Smart Grid (7) -

Control of generators

Prof. Yuan-Kang Wu
 Mechanical and electrical torques in a generating unit
• A generator driven by a steam turbine can be
represented as a large rotating mass with two
opposing torques acting on the rotation.
• Tmech, the mechanical torque, acts to increase
rotational speed whereas Telec, the electrical torque,
acts to slow it down. When Tmech and Telec are equal in
magnitude, the rotational speed, w, will be constant.
• If the electrical load is increased so that Telec is larger
than Tmech, the entire rotating system will begin to
slow down.
 Fundamentals of Speed Governing
• The basic concepts of speed governing are best
illustrated by considering an isolated generating unit
supplying a local load as shown in the Figure.
 Transfer function relating speed and torques
• When there is a load change, it is reflected
instantaneously as a change in the electrical torque
output Te of generator. This causes a mismatch
between the mechanical torque Tm and the electrical
torque Te which in turn results in speed variations
• The following transfer function represents the
relationship between rotor speed as a function of the
electrical and mechanical torques.
 Transfer function relating speed and power

• For load-frequency studies, it is preferable to express

the above relationship in terms of mechanical and
electrical power rather than torque.
• Therefore, the original figure can now be expressed in
terms of Delta Pm and Delta Pe as follows:
 Mechanical Torque
• Something must be done to increase the mechanical
torque Tmech to restore equilibrium; that is, to bring the
rotational speed back to an acceptable value and the
torques to equality so that the energy balance is
restored at the desired speed.
• This process must be repeated constantly on a power
system because the loads change constantly.
Define electrical–mechanical system terms
 Angular Momentum
• The angular momentum of an object is defined as the product
of the moment of inertia and the angular velocity.
•
 Moment of Inertia
• Moment of inertia is defined with respect to a specific
rotation axis. The moment of inertia of a point mass with
respect to an axis is defined as the product of the mass
times the distance from the axis squared.
 Generator Model
• The relationship between phase angle deviation, speed
deviation, and net accelerating torque is

• the net torque is related to the speed change

Relationship between mechanical and electrical
power and speed change

Rotating speed
 Load response to frequency deviation
• The overall frequency-dependent of a composite load may be
expressed as

• The damping constant is expressed as a percent change in

load for one percent change in frequency.
• Typical values of D are 1% to 2%. A value of D=2 means that a
1 % change in frequency would cause a 2% change in load.
 Load Model
• The loads on a power system consist of a variety of electrical
devices. Some of them are purely resistive, some are motor
loads with variable power–frequency characteristics
• The relationship between the change in load due to the change
in frequency is given by

• where D is expressed as percent change in load divided by

percent change in frequency.
• For example, if load changed by 1.5% for a 1% change in
frequency, then D would equal 1.5.
 The D value is changed based on the
system base MVA
• The value of D used in solving for system dynamic
response must be changed if the system base MVA is
different from the nominal value of load.
• Suppose the D referred to here was for a net connected
load of 1200 MVA and the entire dynamics problem were
to be set up for a 1000-MVA system base. Then D
becomes

New system MVA base

The net change in electrical power

• The net change in Pelec

• Including this in the block diagram results in

the new block diagram

Delta Pelec
Block diagram of rotating mass and
load as seen by prime-mover output

Consider load into the model

Consider the load model

Combine them by control theory

G/(1+GH)
 The system block diagram including
the effect of the load damping
• In the absence of a speed governor, the system
response to a load change is determined by the
inertia constant (M) and the damping constant (D).

The electric system performance (voltages, power, frequency, etc.)

is affected by the action of the generators and loads. The prime
mover system couples with the electrical system through
mechanical power with its effects on generator rotor speed and
angle.
 Example
• An isolated power system with a 600-MVA generating
unit having an M of 7.6 pu MW/pu frequency/s on a
machine base. The unit is supplying a load of 400 MVA.
The load changes by 2% for a 1% change in frequency.
Suppose a load suddenly increases by 10 MVA (or 0.01
pu), what is the final frequency?
• (referenced to a 1000 MVA base)
• Step 1:
 Example
Step 2: Suppose the load suddenly increases (i.e,
step unit function) by 10 MVA (or 0.01 pu); that is,

Frequency domain
 Example

• taking the inverse Laplace transform

The final value of Dw is − 0.0125 pu, which is a

drop of 0.75 Hz on a 60-Hz system.
 Example
• A small system consists of 4 identical 500 MV A generating
units feeding a total load of 1,020 MW. The inertia constant
H of each unit is 5.0 on 500 MVA base. The load varies by
1.5% for a 1 % change in frequency. When there is a sudden
drop in load by 20 MW,
(a) Determine the system block diagram with
constants Hand D expressed on 2,000 MV A base.
(b) Find the frequency deviation, assuming that there
is no speed-governing action.
 Response of a Simple Governor Model with Droop
• Swing equation:
• Droop equation:

➢ A simple single time constant (0.5 s) for a nonreheat steam turbine

➢ inertia constant H: 5s
➢ damping D: 0.8

If the load step in the model is 20%, how about the frequency response?
Frequency response of a simple governor
droop model

The sustained frequency deviation after transients dies

away for a 20% load step, a 5% droop governor, and 0.8
damping can be also easily calculated:
 Multi-turbine-generator system
equivalent.
• When two or more generators are connected, we must
take account of the phase angle difference across the
network in analyzing frequency changes. However, for the
sake of governor analysis, we can assume that frequency
will be constant over those parts of the network that are
tightly interconnected.
• we can then lump the rotating mass of the turbine
generators together into an equivalent that is driven by
the sum of the individual turbine mechanical outputs.
 Multi-turbine-generator system
equivalent.
• All turbine generators were lumped into a single
equivalent rotating mass, Mequiv.
• Similarly, all individual system loads were lumped into an
equivalent load with damping coefficient, Dequiv.
 System equivalent for LFC analysis
• The equivalent generator has an inertia constant Meq equal to
the sum of the inertia constants of all the generating units.
Similarly, the effects of the system loads are lumped into a
single damping constant D.
• The speed of the equivalent generator represents the system
frequency, (since in per unit, the two are equal).
 System equivalent for Frequency response
• For a system with n generators and a composite load-
damping constant of D, the steady-state frequency
deviation following a load change Delta PL is given by

where
 Composite governor and load
• The effects of governor speed droop and the frequency sensitivity of
load on the net frequency change are shown in the following figure.
• An increase of system load by Delta PL (at nominal frequency) results
in a total generation increase of Delta PG due to governor action and
a total system load reduction of Delta PD due to its frequency-
sensitive characteristic.
 Prime-Mover Model (turbine model)
• The prime mover driving a generator unit may be a steam
turbine or a hydro turbine.
• The models for the prime mover must take account of the
steam supply and boiler control system characteristics.
• There are many prime-mover models. In some documents,
only the simplest prime-mover model, the nonreheat
turbine, was be used.

Prime-Mover Model
 Hydraulic turbines
• Hydraulic turbines are of two basic types: impulse turbines
and reaction turbines.
• The impulse-type turbine (also known as Pelton wheel) is used for
high heads -300 metres or more.
• In a reaction turbine the pressure within the turbine is above
atmospheric; the energy is supplied by the water in both kinetic
and potential (pressure head) forms.

impulse-type turbine
Electrical analog of a hydraulic turbine
• The hydraulic and electrical systems are nearly equivalent,
• the water velocity u: current
• gate opening G: load conductance G
• head H: voltage V
Overview of the structure of a high head
hydropower plant.
 A "classical" transfer function of a hydraulic
turbine
• we can express the relationship between change in velocity
and change in gate position as

• g: gate opening

• It shows how the turbine power output changes in response

to a change in gate opening.
• Here Tw is referred to as the water starting time. It
represents the time required for a head Hi to accelerate the
water from standstill to the velocity U0. Typically, Tw at full
load lies between 0.5 s and 4.0 s.
Hydraulic turbine block diagram
This figure describes the relationship between
change in mechanical torque and change in gate
position
 Governors for Hydraulic Turbines
• The basic function of a governor is to control speed and/or
load.
• The primary speed/load control function involves feeding back
speed error to control the gate position.
• In order to ensure stable parallel operation of multiple units,
the speed governor is provided with a droop characteristic. The
purpose of the droop is to ensure equitable load sharing
between generating units
Governor
 Steam turbines
• Depending on the turbine configuration, fossil-fuel units
consist of high pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP),
and low pressure (LP) turbine sections.

• They may be of either reheat type or non-reheat type.

• In a reheat type turbine, the steam upon leaving the HP

section returns to the boiler. Reheating improves efficiency.
Steam turbine model
(Single reheat tandem-compound)
Steam turbine model
 Simplified transfer function for steam turbines
• The most significant time constant in controlling steam flow
and the turbine power is that associated with the reheater.
Therefore, the responses of the reheat turbines are
significantly slower than those of the non-reheat turbine.
• From the Figure above, a simplified transfer function of the
turbine relating perturbed values of the turbine torque (Delta
Tm) and control valve position (Delta Vcv) may be written as
follows:
 Detailed generic model of steam turbines
• A generic model structure applicable to all commonly steam
turbine is shown in the following Figure.
• The time constant T1 represents the main inlet volume and
steam chest time constant. The time constants T2 and T3
represent reheater time constants. For a single reheat turbine,
T2 is neglected and K2 and K3 are set to zero.
 A simple Prime-Mover Model for nonreheat
turbine
• The model for a nonreheat turbine relates the position
of the valve that controls the steam into the turbine.
The combined prime-mover–generator-load
model for a single generating unit

Prime-mover–generator-load model.
 Governor
• by adding a governing mechanism, it can sense the
machine speed, and adjusts the input valve to change
the mechanical power output to compensate for load
changes and to restore frequency to nominal value.
• The simplest governor, called the isochronous governor,
adjusts the input valve to a point that brings frequency
back to nominal value.
 Isochronous governor
• The adjective isochronous means constant speed. An isochronous
governor adjusts the turbine gate to bring the frequency back to the
nominal or scheduled value, as shown in the Figure.
• The measured rotor speed wr is compared with reference speed wo.
The error signal (equal to speed deviation) is amplified and
integrated to produce a control signal Delta Y which actuates the
main steam supply valves in the case of a steam turbine, or gates in
the case of a hydraulic turbine.
 Isochronous governor
• The speed-measurement device’s output, w, is
compared with a reference, wref, to produce an
error signal, Dw. The error, Dw, is negated and then
amplified by a gain KG and integrated to produce a
control signal, DPvalve, which causes the main
steam supply valve to open (DPvalve position) when
Dw is negative.
 Isochronous governor
• If the machine is running at reference speed and
the electrical load increases, w will fall below wref
and Delta w will be negative. The action of the
gain and integrator will be to open the steam
valve, causing the turbine to increase its
mechanical output, thereby increasing the
electrical output of the generator and increasing
the speed w.
Response of generating unit with isochronous governor
• The Figure shows the time response of a generating unit, with an
isochronous governor, when subjected to an increase in load.
• The increase in Pe frequency drops turbine mechanical
power increases reduction in the rate of decrease of speed,
and then an increase in speed when the turbine power is in
excess of the load power.
• The speed will ultimately return to its reference value and the
steady-state turbine power increases by an amount equal to the
additional load.
 Isochronous governor
• An isochronous governor works satisfactorily when a
generator is supplying an isolated load or when only one
generator in a multi-generator system is required to
respond to changes in load. For power load sharing
between generators connected to the system, speed
regulation or droop characteristic must be provided.
 Isochronous governor
• The isochronous (constant speed) governor cannot be
used if two or more generators are electrically
connected to the same system since each generator
would have to have precisely the same speed setting or
they would “fight” each other, each trying to pull the
system’s speed (or frequency) to its own setting.
• To be able to run two or more generating units in
parallel on a generating system, the governors are
provided with a feedback signal that causes the speed
error to go to 0 at different values of generator output.
• This can be accomplished by adding a feedback loop
around the integrator
 Governors with speed-droop characteristic
• The isochronous governors cannot be used when there are two or
more units connected to the same system since each generator would
have to have precisely the same speed setting.
• The speed-droop or regulation characteristic may be obtained by
adding a steady-state feedback loop around the integrator as shown
in Figure.
 Block diagram of a speed governor with
droop
• The transfer function of the governor of the Figure(a)
reduces to the form shown in Figure(b). This type of
governor is characterized as a proportional controller with
a gain of 1/R

(a) (b)
Percent speed regulation or droop
 Load sharing by parallel units
• If more generators with governor are connected to a power system,
there will be a unique frequency at which they will share a load
change.
• Consider two units with droop characteristics as shown in the
Figure. They are initially at nominal frequency f0，with outputs P 1
and P 2.
• When a load increase Delta PL causes the units to slow down, the
governors increase output until they reach a new common
operating frequency f. The amount of load picked up by each unit
depends on the droop:
Response of a generating unit with a
governor
Schematic diagram of governor and turbine
• The relationship between speed and load can be
adjusted by changing an input shown as "load reference
setpoint" in the following Figure.
• In practice, the adjustment of load reference setpoint is
accomplished by operating the "speed-changer motor."
Reduced block diagram of governor
 Governor with speed-droop feedback loop
• By adding a feedback loop around the integrator
as in the Figure. Note that inserted a new input,
called the load reference
From Isochronous governor to Governor with
speed-droop feedback loop.
 Block diagram of governor with
droop
• The block diagram for this governor is shown in Figure,
where the governor now has a net gain of 1/R and a
time constant TG.
 Speed-droop characteristic
• The result of adding the feedback loop with gain R is a
governor characteristic.
• The value of R determines the slope of the characteristic.
• R determines the change on the unit’s output for a given
change in frequency.
• As a result, a change in electrical load on a system will be
compensated by generator unit output changes proportional
to each unit’s rated output.
Governor droop operation with 50% load at
100% frequency

Note the range 50% from a practical standpoint is on the low side and is
illustrative only.
Allocation of unit outputs with governor droop
• A change in electrical load on a system will be compensated
by generator unit output changes proportional to each unit’s
rated output
• If two generators with drooping governor characteristics are
connected to a power system, there will always be a unique
frequency, at which they will share a load change between
them. This is shown in the Figure
Parallel operation of two generators with different
speed changer settings at 100% system frequency
 Example
• Two generating units of rating 500MVA and
droop 6%, and 200MVA and droop 4%,
respectively, are operating in parallel in an
isolated system. They share a load of 700MW at
100% system frequency. Unit 1 supplies 500MW,
and unit 2 supplies 200MW. If the load decreases
by 80MW, find the steady-state frequency and
generation of each unit. Assume load varies 1%
for every 1% change of frequency

• [Using a system base MVA of 1000 MVA]

Change to pu values
• G1 Rating 500MVA and droop 6%
• G2 200MVA and droop 4%,

• Load decreases by 80MW

• Assume load varies 1% for every 1% change of frequency

 Equivalent system droop
• Since the final operation is at steady state, transients due
to the 2Hs factor can be ignored.
• The droops of individual units are given by

• where Rsys is the “equivalent system droop” and is given by

The change of power from each unit
• Adding the effect of load damping, D, as seen in the
Figure, the frequency deviation is given by

Under these conditions, the active power deviation

at unit 1 and at unit 2 is
 The change of equivalent droop
• Therefore, under the new conditions unit 1 supplies
453.5MW and unit 2 supplies 172.1MW at the new
operating frequency of 59.6651 Hz.
 Load reference set point
• The amount of load pickup on each unit is proportional
to the slope of its droop characteristic. Unit 1 increases
its output from P1 to P1′, unit 2 increases its output
from P2 to P2′ such that the net generation increase, P1′
− P1 + P2′ − P2, is equal to DPL

• Load reference set point: How to determine this point?

 Speed-changer settings
• By changing the load reference, the generator’s
governor characteristic can be set to give reference
frequency at any desired unit output. This is shown in
the Figure. The basic control input to a generating
unit is the load reference set point. By adjusting this
set point on each unit, a desired unit dispatch can be
maintained while holding system frequency close to
the desired nominal value.
 Effect of speed-changer setting on governor
• Three characteristics are shown representing three load
reference settings. For example, at 60 Hz,
• A results in zero output: B results in 50% output
• C results in 100% output.
• Thus, the power output of the generating unit at a given
speed may be adjusted to any desired value by adjusting the
load reference setting through actuation of the speed-
changer motor.
• When more generators operate in parallel, the corresponding to a
load reference setting of each generating unit merely establishes
the proportion of the load picked up by the unit when a sudden
change in system load occurs.
• The output of each unit at any given system frequency can be
varied only by changing its load reference, which in effect moves
the speed droop up and down.
 Include R into the frequency model
• A 3% regulation for a unit would indicate that a 100% (1.0
pu) change in valve position requires a 3% change in
frequency.
• R is equal to pu change in frequency divided by pu change
in unit output.

• Therefore, we can construct a block diagram of a governor–

prime–mover–rotating mass/load model as shown in the
Figure.
• Suppose that this generator experiences a step increase
in load,

• The transfer function relating the load change, DeltaPL,

to the frequency change, Deltaw, is
If several generators (each having its own governor and prime mover)
were connected to the system, the frequency change would be
 Actual speed-droop characteristic
• The governor speed-droop considered
so far represents the ideal relationship.
In actual practice the characteristic
departs from the straight-line
relationship.
• Steam turbines have a number of
control valves, each having nonlinear
flow area versus position characteristic.
Each section of curve 2 represents the
effect of one control valve.
• Hydraulic turbines, which have a single
gate, tend to have the characteristic
similar to curve 3.
 Automatic generation control (AGC)
• Automatic generation control (AGC) gives to a control
system having three major objectives:
• To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal
value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz).
• To maintain each unit’s generation at the most economic value.
• Once a load change has occurred, a supplementary
control must act to restore the frequency to nominal
value. This can be accomplished by adding a reset
(integral) control to the governor, as shown in the Figure
• Here only an integral control is used
• A more complete use of proportional, integral, and
derivative (PID) is often applied.
• The reset control action of the supplementary control
will force the frequency error to 0 by adjustment of the
speed reference set point. For example, the error shown
in the Figure would be forced to 0.
• AGC operates well with governor control only with the
backup provided by manual control.
• With droop governors, frequency deviations will result
in a permanent steady-state deviation given by the
equation R =Delta w=Delta P.
• The larger the disturbance, the larger will be the
steady-state deviation. AGC with a PI controller will
bring the steady-state deviation to zero.
 Frequency response of AGC system
• The Figure shows the frequency response of AGC
system in an isolated or single-area system.
Two-area AGC tie-line model
Prime mover systems control to complete system
Different thermal turbines

• Steam Turbines
• Gas Turbines
Model of boiler pressure effects
Steam system configurations and corresponding
mathematical models
 Generic turbine model
• A general model that would accommodate all types is
shown in the Fig. The coefficients K1 to K8 reflect the
contributions from various turbine sections. The turbine
response time depends on the charging time of various
volumes, that is, the high-pressure turbine bowl T4, the
reheater T5, and the crossover T6.
 Hydraulic Governor
• The signal from the gate position “g” in Fig.1 will feed
into the hydraulic turbine model shown in Fig. 2

Fig. 1 Hydraulic turbine

Fig. 2 Mechanical governor for hydraulic turbine

The Variables of Hydraulic Governors
• For many of the smaller hydro plants, the nonlinear
model that combines turbine with governor models
can be replaced with a simpler model. The output is
the mechanical power Pmech that is the input to the
generator model in stability programs
 Thermal Governor Modeling
• (1) General Steam System Model

• Governor rate limits are nominally 0.1 p.u./s except for

mechanical hydraulic system where the closing rate is 1.0
p.u./s.

• (2) Gas Turbine Model

 The “ggov1 model” shown in this Fig is a GE PSLF copyrighted model,

Gas Turbine Model which is extensively used in the WECC to model primarily gas turbine
and single-shaft combined-cycle turbines.
 WECC NW 1250MW trip test
• Over the years, WECC have not been able to accurately simulate
the frequency response in the Western Interconnection when
large generators and plants trip.
• To further the governor investigation as to why governor modeling
did not correspond to actual system performance, two separate
generation trip tests, one in the Southwest and the other in the
Northwest
 WECC NW 1250MW trip test
• only about 40% of the governors effectively
respond in the real system in the settling time of
about 60–100s. If all the governors were
responsive in the 1250MW trip test, out of a
WECC generation base capacity of 91,000MW
online during the test, the calculated generation
pickup for governors with a 5% droop, for a 0.1 Hz
frequency deviation, would be 3185MW. Since
the actual pickup was only 1250MW, the
percentage of “responsive” governors would be
only (1250/3185) or 39%
• The principal reason for this large difference was that
generators are not properly modeled. These are primarily
“thermal” units, a classification that include conventional
fired steam, nuclear steam, simple cycle gas turbine, and
combined-cycle gas turbine plants.
• Analysis of the test recordings showed that the hydro
governors were largely responsive.
• In the modeling of governors, the “base-load” and “load-
controller” operation of units was clearly the dominant
effect.
• The Figure compares frequency simulations of the
“new” (correct) model with the “existing” (incorrect)
model. The existing (incorrect) modeling assumes that
100% of governors respond in accordance with its 5%
speed droop governor characteristic.
 New dynamic model - lcfb1
• The two new models, developed by GE for use in WECC
studies, are the “ggov1” and the “lcfb1” models.
• In addition to “ggov 1” model, thermal units may be
represented by the general-purpose thermal governor
model such as shown in the Figure by the load controller
model (lcfb1)
 Block diagram of the new thermal turbine governor
showing “Base” Load/Limiter and MW Load
controller feature
• In the new governor model, “base” load operation is simulated by setting
the limiters to a preset value. An additional MW power (load) controller is
included to model.
• This is a simple reset (PI) controller with its gain (Kimw) typically having
values of 0.01–0.02 per unit for “fast” controllers, 0.001–0.005 per unit for
“slow” controllers, and 0 for no load controller action (i.e., a fully responsive
5% droop unit).
• The detailed block diagram of the thermal governor model (ggov1) is shown
in the Figure.
After using new thermal turbine governor model

Governor model verification

 Static Load Models
• A static load model expresses as functions of the bus
voltage magnitude and frequency.
• The active power component P and the reactive power
component Q are considered separately.
• Traditionally, the voltage dependency of load has been
represented by the exponential model:

where

• The subscript o identifies the values of the respective

variables at the initial operating condition
Static Load Models

• a=0: constant power; a=1: constant current; a=2:

constant impedance.
• For composite loads, their values depend on the
aggregate behave of load components.
• For composite system loads, the exponent a usually
ranges between 0.5 and 1.8; the exponent b is typically
between 1.5 and 6.
Polynomial load model
• An alternative model which has been widely used to
represent the voltage dependency of loads is the
polynomial model:

• This model is commonly referred to as the ZIP model, as

it is composed of constant impedance (Z), constant
current (I), and constant power (P) components.
Coefficients p1 to p3 and q1 to q3 define the proportion
of each component.
 Frequency dependency of load
• The frequency dependency of load is usually represented
by multiplying the exponential model or the polynomial
model by a factor as follows:

• or

• where Delta f the frequency deviation (f-f0). Typically, Kpf

ranges from 0 to 3.0, and Kqf ranges from -2.0 to 0. The
bus frequency f is usually not a state variable in the
 Dynamic Load Models
• In many cases, it is necessary to account for the dynamics of
load components.
• Studies of interarea oscillations, voltage stability, and long-
term stability often require load dynamics to be modelled.
• Study of systems with large concentrations of motors also
requires representation of load dynamics.
• Typically, motors consume 60 to 70% of the total energy
supplied by a power system.

Composite static and dynamic load model

 Modelling of Induction Motors
• Equivalent circuit
• The following equations represent the steady-state performance of
the induction machine.

where

• These equations can be represented by the equivalent circuit shown

in the Figure, which accounts for quantities in one phase.
An alternative form of induction machine
equivalent circuit

• An alternative form of induction machine equivalent

circuit is shown in the Figure in which the rotor
power is separated into resistance loss and shaft
power.
 Torque-slip relation
• The Figure shows a typical relationship between torque and
slip/speed. Between zero and synchronous speed, the
machine performs as a motor. Beyond synchronous speed,
slip is negative, representing generator operation.
 The use of a wound rotor
• The use of a wound rotor is to vary the rotor resistance
at different operating conditions.
• For normal running, external resistance is made zero so
that the full load slip is small.
• The Figure shows the effect of varying the rotor
resistance on the shaft torque.

Effect of rotor circuit

resistance
 Static Load-Model Parameters
• The Table summarizes the sample behavior of
different load classes.
 Dynamic Load-Model Parameters
• The following are sample data for induction motor
equivalents representing three different types of load
More devices are integrated into the power system
 Average system frequency (ASF) model
• When a major disturbance occurs, there may be a slight difference in
frequency among different buses due to the intermachine oscillations.
• If neglecting the impact of network and retaining the separate
governor dynamics, an average system frequency (ASF) model can be
established. Owing to its simplified structure and high accuracy, the
ASF model is widely used in the PFR research
 Typical governor models
• There are variety of governor models recommended by
the IEEE Committee. Typical steam (IEEEG1) and hydro
(IEEEG3) speed-governing system models are shown in
the following:

IEEEG1 model for steam turbine and its governor. IEEEG3 model for hydro turbine and its governor.
A block diagram of the new thermal turbine-
governor showing baseload/ limiter and megawatt
load controller features.