ETHICS 2022

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrongness of human
conduct. Morality speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards to standards of right or
wrong behavior. In this book, the two terms (ethics and morality), especially their adjective form
(ethical and moral), are oftentimes used interchangeably.

1 .THE IMPORTANT RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS

A. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior
B. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom
C.Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings
D. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system

2. Moral vs. Non-moral Standards

Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are
morally right and wrong. Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations.

The following characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them from non-moral
standards
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs of significant benefits
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values
c.Moral standards are not established by authority figures
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability
e. Moral standards are bases on impartial considerations
f. Moral Standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary

3.Dilemma and Moral Dilemma

The term 'dilemma' refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two or
more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral
dilemmas. Also called 'ethical dilemmas,' moral dilemmas are situations in which a difficult
choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a
moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral
requirements.

4. Three levels of moral dilemma

Organizational Dilemmas
Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social
organizations. This category includes moral dilemmas in business , medical field and public
sector

Structural Dilemmas
Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving networks of institutions and operative
theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi sectoral institutions and organizations,
they may be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.

Personal Dilemmas
Personal dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since many
ethical decisions are personally made, many, if not most of, moral dilemmas fall under, or boil
down to, this level.

5. Only human beings can be ethical

Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can be truly ethical. Most
philosophers hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it possible
for them to be moral:

a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous and self-conscious

Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The Qualities of rationality,
autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those
that possess them as these beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain values and
goods.

b. Only human beings can act morally or immorally

Strictly speaking, an animal which devours another animal cannot be said to be immoral. In the
same manner, no matter how 'good' an animal's action seems to be, it cannot be technically
said to be moral.

c. Only human beings are part of the moral community

The so-called moral community is not defined in terms of the intrinsic properties that beings
have, but rather in terms of the essential social relations that exist between or among beings.

6.Freedom as a Foundation of Morality

As explained above, one of the reasons animals cannot be truly ethical is that they are not really
autonomous or free. Likewise, a robot, no matter how beneficial its functions may be, cannot be
said to be moral, for it has no freedom or choice but to work according to what is commanded
based on its built-in program. Basically, morality is a question of choice. Morality, practically, is
choosing ethical codes, values, or standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically,
choosing is impossible without freedom.

7.Minimum Requirements for Morality:Reasons and Impartiality

Reason as a requirement for morality entails that human feelings may be important in ethical
decisions, but they ought to be guided by reason. Sound reasoning helps us to evaluate
whether our feelings and intuitions about moral cases are correct and defensible.

Impartiality, on the other hand, involves the idea that each individual's interests and point of
view are equally important.

Ethics: a primer

THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

Records in the field of philosophy unequivocally prove that many of the most renowned
philosophers the world has produced from ancient time to the present have, in one way or
another, discussed morality.

The need to study Ethics

Studies show that more and more people today, especially among the youth,are either unable
or unwilling to act in an ethical manner, or just confused on what should be considered as
moral. Rutgers University conducted a study and found out that over 70% of all university
students admitted they have cheated at least once. The study reports that students have always
copied from someone else's paper or stealthily brought forbidden notes into the classroom.
Nineteen percent admit they have faked a bibliography, and fourteen percent say they have
handed in a computer program written by someone else ("College A Cheating Haven," p. 5)

Basic ethical camps

Throughout history, moral philosophers have been divided as to what should be the basis of
morality. Though there may be various philosophical camps concerning the issue, these factions
can be primarily divided into two: those who advocate moral supernaturalism and those who
promote moral secularism. This distinction between theism and secularism has become the
fundamental split in the history of ethics by 'moral supernaturalism', we mean the theory that
states that God, or Someone supernatural is the moral lawgiver or is the source of the human
rules of decency. On the other hand, by 'moral secularism', we refer to any theory that submits
that morals come not from 'above' but from men themselves - human nature, needs,experience,
society, culture, and the like.
A short history of Ethics
During the post-Socratic period, the Greek philosopher Plato contended that there must be
some universal or absolute forms under which the individual things (the particulars or details)
must fit. This notion that something beyond the everyday must be there to give it all unity and
meanings very much related to theistic ethics. The so-called moral supernaturalism -the belief
that a supernatural being or God is the source of morality-has been firmly advocated by theist
philosophers especially during the medieval era: Later in history, even the non- believer and
existentialist, Jean-Paul Sartre, realized that a finite point is absurd if it is has no infinite
reference point (Schaffer, 1976, p. 145).

Moral Realism and Objectivism

Moral Realism and Objectivism:

Moral realism claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or falsity) of moral
judgments are independent of people's thoughts and perceptions. It maintains that morality is
about objective facts, that is, not facts about any person or group's subjective judgment. Very
much compatible with moral realism is the meta-ethical theory called moral universalism. Also
called moral objectivism, it theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all
places. According to the theory, some behaviors are simply wrong. It further holds that there are
moral principles that apply to all similarly situated persons, regardless of nationality, citizenship,
culture, race, gender, sexual preference, religion, or any other differentiating factor.

The sense of moral obligation and accountability

Advocates of moral realism and objectivism argue that even non-theists give evidence that men
do experience moral obligation. Contemporary secularist Kai that one "ought" to Nielsen, for
instance, recommends act or follow the rule, policy, practice, or principle that maximizes
happiness and minimizes pain. Concerning his principle of justice, he states in his book Ethics
Without God that, "it is not enough just to seek maximization of human happiness and
minimization of suffering, but that we must maximize and minimize it fairly" (Nielsen, 1973, p.
82).

The existence of moral values and absolutes

Doctor of Philosophy William Lane Craig claims that there is no more reason to deny the
objective reality of moral values than the objective reality of physical objects. He argues that
actions like rape, torture, and child abuse are not just socially unacceptable behavior but are
moral abominations (1994, p. 124). Even Michael Ruse himself, a known secularist and
Darwinist, admits,"The man who says it is morally acceptable to rape little children is just as
mistaken as the man who says 2+2=5." (1982, p. 27)

The existence of Moral Law

When we accept the existence of goodness, we must affirm a moral law on the basis of which to
differentiate between good and evil. Thus, if it is true that some actions are good and some are
actually bad, then it is also true that moral law exists. The classic writer and philosopher Clive
Staples Lewis (1898-1963), in his book The Case for Christianity, demonstrates the existence of
a moral law or standard by pointing to men who quarrel. He explains that whenever we witness
two persons quarreling, we often hear them making remarks against each other.

People's knowledge of moral law

Moral law is also called Law of Nature because early philosophers, according to Lewis, thought
that everybody knows it by nature and does not need to be It does not mean, of course, that we
would not find an taught it odd individual here and there who does not know it, just as we
unsurprisingly meet people who are colorblind or dyslexic or tone-deaf. Generally speaking
nevertheless, the human idea of decent behavior is said to be obvious to everyone.

The objectivity of morality

On the differing reaction that the idea of a Law of Nature or decent behavior known to all men is
unsound because different civilizations and different ages have had quite different moralities,
Lewis answers that such claim is not accurate. As Lewis explains it, different civilizations and
different ages only have slightly different moralities but not quite different ones. In other words,
there may have been differences between their moralities, but these have never amounted to
anything like a total difference. In fact, in comparing the moral teaching of, say, the ancient
Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindus, Chinese, Greeks and Romans, what is striking, says Lewis, is
how very alike they are to each other and to our own.

Moral Agent

1. Culture: Some Definitions

Culture appears to be an actual part of our social life as well as our personality.The term
'culture' is so complex that is not easy to define. Culture is used to denote which is related to
arts and humanities but in a broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs and
perception of a given society. It is in this sense that culture is often opposed with 'savagery',
being 'cultured' is seen as a product of a certain evolution from a natural state.

The following are other definition of the term culture

A. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes,
religion, roles, spatial relationship and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
B. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, constituting the distinctiveness of human
groups, the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and values.
C. Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people generally considered to
be tradition and are transmitted from generation to generation
D. Culture in its broadest sense of cultivated behavior.
E. Culture is symbolic communication.

2. Culture's Role in Moral Behavior

- A culture is a 'way of life' of a group of people, and actually includes moral values and
behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, and symbols that they accept.
- Anthropologically speaking, Culture including moral values, beliefs and behavior is
learned by other people while growing up in a particular society or group. " Learning
culture is essential part of human development"
- Socialization or Enculturation is social learning by which individuals acquire knowledge
from others to which they belong.

3.2 Theory Analyzed. The philosopher C.S. Lewis offers two reason for saying that morality
belongs to the same class as mathematics

A. Nations or cultures only have slightly different moralities but not quite different ones.
Essentially, We recognized them with the same moral law running through them.
B. We affirm that the morality of one person is better or worse than that of another, meaning
there is a moral standard or rule by which we measure both moralities and that standard is real.

4. Cultural Relativism in Ethics

Cultural Relativism a theory in ethics which holds that ethical judgements have their origins
either in individual or cultural standards. Most dominant form of moral relativism, defines 'moral'
as what is socially approved by the majority in a particular culture. Moral Relativism submits
different principles that apply to different persons or groups of individuals. Claiming that various
cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong, moral relativists view all moral norms as
equally true, and morals as mere preference.

5.1 Valuable lessons from ethical relativism

In proposing that there is no independent standard in Ethics. Tolerance is necessary for people
of different cultural origins to co- exist and live peacefully in a society. In a way, the theory
teaches us to be open-minded, thereby being more open to discovering the truth. By stressing
that our moral views can reflect partiality of our tradition, the theory makes us understand that
our feelings and beliefs do not necessarily reflect the truth- they may be mere products of
cultural conditioning

5.2 The theory's ethical faults.

In spite of convincing features, Cultural relativism contains various ethical faults.

5.3 Rachels' Evaluation of cultural relativism

The late Philosophy professor James Rachels (1941-2003) the theory attains widespread
prominence, it would help a lot to consider Rachel's comprehensive evaluation of this ethical
system.

The Cultural Differences Argument

He explains that the cultural relativists approach is to argue from facts about the differences
between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality. Thus we are invited to
accept reasoning like these:

• The Greek believed it was wrong to eat dead, whereas the Callatians ( Indian tribe) believed it
was right to eat dead.
• The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we believe infanticide is immoral
Different cultures have different moral codes. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and
opinions vary from culture to culture.

The Disagreement among Cultures

Culture Relativism capitalizes on the observation that cultures differ dramatically in their views
of right and wrong. He further explains there are many factors aside from society's values, there
are religious beliefs, physical circumstances in which people live, and others. Since the
difference in customs may be because of some other aspects of social life, It’s wrong to
conclude disagreement about values and morality.

The Case of Eskimos and Callatians

In Sociology and Anthropology, The Eskimos are popular for killing perfectly normal infants,
especially girls. This makes them appear to possess significantly different values from ours.

5.4 The bad consequences of cultural relativism

A. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior
B. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong
C. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt
7. Filipino Moral Character: Strengths and Weaknesses

Filipino Cultural Morality which concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a 'Smooth
Interpersonal Relationship' (SIR) in Philippine culture is principally supported by an anchored on
at least six basic Filipino values.

1. Pakikisama - is having and maintaining good public relations.

2. Hiya - a feeling of lowliness and inhibition or shyness
3. Amor propio - commonly translated as ' self-respect' or ' self - esteem'
4. Utang na loob - (debt of gratitude) 'reciprocity' or returning the received favor
5. Hospitality - Filipinos trait to be courteous and entertain their guest
6. Respect to elders - Using 'po and opo as unique ways of expressing respect to elders

8. Universal Values

Values generally shared by cultures. The same form of argument could be used to reasonably
show that other values must be generally shared by many cultures. Giving value on (1) Truth
telling, Rachels also mention of the case (2) Valuing or respecting life.

Lesson II The Moral Agent

Developing Virtue as Habit

Moral Character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude,
honesty, and loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good moral character means that he/
she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass.

1. Moral Character and Virtues

At the beginning of Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us
that there are two distinct of human excellences:

(1) excellences of thoughts and (2) excellences of character. His phrase for excellences of
(moral) character 'ethikai aretai', is translated as "moral virtues" and "moral excellences"

The Greek ‘ethikos' (ethical) is the adjective cognate with 'ethos' (character). When we speak of
a 'virtue' or an excellence of moral character, the highlighting is not on mere distinctiveness or
individuality, but in the blend of qualities that make the person the sort of ethically admirable
individual. Moral Character in a philosophical sense, refers to having or lacking moral virtue.

2. The Circular Relation of Acts and Character

In the process of moral development, there is the circular between acts that build character and
moral character itself. Not all acts help to build moral character, but those acts which emanate
from moral characters certainly matter in moral development. Human flourishing is attained by
the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or 'virtues'. Virtuous traits of
character ought to be stable and enduring and are not mere products of fortune, but of learning,
constant practice and cultivation.

3. Moral Character as Dispositions

Moral Character traits that constitute a person's moral character are characteristically
understood as behavioral and affective dispositions. Generally speaking, ' dispositions' are
particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can process.

4. Six Stages of Moral Development

The American Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is best known for his theory of
stages of moral development. In principle, He agreed with the Swiss clinical psychologist Jean
Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of moral development but wanted to develop his ideas further.

Kohlberg pinpointed three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages
composing his so-called six stages of moral development.

Level 1 - Pre - conventional morality

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 - Conventional Morality
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationship
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 - Post - conventional morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6. Universal Principles

5. Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience- Based Moral Decisions

Another way to view Kohlberg's stages, especially when combined with Piaget's theory, is
as follows

Stage 1. Respect for power and punishment

Stage 2. Looking out for # 1
Stage 3. Being a "Good Boy or Nice Girl"
Stage 4. Law and order thinking
Stage 5. Justice through Democracy
Stage 6. Deciding on basic moral principles by which you will live your life and relate to
everyone fairly

6. Problems with Kohlberg's Theory

Some say that Kohlberg's theory is biased because it was based on all-male sample and thus
stages reflect on androcentric or male definition of morality.

Appendix C AUGUSTINE'S MORAL PHILOSOPHY

AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO (354-430) is one of the most eminent Western Doctors of the Church
and the first major Christian ethical philosopher.
Augustine's moral philosophy is also eudemonistic or concerns the attainment of happiness. It
also recognizes the significance of virtues, though its real focal point is life, particularly the love
of God.

Happiness, wisdom and reason

Following the ancient Greek ethicists, Augustine regards moral philosophy as an inquiry into the
Summum Bonum.Happiness involves living in accordance with reason. Reasonable and wise
living thus entails knowing the truth about human devine matters.

God and the order of things

Augustine believes in a hierarchical structure of reality. God is the highest good, being on top of
the hierarchy.

Love of God and moral living

For Augustine, love is the active center of our moral life, as love moves its desires. In following
moral obligation, love of God also serves as man's main motivating force.

Virtue, double love and charity

Augustine defines virtue as ' the perfect love of God' because to live virtuously is to evaluate
and order loves in accordance with their true worth, virtue is the ' art of living well and
rightly'.Augustine depicts the prime virtue of life by the 'double love' command thought in the
bible to love our neighbor, love of God thus entails charity.

Sin and moral evil

Augustine used peccatum 'sin' and refers to bad acts for which an agent bears moral
responsibility. In his ethical philosophy, He addressed akrasia or weakness of will. He is also a
categorical intentionalist in his view of sin, And three sufficient conditions in committing a sin.

On lying, just war, and killing

Augustine believes that a person lies in uttering a statement, if the statement is false, believes
the statement is false, and with the intention of deceiving someone. He proposes the theory of
just warfare. A war should not be fought from love of hostility, revengeful cruelty, and hunger of
power. He accordingly believes that not everyone who has brought about the death of another
can be properly said to have been killed.

The Fall of God's grace

Augustine contends that the first evils in creation are evil acts of free will or the so-called sin.
The fall is thus the transition from being an innocent image of God to being a creature with
corrupted or fallen human nature. Human nature is a state from which people cannot attain
genuine happiness. God's grace can free our will from the domination of sin, He lights up our
mind by truth and illuminates our will by virtues.

Frameworks and Principles Behind Our Moral Disposition

Ethics Today generally divide the study of morality into three general subject areas:

Meta Ethics
- Is the branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality.

Cognitivism Vs. Non cognitivism

a. Cognitivism: States that moral judgements convey propositions that are truth bearers or they
are either true or false.

Moral Realism
- Claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth of moral judgements are independent of
people’s thoughts and perceptions.

Ethical Subjectivism
- On the other hand ,holds that the truth of ethical propositions are dependent on the attitudes or
standards of a person or group of persons.

Non Cognitivism
- Denies that moral judgements are either true or false.

Emotivism
- The most popular form of non cognitivist theory.

Universalism Vs. Relativism

a. Moral relativism
- On the other hand , submit that different moral facts and principles apply to different persons
or groups of individuals.

a. Moral universalism - Theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all
places.

Empiricism Vs. Rationalism Vs. Intuitionism

-Is a meta ethical stance which states that moral facts are known through observation and
experience.

b.Moral rationalism
-Content that moral facts and principles are knowable a priori that is by reason alone and
without reference to experience.

c.Moral Intuitionism
-Submits that moral truths are knowable by intuition that is by immediate instinctive knowledge
without reference to any evidence.

Normative Ethics
- Is the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act morally speaking.

Deontology
- Is an ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties.

Teleology
- Refers to a moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or
results.

Virtue Ethics
- Moral system places emphasis on developing good habits of character , like kindness and
generosity and avoiding bad character traits or vices such as Greed or hatred.

Applied Ethics
- Philosophically examines specific , controversial moral issues.

Bioethics
- This concerns ethical issues pertaining to life , biomedical research, medicines, health care
and the medical profession.

Environmental Ethics
- It deals with moral issues concerning nature, the ecosystem and its non-human contents.

Business Ethics
-It examines moral principles concerning the business environment which involves issues about
corporate practices, policies , policies, business behaviors and the conducts and relationships of
individuals in the organizations.

Sexual Ethics
It studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.

Social Ethics
It deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole.

Darwinism and Evolutionism

1830 – it was Charles Lyell’s book Principles of Geology that inspired Charles Darwin to publish
his work Origin of species in 1859.

Evolution and Ethics

-In Ethics Darwin’s findings are said to have provided documentary support for the theory
proposed by Herbert Spencer , sometimes called evolutionary ethics.

Evolution
-Typically submitted as a process through which the universe came to be by series of
interrelated phenomena or events.

Darwinism
-The advocacy of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and Evolutionism and the belief in the
theory of evolution by natural selection are thus fundamentally related . Obviously both
ideologies attribute the origins of all life forms and other things not to the purposeful creation by
god but to the behavior of random chemical and physical forces.

Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral character of the
person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of
particular actions.

Virtue (Latin: virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be
morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other
words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what
is wrong.

Virtue Ethics Developed:

Virtue ethics is a philosophy developed by Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. It is the quest to
understand and live a life of moral character. This character-based approach to morality
assumes that we acquire virtue through practice.

Socrates and Plato’s Moral Philosophy

Socrates identifies knowledge with virtue. If knowledge can be learned, so can virtue. Thus,
Socrates states virtue can be taught. He believes “the unexamined life is not worth living.” One
must seek knowledge and wisdom before private interests. In this manner, knowledge is sought
as a means to ethical action.

Like most other ancient philosophers, Plato maintains a virtue-based eudaimonistic conception
of ethics. That is to say, happiness or well-being (eudaimonia) is the highest aim of moral
thought and conduct, and the virtues (aretê: 'excellence') are the requisite skills and
dispositions needed to attain it.

Aristotle’s Ethics
In Ethics, Aristotle describes a thorough understanding of ethical and intellectual virtue. By
pursuing these virtues, Aristotle argues that a person can achieve a life of fulfilling happiness.
The ideal polis as described in the Politics serves as a place where the virtuous life is attained
in the best manner.

Aristotle’s ‘Telos’
Is an end purpose. Aristotle believes that the essence or essential nature or beings, including
humans, lay not at their cause (or beginning) but at their end (‘telos’).

Happiness and Virtues

Happiness is not pleasure, nor is it virtue. It is the exercise of virtue. Happiness cannot be
achieved until the end of one's life. Hence it is a goal and not a temporary state.

Virtue as Habit
Aristotle’s idea of happiness should also be understood in the sense of human flourishing. This
flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues’.

Virtues and the Golden Mean

The Golden mean is a vital facet of Aristotle's' virtue theory so it is important that it is
understood and can be easily applied to any question. The virtues that surround Aristotle's
ethics are to be found within the Golden mean, which involves finding the balance between two
means.

‘Phronesis’ and Practice

The Aristotelian concept of phronesis, or practical wisdom, provides a complex framework to
understand what successful leaders know in their practice. Phronesis is a complex cognitive
ability, developed over time through character, which helps us apply and evaluate rules
appropriately in the midst of experience.

Thomas Aquinas’ Ethics

Aquinas believes that we should always follow our conscience, even when it is wrong or causes
great harm. Since we have no way of knowing whether our consciences are wrong, they are
the best guide we have as to what is the moral thing to do.

The Natural Law

System of right or justice held to be common to all humans and derived from nature rather than
from the rules of society, or positive law.

Eternal Law
The Divine Wisdom of God which oversees the common good and governs everything. Eternal
law is God's plan to lead all creation towards God's eternal salvific plan to be holy and
blameless before Him through Jesus Christ (Ephesians 1:4–5).

Natural Law
A theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings possess intrinsic values that
govern their reasoning and behavior. Natural law maintains that these rules of right and wrong
are inherent in people and are not created by society or court judges.

Human Law
Thomas says that it is from the precepts of the natural law, as from general and indemonstrable
principles, that the human reason needs to proceed to certain particular determinations of the
laws.

Divine Law
On a law conception of ethics, conformity with the virtues requires obeying the divine law. A
divine law requires the existence of God, as the divine lawgiver. Anscombe claims that since
we have given up on God's existence, we should also give up the use of moral terms that are
derived from a theistic worldview.

Features of Human Actions

Aquinas evaluates human actions on the basis not only of their conformity to the natural law but
also of their specific features. He mentions at least three aspects through which the morality of
an act can be determined.
1. Species
2. Accidents
3. End

Species: The species of an action refers to its kind. It is called the object of the action.
Accidents: The accidents simply refer to the circumstances surrounding the action.
End: The end stands for the agent’s intention. An act might be unjust through its intention. To
intend to direct oneself against a good is clearly immoral.

Happiness, Moral Virtues, and Theological Virtues

Aquinas believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that happiness is the final end.
A person needs a moral character cultivated through the habits of choice to realize real
happiness.
Aquinas mentions at least two kinds of infused virtues – Moral and Theological Virtues;

Moral Virtues
Moral virtues are exemplified by courage, temperance, and liberality; the key intellectual
virtues are wisdom, which governs ethical behavior, and understanding, which is expressed in
scientific endeavor and contemplation.

Theological Virtues
There are three theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity. His divine power has bestowed
on us everything that makes for life and devotion, through the knowledge of him who called us
by his own glory and power.

An Analysis of Thomistic Ethics

One of Aquinas’ accomplishments in Ethics is being able to mention, as much as possible, all
of the things that matter in ethical evaluation of actions. He holds that the goodness or badness
of an action lies in the interior act of will, in the external bodily act, in the very nature of the act,
and even in its consequences. Moreover, he avers that what matters in morality is not only
what actually does but also his intention in doing the act.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

A German Philosopher that provides a moral theory for evaluating the ethical actions of people
and states. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the 18th century, and his work in
metaphysics and ethics have had a lasting impact to this day. His major contributions to Ethics
can be found in his two works – The Foundation of the Metaphysics of Morals and the Critique
of Practical Reasons.

Kantian Ethics
Kant categorically rejects that ethical judgments are based on feelings. For him, feelings even
serve as obstructions to our discernment of right and wrong. His ethical theory instead bases
moral judgments on reasons alone. Reasons, for him, is what deems an action ethical or
otherwise.

Good Will
Kant believes, good will is a will whose decisions are wholly determined by moral demands or,
as he often refers to this, by the Moral Law. Human beings inevitably feel this Law as a
constraint on their natural desires, which is why such Laws, as applied to human beings, are
imperatives and duties.

Categorical Imperative
Kant defines categorical imperatives as commands or moral laws all persons must follow,
regardless of their desires or extenuating circumstances. As morals, these imperatives are
binding on everyone.

An Analysis of Kantian Ethics

Firstly, they provide a human-focused ethical structure in which human life and skill focus on a
moral philosophy that establishes norms and guides our interpretation of moral behavior.
Second, practical theory specific and appropriate to accomplishing good behavior is the end
objective of Kantian ethics.

Right Theory
Is one particular duty-based theory of ethics. A right is a justified claim against another person's
behavior. So rights and duties are related in that the rights of one person imply the duty of
someone else to uphold that right.

Type of Right Theory

Theories of rights can be realist or constructivist. According to realist views, rights holders have
rights as one of their intrinsic features. We have to recognize and respect those rights, or
struggle for them to be respected. According to constructivist views, the best theory regarding
how to behave towards beings who are morally considerate is to grant them rights and to
respect those rights or to struggle for them to be respected. Constructivist theory does not
accept that rights holders have rights as something intrinsic. Rather, it claims that individuals
choose to grant them to each other. It defends this as a good thing to do.

Rights theories are ordinarily deontological theories, that is, they maintain that there are norms
we should always obey irrespective of circumstance.There are also consequentialist theories of
rights. These theories entail that we should maximize the (number of) rights that are respected
and minimize the (number of) rights violated, regardless of whether it is we or others who
respect or violate them and whether the violation happens now or in the future.

In contrast, standard theories of rights, deontological ones, claim that we should respect a right
now even if it means we won’t be able to respect other rights later, or even if it means that other
people won’t be able to respect the rights of others. There are anthropocentric theories of rights
according to which only humans can be considered rights holders. However, many theories
contest this view and contend that nonhuman animals should also be considered rights holders
(see the different ethical approaches that defend nonhumans as rights holders).

Rights Based Ethics

A type of ethical theory under which the language of rights provides the basic terminology for
ethical and political theory; it maintains that a democratic society must protect individuals and
allow all to pursue personal goals.

Examples
a. The right to life
b. The right to liberty
c. The right to pursue happiness
d. The right to jury trial
e. The right to a lawyer
f. The right to freely practice a religion of choice
g. The right to express ideas or opinions with freedom as an individual. and etc.

Legal vs. Moral Rights

What is legal is not always moral. And sometimes, what is moral is not necessarily legal in a
particular country. These principles prove, among other things, that being moral and being legal
may be practically related but not one and the same. Some explain the difference between
legal and moral to the difference between is and ought. That is, moral rights refer to what ought
to be, whereas legal rights are the rights that are ‘on the books’. Moral rights represents the
natural law while legal rights embody the conventional positive law.

Legal rights – are the rights formulated by the state or government for the privilege of its
citizens.
Moral rights – are the rights that are accorded according to the ethics or moral code.

Legal rights
Denote all the rights found within existing legal codes. As such, they enjoy the recognition and
protection of the law. Technically, a legal right does not exist prior to its passing into law and
limits of its validity are the jurisdiction of the body which passed its legislation.

Moral rights
The rights that “exist prior to and independently form their legal counterparts. The existence
and validity of moral rights is not deemed to be dependent upon the actions of jurists and
legislators”.