COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION

A computer is a programmable machine designed to automatically carry out a sequence of

arithmetic or logical operations. It converts (process) raw data (input) into useful information
(output). The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the
computer to solve more than one kind of problem. An important class of computer operations
on some computing platforms is the accepting of input from human operators and the output
of results formatted for human consumption. The interface between the computer and the
human operator is known as the user interface.
A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and
then store data. The first electronic digital computers were developed in the mid-20th century
(1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as
several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable
than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small
enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries.
Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what
most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many
devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most
numerous.

Fig: A desktop computer

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 HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago, at the birth of the abacus, a wooden
rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them. When these beads are moved
around, according to programming rules memorized by the user, all regular arithmetic
problems can be done.

Charles Babbage, a British Mathematics professor, is

regarded as the Father of Computers. He was born in
England in 1792. He began to design a "difference engine"
in 1821 which was a very large and complicated machine
intended for doing logarithmic calculations automatically.

The start of World War II produced a large need for computer capacity, especially for the
military. New weapons were made for which trajectory tables and other essential data were
needed. In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their associates at the Moore school
of Electrical Engineering of University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high – speed
electronic computer to do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC (Electrical
Numerical Integrator And Calculator) The size of ENIAC‘s numerical “word” was 10
decimal digits, and it could multiply two of these numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by
finding the value of each product.
Fascinated by the success of ENIAC, the mathematician John Von Neumann (left) undertook,
in 1945, an abstract study of computation that showed that a computer should have a very
simple, fixed physical structure, and yet be able to execute any kind of computation by means
of a proper programmed control without the need for any change in the unit itself. The first
generations of modern programmed electronic computers to take advantage of these
improvements were built in 1947. This group included computers using Random – Access –
Memory (RAM), which is a memory designed to give almost constant access to any
particular piece of information. . These machines had punched – card or punched tape I/O
devices and RAM’s of 1,000 – word capacity.
Early in the 50′s two important engineering discoveries changed the image of the electronic –
computer field, from one of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of relatively high
reliability and even more capability. These discoveries were themagnetic core memory and
the Transistor – Circuit Element. The trend during the 1970′s was, to some extent, moving
away from very powerful, single – purpose computers and toward a larger range of

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applications for cheaper computer systems. By the late 1980s, some personal computers were
run by microprocessors that, handling 32 bits of data at a time, could process about 4,000,000
instructions per second. Microprocessors equipped with read-only memory (ROM), which
stores constantly used, unchanging programmes, now performed an increased number of
process-control, testing, monitoring, and diagnosing functions, like automobile ignition
systems, automobile-engine diagnosis, and production-line inspection duties.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Evolution of modern computers is commonly classified in Generations of computers. Each

new generation results in - Increase in speed, storage, capacity and reliability.
- Decrease in cost and size.
Generation/ Circuitry Input Storage Output Example
Period
Vacuum Tubes Punched Magnetic Punched ENIAC
1st (1951-1958) Cards Drums Cards EDVAC
EDSAC
UNIVAC-1
Burroughs 220
Transistors Punched Magnetic Punched IMB 700
2nd (1959-65) Cards, Core Cards ATLAS
Magnetic Storage ICL1901
Tapes Honeywell 200
Integrated Key Magnetic Monitor IMB 360
3rd(1965-71) Circuits(IC) Boards Disks NCR 395
Burroughs B6500

Very Large Scale Mouse, Magnetic Monitor IMB 370

th
4 (1971-Present) Integration(VLSI) scanner, disks With , Printer HP3000
Of Circuit Sound etc. Higher
capacity
5th (Present and Artificial Natural
Beyond) Intelligence language

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Some characteristics of computer are as follows:

1. High Speed: Computer works at an amazing speed. The computer present in the modern
world has the speed of nano and pico second.
2. Authenticity (Accuracy): It denoted the accuracy of the computer. They are reliable and
robust. It ever makes a mistake. Most probably the error occurs due to the user rather than
the computer.
3. Spontaneous (Automatic): The computers are automatic. It may execute the process
without any intervention of user once they are assigned to a work. Once the data or
instruction are fetched from the secondary devices such as optical disks, hard disks etc.
Immediately they get stored into RAM (primary memory) and then sequentially they get
executed.
4. Reliability: Computers are very reliable. Neither they get bored of the repetitive tasks,
nor do they get tired.
5. Versatility: Computer can perform variety of jobs with efficiency. We can also perform
different kind of tasks simultaneously; say listen songs while typing a document.
6. High Storage capacity: Secondary storage devices are the key for the data storage. They
store the data for which the user wants to retrieve these data for future use. The examples
for various secondary devices are Floppy disk, Optical disks ( DVD), Zip drives etc. The
data of smaller size can be easily fetched and they can be copied to the primary memory
(RAM).
7. Reduction in Manpower: Computers have enabled the entrepreneurs to be more
efficient than in the past. Lesser staff is required to do more jobs. This can be seen in
bank, industries and almost all the private and govt. enterprises, wherein computerization
has resulted into a lean organizational structure.
8. Reduced Paper Work: Computer has reduced a lot of paper work in all the
organizations. For example: The account and records of all the customers in a Bank are
now stored in a computer than the huge piles of ledgers, resisters and manual files.
Besides reducing the paper work, computers have also made the retrieval of the data easy
and fast.
9. Reduced Space Requirements: With the advent of computers, the requirement of office
space has reduced considerably. An ATM installed in a very small room can handle
thousands of customers per day, which would have otherwise required large place in the
banking hall.

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 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Computers have affected every aspect of our day-to-day life, in terms of education, office
work, accounting, business, communication, shopping, and data storage amongst others. The
computer and Internet have affected our way of learning, working, storing information,
communicating, playing, and also writing. In fact, computers are used in every sphere of life
today. Because of the several computer advantages; it has become an important household
item. Be it office, home, or school, it has become an indispensable device for us.
One can write more effectively by means of a computer. A computer allows the user to create
documents, edit, print, and store. Right from banking to investment, a user can accomplish
the task by sitting within the comfort zone of his/her home. With this, one no longer needs to
stand in the line for money withdrawing, depositing, or conducting other transactions. The
same facility is available for making investments.
Using a computer, one can remain connected to the world through Internet. The World Wide
Web (WWW) or simply web is a huge resource of information that can be accessed via the
Internet. The Internet allows people from around the world to share knowledge, ideas, and
experiences in any field. E-mail is a method of communication used globally, between
friends, colleagues, business partners, and so on... One can also download or upload files
using the Internet. . In addition, one can read current news, check weather conditions, plan
vacations, and make hotel and travel reservations, find out about diseases and treatment
methods, learn about specific countries and their cultures, seek jobs, etc. via the Internet. One
can shop and that too in discounted rates through internet.
Nowadays, computers are widely used for education and training purposes. In schools,
computer education has been made compulsory to spread awareness about computers. As a
matter of fact, computers have become a learning tool for children. Indeed, a student can use
the PC as a storage system for many books. Also, there are many universities that provide
online degrees, which are very advantageous for those people staying in the remote areas and
for the disabled. Computers are also used for training purposes. Many companies use them to
train their staffs.

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LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1. The computer can only do what user tells it to do.

2. It cannot generate information on its own.
3. The computer gives wrong information if user feed it with wrong data. The computer
cannot distinguish between correct data and wrong data.
4. The computer cannot correct wrong instruction.
5. A computer cannot come up with an original decision

ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTERS

A Computer system has five major units:

 Input unit.
 Output unit.
 Control Unit.
 Memory Unit.
 Arithmetic and Logic unit.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic and Logic

Unit

Control Unit Output Unit

Input Unit

Memory Unit

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 INPUT DEVICES

The devices through which the raw data is fed into the computer are input devices. These are:

Keyboard: A keyboard is used to type letters, numbers, and other characters. We can type
instructions in to the computer, or we can use the keyboard to type up documents and other
papers.

Mouse: The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and
select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size
windows, start programmes etc. The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on
top: the left one being used most frequently.

Joystick: The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the
stick is moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the
cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training
simulators and controlling robots.

Scanner: Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into
the computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed
into the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically
experienced during large data entry.

Light Pen: It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like
the mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object
on the screen by pointing to the object. Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications
commonly use the light pens to directly draw on screen.

Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display
screen. Common examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.

Digital Camera: A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera.
Pictures taken using a digital camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a
computer by connecting the camera to it. A digital camera takes pictures by converting the
light passing through the lens at the front into a digital image.

Microphone: An instrument for intensifying and making audible very feeble sounds. It
produces its effects by the changes of intensity in an electric current.

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OUTPUT DEVICES

The devices by which we get the useful information are output devices.

Monitor: Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen associated with a
keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also
displays the programme or application output.

Liquid Crystal Displays: LCDs, or liquid crystal displays, are similar to monitors. They, too,
are screens that display information, programmes, and applications! LCDs are generally used
on laptop computers.

Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
 Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the
paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers
fall under this category.
 Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat
or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal
printers fall under this category of printers.

Speaker: Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or
connected with cables. Speakers allow us to listen to music and hear sound effects from
computer.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The primary function of CPU is to execute instruction or programmes. Besides this, the
processing unit also controls the operation of all other components such as memory, input &
output devices. Under the processing units control, programmes and data accepted from the
input devices and stored in the memory. Outputs are displayed on the video screen or printed
on paper after the processing is done as per the programme.

CPU has three main components: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
The control unit (CU),
The memory

Control unit

The control unit directs all operations inside the computer. It is known as nerve centre
of the computer because it control and coordinates all hardware operation i.e. those of the
CPU and input devices. It also takes help from the arithmetic logic unit, whenever required.
The control unit is very important for computers functioning. The control unit has outputs
which take charge of the activities of the entire device. Some regard the control unit to be an
FSM or finite state machine which is used for hardware and software applications.

Functions of Control Unit:

A control unit can be described as a sort of circuitry that supervises and controls the path of
information that runs over the processor and organizes the various activities of those units
that lie inside it.
 It carries out many tasks such as decoding, fetching, handling the execution and finally
storing the results.
 It controls the execution of instructions in a sequential order.
 It guides the flow of data through the different parts of the computer.
 It interprets the instructions.
 It regulates the time controls of the processor.
 It sends and receives control signals from various peripheral devices.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic logic unit is that part of the computer which performs the different logic
operations and arithmetic calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
It is the high speed digital circuit that solves calculations and does comparisons.

Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit:

 Almost all the actions of the computer are done by it. It gets its data from a certain
computer memory called processor register. After the data gets processed, its results get
stored in output registers of the arithmetic logic unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit can perform integer arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, etc.
 It can also perform bitwise logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, etc.
 The arithmetic logic unit performs bit-shifting operations like rotating or shifting a certain
word to either the left or the right by a given number of bits. These can also be
represented as divisions by 2 and also multiplications by 2. These are the simple
operations carried out by the arithmetic logic unit.

Memory

Memory refers to the storage space, where the instruction and data are stored before
execution and where the results are placed after execution. The amount of memory
determines the number of programmes a computer can run at once and how fast the
programmes will operate.

Units of memory
Since computer is an electronic device, it understands only two states of current i.e. ON and
OFF. While the presence of current in a circuit (i.e.ON state) indicates 1, absence (i.e. OFF
state) indicates 0. Therefore, computer understands only two digits i.e. 0 and 1, called Binary
Digits. Thus, the basic unit of memory is BIT (Binary digit), which represents either 0 and 1.
The other units of memory are:
Nibble = Group of 4 Bits
Byte = Group of 8 Bits, which represents one character.
Kilo Byte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
Mega Byte (MB) = 1024 KB
Giga Byte (GB) = 1024 MB
Tera Byte (TB) = 1024 GB
Peta Byte (PB) = 19024 TB

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Types of memory:
There are two types of memory in the computer system: Primary and Secondary Memory.

Primary Memory: Primary Memory is a place where data and programmes are stored for
execution. It is also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory. Main memory is further
classified as ROM and RAM.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is called Read Only Memory, because user can only read
from and cannot write into it. It is non-volatile memory, as it stores information
permanently.ROM has a small storage capacity. The primary use of ROM is during booting
process.
Random Access Memory (RAM): It us a volatile, read-write memory, having random access
and storage capacity larger than ROM. It is working memory of the computer. While RAM
has great advantage of being very fast, its main disadvantage is its volatile nature, due to
which its contents are erased when the power to the computer is turned off. That’s why we
frequently save our work

Secondary memory: These are also known as External Memory OR Auxiliary Memory.
These are the devices that hold the mass of information, which may be transferred to primary
memory, as and when required. As compared to main memory it has more storage capacity,
but is not as fast.
Secondary memory/Storage Devices
Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is a form of external computer memory used primarily for
backup storage.
Magnetic Disk: Magnetic disk is just like a gramophone record that can store large amount of
data. It is a direct access storage device, having sequential access.
Hard Disk: A hard disk is made of a rigid metal, with the read-write head flying just above
its surface on a cushion of air to prevent wear.
Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is made of flexible plastic with small pieces of a magnetic
material imbedded in its surface.
Zip Disk: Zip disk is also a storage device shape similar but slightly bigger to floppy disk.
CD- ROM: CD-ROM is an optical storage device that can store large amount of data
information
DVD-ROM: DVD-ROM are also optical storage device that look similar to CD-ROM, but
they have much large storage capacity than the CD.

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 HARDWARES AND SOFTWARES

Computer hardware is any physical device, something that you are able to touch
and software is a collection of instructions and code installed into the computer and cannot be
touched. For example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text on and
the mouse you are using to navigate this web page is computer hardware. The Internet
browser that allowed you to visit this page and the operating system that the browser is
running on is software.

HARDWARES

Hardware is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a computer. There are many
different kinds of hardware that can be installed inside, and connected to the outside, of a
computer.
Some common computer hardware components that are found inside a computer case:
 Motherboard
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Power Supply
 Video Card
 Hard Drive (HDD)
 Solid-State Drive (SSD)
 Optical Drive (e.g. DVD/CD drive)
 Card Reader (SD/SDHC, CF, etc.)

Hardware that are connected to the outside of a computer:

 Monitor
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Battery Backup (UPS)
 Printer
 Speakers
 Scanner
 Webcam
 Microphone
 External hard disk and pen drives

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SOFTWARES

Software is a collection of instructions and code installed into the computer. Software needs
to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for the process of accessing
software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others.
Software is stored on a disk, card, tape or one of the dozens of other storage
devices available.
Software is generally divided into two categories.

1. System Software

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide
basic functionality and to provide a platform for running application. System software
includes device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities, and window systems

Popular Operating Systems

All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS). The majority of modern home
computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original Microsoft operating
system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most computers use Windows.
Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98, ME, XP, Vista
and currently version 7. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's Mac uses their own
operating system beginning with OS 1 though to OS 10.x. In the past large companies and
institutions would have an operating system design exclusively for them but as the
commercial operating systems become more sophisticated the benefits of this practice is
becoming less apparent. Some computer professionals, Internet Service Providers (ISP)
and mainframe computer users use an operating system such as UNIX (or a variant such as
Linux), Windows NT or 2000 (Win2k) or one of the other network or server based operating
systems.

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2. Application Software

Application software is developed to perform in any task that benefits from computation. It is
a set of programs that allows the computer to perform a specific data processing job for the
user. It is a broad category, and encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet
browser being used to display this page.

This category of application software includes:

 Business software
 Computer-aided design
 Databases
 Decision-making software
 Educational software
 Image editing
 Industrial automation
 Mathematical software
 Medical software
 Molecular modeling software
 Quantum chemistry and solid state physics software
 Simulation software
 Spreadsheets
 Telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it)
 Video editing software
 Video games
 Word processing

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 MICROSOFT (MS) OFFICE

The Microsoft Office suite is an essential collection of desktop applications that includes
Word for documents, Excel for spreadsheets, PowerPoint for presentations, Access for
databases and others.

MICROSOFT (MS) WORD

Microsoft Word (or MS Word) is one of the most widely used word-processing programs.
Word-processor programs primarily allow users to create and edit text documents. Typical
use may include writing an essay or report, creating a resume, or writing notes. In addition,
work can be presented in the form of inserted tables, diagrams or pictures.
We can start the Ms Word, by clicking Start -> (All) Programs -> Microsoft Office ->
Microsoft Office Word”. The following window appears-

Maximize
Title bar Close
Menu bar Tool Bar Rular Minimize

Scroll bar

Start
Task bar

Fig. An overview of MS Word screen.

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Basic functions of MS Word

1. The most basic function of MS Word is to create a document/file which can be edited
later, as and when required, by adding more text, modifying the existing text,
deleting/moving some part of it.
2. Font size and type of fonts can also be changed. Page numbers and Header and Footer
can be included.
3. Spelling can be checked and correction can be made automatically in the entire
document. Word count and other statistics can be generated.
4. Text can be formatted in columnar style as we see in the newspaper. Text boxes can
be made.
5. Tables can be made and included in the text.
6. Word also allows the user to mix the graphical pictures with the text. Graphical
pictures can either be created in word itself or can be imported from outside like from
Clip Art Gallery
7. Word also provides the mail-merge facility.
8. Word also has the facility of macros. Macros can be either attached to some
function/special keys or to a tool bar or to a menu.
9. It also provides online help of any option.

MICROSOFT (MS) EXCEL

Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program that can be used for storing, organizing and
manipulating data. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro
programming language called Visual Basic for Applications.
The Excel screen consists of rectangular table or grid of rows and columns. The horizontal
rows are identified by numbers (1, 2, 3) and the vertical columns with letters of the alphabet
(A, B, C). For columns beyond 26, columns are identified by two or more letters such as AA,
AB, AC… The cell reference is a combination of the column letter and the row number such
as A3, B6 etc.
The intersection point between a column and a row is a small rectangular box known as
a cell. A cell is the basic unit for storing data in the spreadsheet. Because an Excel
spreadsheet contains thousands of these cells, each is given a cell reference or address to
identify it.

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 We can start the Ms Excel, by clicking Start -> (All) Programs -> Microsoft Office ->
Microsoft Office Excel”. The following window appears-

Maximize
Title bar Menu bar Tool Bar Minimize Close

Column

Rows
Cell

Scroll bar

Task bar
Start

Fig. An overview of MS Excel screen.

Data Types, Formulas, and Functions

The types of data that a cell can hold include numbers, text or formulas such as finding an
average, the highest number, the lowest number, and a count of the number of items in a list
etc. Excel and other electronic spreadsheets include a number of built in formulas used for
common tasks known as functions.

Uses of Excel
Spreadsheets are used for:
 Performing basic mathematical operations such as summing columns and rows of figures.
 Finding values such as profit or loss.
 Calculating repayment plans for loans or mortgages.
 Finding the average, maximum, or minimum values in a specified range of data.
 Graphing or charting data to assist users in identifying data trends.
 Sorting and filtering data to find specific information.

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 MICROSOFT (MS) POWERPOINT

PowerPoint is a presentation software program that is part of the Microsoft Office package.
PowerPoint uses a graphical approach to presentations in the form of slide shows that
accompany the oral delivery of the topic. This program is widely used
in business and classrooms and is an effective tool when used for training purposes.
PowerPoint is one of the simplest computer programs to learn. Anyone can create stunning
presentations that look like they were designed by a professional. PowerPoint presentations
can be made into photo albums, complete with music or narrations, to distribute on CDs or
DVDs.
We can start the Ms PowerPoint , by clicking clicking Start --> (All) Programs -> Microsoft
Office -> Microsoft Office PowerPoint. The following window appears-

Maximize
Title bar Menu bar Minimize Close
Tool Bar

Different types A
of slides

Fig. An overview of MS PowerPoint screen.

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Uses of PowerPoint

1. Classroom Teaching: Power Point presentations help in improving the quality and impact
of classroom teaching. The presentations can be made interesting and exhaustive, with
supporting information to be accessed only if required.
2. Subject Tutorials: It is good for online and offline tutorials on wide range of subjects, user
age groups and types.
3. Seminars and Conferences: It is handy for students to make their presentations on
assignments. Academicians also uses power point to spread their message in more interactive
manner.
4. Meetings and Consultations: Decision makers can use Power Point for meetings and
discussions to keep the focus on core issues.
5. Corporate meetings: Ideal for the busy corporate for focused presentations with statistical
information presented using graphics to facilitate easy comprehension and avoid monotony of
too many numbers. It is also used by trainers as well as corporate for conferences, workshops
and training sessions.
6. Information for public: Power point is a good tool for presenting layout and other
information at public places like museums, exhibitions, libraries, transit terminals etc. It can
be made interactive for the public to view, learn and proceed.

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INTERNET

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer
networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer.

History
Before the Internet was created, the U.S. military had developed and deployed
communications networks, including a network known as ARPANET. Uses of the networks
were restricted to military personnel and the researchers who developed the technology.
Many people regard the ARPANET as the precursor of the Internet. From the 1970s until the
late 1980s the Internet was a U.S. government-funded communication and research tool
restricted almost exclusively to academic and military uses. It was administered by the
National Science Foundation (NSF). In the 1980s the NSF allowed faculty at universities to
use the Internet for research and scholarly activities but prohibited all commercial uses of the
Internet. By 1995, however, the NSF ceased its administration of the Internet. The Internet
was privatized, and commercial use was permitted. This move coincided with the growth in
popularity of the World Wide Web (WWW), which was developed by British physicist and
computer scientist Timothy Berners-Lee.

Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative, and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds
of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources
of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes
the Internet is its use of a set of protocols called TCP/IP (for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).
For many Internet users, electronic mail (e-mail) has practically replaced the Postal Service
for short written transactions. Electronic mail is the most widely used application on the Net.
We can also carry on live "conversations" with other computer users, using Internet Chat.
More recently, Internet telephony hardware and software allows real-time voice
conversations.
The most widely used part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (often abbreviated
"WWW" or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-
referencing. Using the Web, we can access millions of pages of information. Web browsing
is done with a Web browser, the most popular of which are Microsoft Internet Explorer,
Mozilla Firefox, Google chrome and Netscape Navigator etc.. The appearance of a particular
Web site may vary slightly depending on the browser we use.

Soumitra Nath
nath.soumitra1@gmail.com
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