold law

mentality and order. The person will follow the law
because it is the law. Someone uses the
pedestrian lane upon crossing the street
because it is the right thing to do.

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 POST CONVENTIONAL- An 5. Social contract Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will
individual shows an act based on social justice and the common
independent attitude in good. Students from UP Diliman went on a
his/her regard to values used social gathering for a protest on the anti-
to be prescribed by his or her terrorism bill.
society. 6. Universal principles This is associated with the development of
one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that
drives one to possess moral responsibility to
make societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself. John organized a
kariton drive which aims to teach the street
dwelling kids the 3Rs.

Try time…
Determine what stage of moral development is exemplified by the following.
____1. Joy shows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is kind and will like her to be
their friend.
____2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his mom will take his play station away if he gets
bad grades.
____3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the government
allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes abortion).
____4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah agreed to let her copy during their Sibika
test.
____5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that people will praise her honesty and
think she’s a nice girl.
____6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he believes it’s the right thing to do.
____7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the school rules and regulation.
____8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he u-turns in a no u-turn spot.
____9. Liza volunteers to tutor at-risk children in her community for free so they will learn to love school and
stay in school.
____10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.

MORAL DECISION MAKING: HOW DO WE MAKE ONE?

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 When confronted by moral issues especially the complex ones, a guide is of utmost important. To come up with
a better perspective and approach to certain issues, following these steps may be helpful:
1. Awareness of the issue of problem. Acknowledge the presence of a problem. The uncomfort and restlessness
may be indicators that there is something wrong with the situation.
2. Investigation of the problem. Take a closer look at the “problem.” Check if who or what are involved.
3. Practical alternatives. A sound thinking and proactive action could greatly manage the situation. Assess the
available options or plans or other factors which could alleviate the moral situation. Prudence is much needed
to assess how options would benefit or harm the involved.
4. Concrete action. Take the most essential or most suited to address the problem/issue.

CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL DECISION

Man is endowed with freedom of choice but such freedom also entails responsibility. However, it is said that
“although we have the freedom to chooses our actions, we do not choose our consequences” thus, to avoid being
misled in n our decisions, just remember that good decisions are never selfish, self-centered, nor are confined in the
inner circle. Rather, good decisions are grounded on the voice of God from within-CONSCIENCE. A conscience is the
inner voice which leads one to rightly discern the correct values in a given situation. It is our conscience which tells a
student not to steal his seatmate’s money to buy his food in school. His conscience tells him that his value of dignity
and righteousness is way greater than his physiological needs. Conscience is basically a gift helping one to recognize
the moral quality of his action, whether is good or bad, wrong or right. A conscientious decision is determined when
one follows the rightly ordered values and in such case, one is making a good choice. On the contrary, bad decisions
and choices show a disvalue of distorted value-orientation hence, done in the absence of conscience.

In making good decisions grounded in conscience, the following steps are to be taken.

✓ Ask the Holy Spirit for help.

✓ Think about God’s law and the teachings of the church.
✓ Think about what will happen as a result of your choice. Ask yourself, will the consequences be pleasing to God?
Will my choice hurt someone else?
✓ Seek advice from someone you respect and remember that Christ is with you.
✓ Ask yourself how your choice will affect your relationship with God and others.

Case time…

Man Sues Wife Over Make-up

A man in Algeria is suing his new wife for fraud, trauma, and “psychological suffering” after seeing her for the first
time without make up.
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 The morning after the wedding, the man claims he was shocked to see his wife’s natural face. Emirate 247 reported:
“he said he was deceived by her as she used to fill up her face with make-up before their marriage.
He said she looked very beautiful and attractive before marriage , but when he woke up in the morning and found
that she had washed the make-up off her face, he was frightened as he thought she was a thief.
He is suing her for €13,000.
How do you judge the moral decisions of both the wife and husband in this situation?

Analysis time…

True or false

__________1. A moral agent is primarily a doer of an action with full knowledge and will; who stands for what is
morally good in the morally problematic situation.

__________2. Temperance is one of the cardinal virtues that pertains to the ability to govern and discipline oneself
by the use of reason or careful judgment.

__________3. Freedom is a task or duty that one is required to do because it is morally right, legally required, etc.

__________4. There is an interdependence between moral actor and moral action.

__________5. A moral agent is incapable of discerning what is good and what is bad.

__________6. The second stage in moral development theory is that which is seen in the light of marketability
wherein everything has a price tag.

_________7. The theory of moral development proposes that an individual, in his personality development, doesn’t
necessarily have to undergo a step by step process because someone’s morality depends on the kind of person he
is.

_________8. Being endowed with freedom means having the license to do things that accord to our whims and
caprices.

_________9. Following your conscience isn’t only for yourself but also for the significant others.

_________10. A conscientious decision is determined when one follows the rightly ordered values.

End of unit 2
Module 1 book references:
Agapay, R. (1991).Ethics and the Filipino. Metro Manila. Nat’l Bookstore.
Buenaflor, L. (2006). The Meaning of Human Existence. Manduluyong, Metro Manila. Books Atbp. Publishing.

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Marinay, W. & Mejaro, M. (2018). Ethics: The Art of Doing Good. Cebu city, Philippines. REAP
Montemayor, F. (1994). Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Philippines. Nat’l Bookstore.
Murray, M. & Rea, M. (20008). An Introduction to the Study of Religion. Ussnited Kingdom. Cambridge University Press.
E-sources:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml
https://www.eeri.org/projects/spi/ethics-and-case-studies/approaching-ethical-dilemmas/
https://www.quora.com/How-does-freedom-become-the-foundation-of-moral-acts&ved
https://serc.c arleton.edu/ geoethics/DecisionMaking

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