Python Reading Material

Contents
Python .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Audience ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Prerequisites ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Python Overview......................................................................................................................................... 9
History of Python .............................................................................................................................. 10
Python Features................................................................................................................................ 10
Python - Environment Setup................................................................................................................... 11
Local Environment Setup............................................................................................................... 11
Getting Python................................................................................................................................... 12
Installing Python .............................................................................................................................. 12
Unix and Linux Installation ................................................................................................ 12
Windows Installation............................................................................................................. 13
Macintosh Installation .......................................................................................................... 13
Setting up PATH ................................................................................................................................ 14
Setting path at Unix/Linux............................................................................................................ 14
Setting path at Windows ............................................................................................................... 14
Python Environment Variables .................................................................................................... 17
Running Python................................................................................................................................. 19
Interactive Interpreter ......................................................................................................... 19
Script from the Command-line ......................................................................................... 20
Integrated Development Environment ....................................................................... 21
Python Basic Syntax................................................................................................................................. 21
First Python Program ...................................................................................................................... 21
Interactive Mode Programming ...................................................................................... 22
Script Mode Programming .................................................................................................. 22
Python Identifiers............................................................................................................................. 23
Reserved Words................................................................................................................................ 24
Lines and Indentation..................................................................................................................... 25
Multi-Line Statements..................................................................................................................... 26
Quotation in Python......................................................................................................................... 26
Comments in Python....................................................................................................................... 27
Using Blank Lines ............................................................................................................................. 28
Waiting for the User Input ............................................................................................................ 28
Multiple Statements on a Single Line ........................................................................................ 30
Multiple Statement Groups as Suites ........................................................................................ 30
Command Line Arguments ........................................................................................................... 33
Python Variable Types.............................................................................................................................. 34
Assigning Values to Variables ...................................................................................................... 34
Multiple Assignment ........................................................................................................................ 35
Standard Data Types ....................................................................................................................... 35
Python Numbers............................................................................................................................... 37
Integer Objects ......................................................................................................................................... 37
Examples ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Python Strings ................................................................................................................................... 47
Python Numbers ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Integer Objects ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Examples ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Number Type Conversion .............................................................................................................. 51
Mathematical Functions ................................................................................................................. 52
Random Number Functions .......................................................................................................... 54
Mathematical Constants................................................................................................................. 56
Python Strings........................................................................................................................................... 57
Accessing Values in Strings .......................................................................................................... 57
Updating Strings ............................................................................................................................... 58
Escape Characters ............................................................................................................................ 58
String Special Operators ................................................................................................................ 61
String Formatting Operator .......................................................................................................... 62
Unicode String ................................................................................................................................... 67
unicode() GLOBAL FUNCTION# ................................................................................................................ 67
Built-in String Methods................................................................................................................... 67
Python Lists ............................................................................................................................................... 74
Python Lists ........................................................................................................................................ 74
Accessing Values in Lists ............................................................................................................... 74
Updating Lists .................................................................................................................................... 75
Delete List Elements ........................................................................................................................ 75
Basic List Operations ....................................................................................................................... 76
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes ................................................................................................... 76
Built-in List Functions & Methods:.............................................................................................. 77
Python Tuples............................................................................................................................................ 79
Accessing Values in Tuples: .......................................................................................................... 79
Updating Tuples ................................................................................................................................ 80
Delete Tuple Elements .................................................................................................................... 80
Basic Tuples Operations................................................................................................................. 81
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes ................................................................................................... 81
No Enclosing Delimiters ................................................................................................................. 82
Built-in Tuple Functions.................................................................................................................. 82
Python Dictionary...................................................................................................................................... 83
Accessing Values in Dictionary:................................................................................................... 83
Updating Dictionary ......................................................................................................................... 84
Delete Dictionary Elements........................................................................................................... 84
Properties of Dictionary Keys....................................................................................................... 85
Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods −.............................................................................. 87
Python Date & Time ................................................................................................................................. 89
What is Tick? ...................................................................................................................................... 89
Example ............................................................................................................................................... 89
What is TimeTuple? ......................................................................................................................... 89
Getting current time ........................................................................................................................ 91
Getting calendar for a month ....................................................................................................... 92
The time Module ............................................................................................................................... 92
The calendar Module ....................................................................................................................... 98
Other Modules & Functions: ....................................................................................................... 104
Data Type Conversion ................................................................................................................... 104
Python Basic Operators.......................................................................................................................... 121
Types of Operator........................................................................................................................... 121
Python Arithmetic Operators ..................................................................................................... 122
Python Comparison Operators .................................................................................................. 122
Python Assignment Operators................................................................................................... 123
Python Logical Operators ............................................................................................................ 124
Python Bitwise Operators............................................................................................................ 125
Python Membership Operators.................................................................................................. 127
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 127
Python Identity Operators .......................................................................................................... 128
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 129
Python Operators Precedence ................................................................................................... 130
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 132
Python Decision Making......................................................................................................................... 134
Syntax: ............................................................................................................................................... 136
Single Statement Suites ............................................................................................................... 138
Python Loops........................................................................................................................................... 139
Syntax .................................................................................................................................................. 140
Syntax of for Loop .............................................................................................................................. 142
Syntax of pass .................................................................................................................................... 144
Python Functions .................................................................................................................................... 146
Defining a Function ........................................................................................................................ 146
Syntax................................................................................................................................................. 146
Example ............................................................................................................................................. 147
Calling a Function ........................................................................................................................... 147
Pass by reference vs value.......................................................................................................... 147
Function Arguments ...................................................................................................................... 149
Required arguments...................................................................................................................... 149
Keyword arguments (parameter named notation) ........................................................... 150
Default arguments ......................................................................................................................... 151
Variable-length arguments ......................................................................................................... 152
The Anonymous Functions.......................................................................................................... 155
Syntax................................................................................................................................................. 155
The return Statement.................................................................................................................... 156
Scope of Variables .......................................................................................................................... 157
Global vs. Local variables............................................................................................................. 157
Python Modules....................................................................................................................................... 159
Example ............................................................................................................................................. 159
How to import modules in Python? .................................................................................................. 160
Import with renaming ......................................................................................................................... 160
Python from...import statement ...................................................................................................... 161
The from...import * Statement: ....................................................................................................... 162
Locating Modules............................................................................................................................ 163
The PYTHONPATH Variable: ....................................................................................................... 165
Namespaces and Scoping............................................................................................................ 166
The dir( ) Function ......................................................................................................................... 168
The globals() and locals() Functions ....................................................................................... 168
The reload() Function ................................................................................................................... 170
Python Files I/O ......................................................................................................................................... 175
Printing to the Screen ................................................................................................................... 175
Reading Keyboard Input.............................................................................................................. 175
The raw_input Function ............................................................................................................... 175
The input Function ......................................................................................................................... 176
Opening and Closing Files............................................................................................................ 176
The open Function.......................................................................................................................... 177
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 177
The file Object Attributes ............................................................................................................. 178
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 179
The close() Method ........................................................................................................................ 180
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 180
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 180
Reading and Writing Files............................................................................................................ 181
The write() Method........................................................................................................................ 181
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 181
The read() Method ......................................................................................................................... 182
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 182
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 182
File Positions .................................................................................................................................... 184
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 184
Renaming and Deleting Files...................................................................................................... 185
The rename() Method................................................................................................................... 185
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 185
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 185
The copyfile() Method................................................................................................................... 186
The remove() Method................................................................................................................... 186
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 186
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 186
Directories in Python..................................................................................................................... 186
The mkdir() Method ...................................................................................................................... 187
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 187
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 187
The chdir() Method ........................................................................................................................ 187
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 187
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 187
The getcwd() Method ................................................................................................................... 188
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 188
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 188
The rmdir() Method ....................................................................................................................... 188
Syntax: ......................................................................................................................................... 188
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 188
File & Directory Related Methods.............................................................................................. 189
Python Exceptions Handling ..................................................................................................................... 198
Assertions in Python ............................................................................................................ 200
The assert Statement .......................................................................................................... 201
Example 1. .................................................................................................................................. 201
Example 2. .................................................................................................................................. 202
What is Exception?......................................................................................................................... 202
Handling an exception .................................................................................................................. 203
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 203
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 203
The except Clause with No Exceptions ................................................................................... 204
The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions ......................................................................... 205
The try-finally Clause..................................................................................................................... 206
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 206
Argument of an Exception........................................................................................................... 207
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 208
Raising an Exception ..................................................................................................................... 208
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 209
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 209
User-Defined Exceptions.............................................................................................................. 209
Python 3 - Object Oriented ................................................................................................................... 210
Overview of OOP Terminology .................................................................................................. 210
Creating Classes.............................................................................................................................. 211
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 212
Creating Instance Objects........................................................................................................... 212
Accessing Attributes...................................................................................................................... 213
Built-In Class Attributes ............................................................................................................... 215
Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection) .............................................................................. 216
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 217
Class Inheritance............................................................................................................................ 219
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 219
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 219
Overriding Methods ....................................................................................................................... 221
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 221
Base Overloading Methods ......................................................................................................... 221
Overloading Operators ................................................................................................................. 222
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 222
Data Hiding ....................................................................................................................................... 223
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 223
Python 3 - Regular Expressions............................................................................................................ 225
Basic patterns that match single chars .................................................................... 225
Compilation flags ................................................................................................................... 226
The match Function ....................................................................................................................... 227
Example 1. .................................................................................................................................. 228
Example 2. .................................................................................................................................. 229
Example 3. .................................................................................................................................. 229
The search Function ...................................................................................................................... 229
Example 1. .................................................................................................................................. 231
Example 2. .................................................................................................................................. 231
Matching Versus Searching......................................................................................................... 232
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 232
The Search and Replace function (sub).................................................................................. 232
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 232
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 232
The split Function ........................................................................................................................... 233
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 233
The Findall Function....................................................................................................................... 235
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 235
The Finditer Function .................................................................................................................... 236
Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 236
Regular Expression Modifiers: Option Flags.......................................................................... 237
Regular Expression Patterns ...................................................................................................... 239
Regular Expression Examples.................................................................................................... 239
Literal characters ................................................................................................................... 239
Character classes............................................................................................................................ 239
Special Character Classes ............................................................................................................ 240
Repetition Cases ............................................................................................................................. 241
Nongreedy repetition .................................................................................................................... 241
Grouping with Parentheses ........................................................................................................ 242
Backreferences................................................................................................................................ 242
Alternatives....................................................................................................................................... 243
Anchors .............................................................................................................................................. 243
Special Syntax with Parentheses.............................................................................................. 244
Python
Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and
high-level programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum
during 1985- 1990. Like Perl, Python source code is also available under the
GNU General Public License (GPL).
Audience
Software programmers who need to learn Python programming language
from scratch.
Prerequisites
You should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming
terminologies. A basic understanding of any of the programming languages.
Python Overview
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting
language. Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords
frequently whereas other languages use punctuation, and it has fewer
syntactical constructions than other languages.
• Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You

do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL
and PHP.
• Python is Interactive: You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with
the interpreter directly to write your programs.
• Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique

of programming that encapsulates code within objects.
• Python is a Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the beginner-

level programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications
from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.
History of Python
Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early
nineties at the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer
Science (NRIMCS) in the Netherlands.
Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C,

C++, Algol-68, SmallTalk, and Unix shell and other scripting languages.
Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under
the GNU General Public License (GPL).
Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute,

although Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.
Python Features
Python's features include:
• Easy-to-learn: Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.
• Easy-to-read: Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.
• Easy-to-maintain: Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.
• A broad standard library: Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
• Interactive Mode: Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.
• Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the
same interface on all platforms.
• Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These
modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more
efficient.
• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

• GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and
ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows
MFC, Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.
• Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than
shell scripting.
Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good
features, few are listed below:
• It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building

large applications.
• It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type
checking.
• It supports automatic garbage collection.
• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.
Python - Environment Setup

Python is available on a wide variety of platforms including Linux and Mac OS
X. Let's understand how to set up our Python environment.
Local Environment Setup

Open a terminal window and type "python" to find out if it is already installed
and which version is installed.
• Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.)
• Win 9x/NT/2000
• Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K)
• OS/2
• DOS (multiple versions)

• PalmOS
• Nokia mobile phones
• Windows CE
• Acorn/RISC OS
• BeOS
• Amiga
• VMS/OpenVMS
• QNX
• VxWorks
• Psion
• Python has also been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines
Getting Python
The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation,
news, etc., is available on the official website of
Python https://www.python.org/ .
You can download Python documentation from https://www.python.org/doc/
The documentation is available in HTML, PDF, and PostScript formats.
Installing Python
Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to
download only the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python.
If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler
to compile the source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more
flexibility in terms of choice of features that you require in your installation.
Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms −
Unix and Linux Installation

Here are the simple steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine.
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

• Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.
• Download and extract files.
• Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.
• run ./configure script
• make
• make install
This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries at

/usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.
Windows Installation
Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine.
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/
• Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the
version you need to install.
• To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft
Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find
out if your machine supports MSI.
• Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really
easy to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and
you are done.
Macintosh Installation
Recent Macs come with Python installed, but it may be several years out of
date. See http://www.python.org/download/mac/ for instructions on getting
the current version along with extra tools to support development on the Mac.
For older Mac OS's before Mac OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is
available.
Jack Jansen maintains it and you can have full access to the entire
documentation at his website − http://www.cwi.nl/~jack/macpython.html.
You can find complete installation details for Mac OS installation.
Setting up PATH
Programs and other executable files can be in many directories, so operating

systems provide a search path that lists the directories that the OS searches
for executables.
The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string

maintained by the operating system. This variable contains information
available to the command shell and other programs.
The path variable is named as PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case
sensitive; Windows is not).
In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python
interpreter from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory
to your path.
Setting path at Unix/Linux

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix −
• In the csh shell − type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press

Enter.
• In the bash shell (Linux) − type export PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python"

and press Enter.
• In the sh or ksh shell − type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press

Enter.
• Note − /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory
Setting path at Windows

To add Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows −
At the command prompt − type path echo %path% and press Enter.
Microsoft Windows [Version 10.0.15063]
(c) 2017 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
C:\Users\rharlalk>cd ..
C:\Users>cd..
C:\>chdir C:\Program Files\Python36
C:\Program Files\Python36>python
Python 3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900
64 bit (AMD64)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more
information.
Welcome to Python!
Rakhee Harlalka
>>>
Or
Simply, In my case environment variable is already set to

C:\Users\haryadav>python --version
Python 3.6.2
C:\Users\haryadav>python
Python 3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900
64 bit (AMD64)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more
information.
>>>import sys
>>>print(sys.version);
3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900 64 bit

(AMD64)]
>>>import platform
>>>platform.python_version();
'3.6.2'
>>> help()
Welcome to Python 3.6's help utility!
If this is your first time using Python, you should definitely

check out the tutorial on the Internet at
http://docs.python.org/3.6/tutorial/.
Enter the name of any module, keyword, or topic to get help on

writing Python programs and using Python modules. To quit this
help utility and return to the interpreter, just type "quit".
To get a list of available modules, keywords, symbols, or

topics, type "modules", "keywords", "symbols", or "topics".
Each module also comes with a one-line summary of what it does;
to list the modules whose name or summary contain a given string
such as "spam", type "modules spam".
help>quit or simply type enter
Python Environment Variables

Here are important environment variables, which can be recognized by
Python −
S.No. Variable & Description
1 PYTHONPATH
It has a role similar to PATH. This variable tells the Python interpreter
where to locate the module files imported into a program. It should include
the Python source library directory and the directories containing Python
source code. PYTHONPATH is sometimes preset by the Python installer.
2 PYTHONSTARTUP
It contains the path of an initialization file containing Python source code.

It is executed every time you start the interpreter. It is named as
.pythonrc.py in Unix and it contains commands that load utilities or modify
PYTHONPATH.
3
PYTHONCASEOK
It is used in Windows to instruct Python to find the first case-insensitive

match in an import statement. Set this variable to any value to activate it.
4 PYTHONHOME
It is an alternative module search path. It is usually embedded in the

PYTHONSTARTUP or PYTHONPATH directories to make switching module
libraries easy.
How to set the environment variable
PYTHONSTARTUP
Create a file named startupImports.py and write the below code in it.
import os
cls = lambda: os.system('cls')
print('Welcome to Python')
print('Rakhee Harlalka')
Copy this file in the directory where python binaries are installed. In my case
it is:
C:\Program Files\Python36
Insert Environment Variables PYTHONSTARTUP

Open command prompt and login to python.
Python 3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900 64 bit
(AMD64)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
Welcome to Python
Rakhee Harlalka
>>>
Or if file present at different location.

C:\Users\rharlalk> python -i C:\_Rakhee\Python\startupImports.py
Welcome to Python
Rakhee Harlalka
>>>
Running Python
There are three different ways to start Python −
Interactive Interpreter
You can start Python from Unix, DOS, or any other system that provides you
a command-line interpreter or shell window.
Enter python the command line.
Start coding right away in the interactive interpreter.
$python # Unix/Linux
or
python% # Unix/Linux
or
C:> python # Windows/DOS
Here is the list of all the available command line options −

S.No. Option & Description
1 -d
It provides debug output.
2 -O
It generates optimized bytecode (resulting in .pyo files).
3
-S
Do not run import site to look for Python paths on startup.
4
-v
verbose output (detailed trace on import statements).
5 -X
disable class-based built-in exceptions (just use strings); obsolete starting

with version 1.6.
6
-c cmd
run Python script sent in as cmd string
7 file
run Python script from given file
Script from the Command-line

A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter
on your application, as in the following −
$python script.py # Unix/Linux

or
python% script.py # Unix/Linux
or
C: >python script.py # Windows/DOS
Note − Be sure the file permission mode allows execution.
Integrated Development Environment

You can run Python from a Graphical User Interface (GUI) environment as
well, if you have a GUI application on your system that supports Python.
• Unix − IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python.
• Windows − PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE
with a GUI.
• Macintosh − The Macintosh version of Python along with the IDLE IDE is available
from the main website, downloadable as either MacBinary or BinHex'd files.
If you are not able to set up the environment properly, then you can take
help from your system admin. Make sure the Python environment is properly
set up and working perfectly fine.
Note − All the examples given in subsequent chapters are executed with
Python 2.4.3 version available on CentOS flavor of Linux.
Python Basic Syntax

The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C, and Java. However,
there are some definite differences between the languages.
First Python Program

Let us execute programs in different modes of programming.
Interactive Mode Programming
Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings
up the following prompt −
$ python
Python 3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900 64 bit (AMD64)] on
win32
Welcome to Python
Rakhee Harlalka
>>>
Type the following text at the Python prompt and press the Enter:
>>> print "Hello, Python!"
If you are running new version of Python 3, then you would need to use print
statement with parenthesis as in print ("Hello, Python!");.
>>> print("Hello, Python!")

Hello, Python!
Script Mode Programming
Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script
and continues until the script is finished. When the script is finished, the
interpreter is no longer active.
Let us write a simple Python program in a script. Python files have

extension .py. Type the following source code in a test.py file:
print ("Hello, Python!")
We assume that you have Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try
to run this program as follows −
$ python test.py
This produces the following result:
Hello, Python!
Let us try another way to execute a Python script. Here is the modified test.py
file −
#!/usr/bin/python
We assume that you have Python interpreter available in /usr/bin directory.

Now, try to run this program as follows −
$ chmod +x test.py # This is to make file executable

$./test.py
For window
C:\Program Files\Python36>chdir D:/Users/rharlalk/Desktop/Python
C:\Program Files\Python36>D:
D:\Users\rharlalk\Desktop\Python>python -i test.py
Hello, Python!
This produces the following result −
Hello, Python!
Python Identifiers
A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class,
module or other object. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an
underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to
9).
Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within

identifiers.
Python is a case sensitive programming language.
Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in Python.
Here are naming conventions for Python identifiers −
• Class names start with an uppercase letter. All other identifiers start with a
lowercase letter.
• Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates that the identifier
is private.
• Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strongly private

identifier.
• If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a
language-defined special name.
Reserved Words
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and
you cannot use them as constant or variable or any other identifier names.
All the Python keywords contain lowercase letters only.
and exec not
assert finally or
break for pass
class from print
continue global raise
def if return
del import try

elif in while
else is with
except lambda yield
Lines and Indentation
Python provides no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function
definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation,
which is rigidly enforced.
The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within
the block must be indented with the same amount space. For example −
if True:
print("True")
else:
print("False")
However, the following block generates an error −
if True:
print("Answer")
print("True")
else:
print("Answer")
print("False")
C:\>python -i D:\Users\haryadav\Desktop\Python\test.txt
File "D:\Users\haryadav\Desktop\Python\test.txt", line 6
print("False")
^
IndentationError: unindent does not match any outer indentation level
>>>exit()
Thus, in Python all the continuous lines indented with same number of spaces
would form a block.
Multi-Line Statements
Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python does, however,
allow the use of the line continuation character (\) to denote that the line
should continue. For example −
total = 100 + \
200 + \
300 + \
400
print(total)
1000
name = 'hari','ram','dev', \
'mark', \
'shyam', \
'irshad'
print(name)
('hari', 'ram', 'dev', 'mark', 'shyam', 'irshad')
Statements contained within the [], {}, or () do not need to use the line
continuation character. For example −
days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',

'Thursday', 'Friday']
print(days)
months ={'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August',

'September', 'October', 'November', 'December'}
print(months)
print(sorted(months))
Quotation in Python
Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (""" or """) quotes to denote
string literals, as long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string.
The triple quotes are used to span the string across multiple lines. For
example, all the following are legal −
word = 'India'
sentence = "India is our country. It’s capital is New Delhi"
print(word)
print(sentence)
paragraph = """India is our country. It has

29 states and seven union territories."""
print(paragraph)
paragraph
'India is our country. It has\n29 states and seven union territories.'
print(paragraph)
India is our country. It has
29 states and seven union territories.
Comments in Python
A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal begins a comment. All
characters after the # and up to the end of the physical line are part of the
comment and the Python interpreter ignores them.
#!/usr/bin/python
# First comment
print("Hello, Python!") # second comment
Hello, Python!
You can type a comment on the same line after a statement or expression −
name = "Capgemini" # This is again comment
You can comment multiple lines as follows −
# This is a comment.
# This is a comment, too.
# This is a comment, too.
# I said that already.
# This is a comment line.
if False:
""" This is to
show you
multiline comments."""
if False:
print("True")
print ("This is our first program!")
else:
print("False")
print ("This is our first program!")
Using Blank Lines

A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a
blank line and Python totally ignores it.
In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line

to terminate a multiline statement.
Waiting for the User Input

The following line of the program displays the prompt, the statement saying
“Press the enter key to exit”, and waits for the user to take action −
#!/usr/bin/python
file_name = raw_input("\n\nPlease enter file name.")
Here, "\n\n" is used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line.
Once the user presses the key, the program ends. This is a nice trick to keep
a console window open until the user is done with an application.
NOTE:
In Python 3.x, input() replaces raw_input(), for input from the console. It returns the
user's response as string, so when an int or a float is needed, it is necessary to convert
the returned value from the str type using int() or float().
Python provides the function input(). input has an optional parameter, which
is the prompt string.
If the input function is called, the program flow will be stopped until the user
has given an input and has ended the input with the return key. The text of
the optional parameter, i.e. the prompt, will be printed on the screen.
The input of the user will be interpreted. If the user e.g. puts in an integer
value, the input function returns this integer value. If the user on the other
hand inputs a list, the function will return a list.
>>> name = input('Enter Your Name: ')

Enter Your Name: Rakhee Harlalka
>>> print('Hello ', name)
Hello Rakhee Harlalka
Put these code in a script file input_test.txt

fname = input('\n\nEnter Your First Name: ')
mname = input('\n\nEnter Your Middle Name: ')
lname = input('\n\nEnter Your Last Name: ')
print('\n\nYour name is :', fname, mname, lname)
C:\Program Files\Python36>python D:\Users\haryadav\Desktop\Python\input_test.txt
Enter Your First Name: Rakhee

Enter Your Middle Name: Ganesh
Enter Your Last Name: Harlalka
Your name is: Rakhee Ganesh Harlalka
Put these code in a script file input_test.txt

name = input("What's your name? ")
age = input("Your age? ")
print(name, type(name))
print(age, type(age))
colours = input("Your favourite colours? ")
print(colours)
print(colours, type(colours))
C:\>python -i D:\Users\haryadav\Desktop\Python\input_test.txt
What's your name? Rakhee
Your age? 35
Rakhee <class 'str'>
35 <class 'str'>
Your favourite colours? ["Red","Blue",'Green','Yellow',"Pink"]
["Red","Blue",'Green','Yellow',"Pink"]
["Red","Blue",'Green','Yellow',"Pink"] <class 'str'>
Multiple Statements on a Single Line

The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line given that
neither statement starts a new code block. Here is a sample snip using the
semicolon −
import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + '\n')
Multiple Statement Groups as Suites

A group of individual statements, which make a single code block are
called suites in Python. Compound or complex statements, such as if, while,
def, and class require a header line and a suite.
A compound statement consists of one or more ‘clauses.’ A clause consists

of a header and a ‘suite.’ The clause headers of a particular compound
statement are all at the same indentation level. Each clause header begins
with a uniquely identifying keyword and ends with a colon. A suite is a group
of statements controlled by a clause. A suite can be one or more semicolon-
separated simple statements on the same line as the header, following the
header’s colon, or it can be one or more indented statements on subsequent
lines. Only the latter form of a suite can contain nested compound
statements; the following is illegal, mostly because it wouldn’t be clear to
which if clause a following else clause would belong:
Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a
colon ( : ) and are followed by one or more lines which make up the suite.
For example −
if expression: # This is header line
suite # This is suite line and it should be indented equally.
elif expression:
suite
else:
suite
NOTE: if , elif, else keyword should be lined up and suite line should be indented.
v_marks = int(input("Enter your score :"))

if (v_marks<50) :
print("He is fail.");
print("He should work hard.");
elif (v_marks>=50 and v_marks<60) :
print("He stood 2nd."); print("He need improvements.");
print("He stood 1st.");
else :
print("Outstanding.");
print("Well done.");
# Output
He is fail.
He should work hard.
>>> exit()
He stood 2nd.
He need improvments.
>>> exit()
He stood 1st.
>>> exit()
Outstanding.
Well done.
>>> exit()
x = 10 ; y = 20 ; z = 30
if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z);
...
10
20
30
if z < y < x: print(x); print(y); print(z);

...
# No output because condition is false.
The following is illegal, mostly because it wouldn’t be clear to which if clause

a following else clause would belong:
NOTE: if , elif, else keyword should be lined up and suite line should be indented.
if z < y < x: print(x); print(y); print(z); else: print("else execution");
File "<stdin>", line 1

if z < y < x: print(x); print(y); print(z); else: print("else
execution");
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
if z < y < x:
... print(x);
... print(y);
... print(z);
... else:
... print("else execution");
print("else execution");
^
IndentationError: expected an indented block
if z < y < x:
... print(x);
... print(y);
... print(z);
... else:
... print("else execution");
...
else execution
Command Line Arguments

Many programs can be run to provide you with some basic information about
how they should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h −
$ python -h
usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ...
Options and arguments (and corresponding environment variables):
-c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list)
-d : debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x)
-E : ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH)
-h : print this help message and exit
[ etc. ]
You can also program your script in such a way that it should accept various
options.
Python Variable Types
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This
means that when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory.
Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and
decides what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning
different data types to variables, you can store integers, decimals or
characters in these variables.
Assigning Values to Variables

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space.
The declaration happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable.
The equal sign (=) is used to assign values to variables.
The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the
operand to the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For
example −
v_counter = 100 # An integer assignment

v_miles = 1000.550 # A floating point
v_name = "Dev" # A string
print (v_counter, "\t", type(v_counter))
print (v_miles ,"\t", type(v_miles))
print (v_name ,"\t", type(v_name))
Here, 100, 1000.55 and "Dev" are the values assigned to v_counter, v_miles,
and v_name variables, respectively. This produces the following result −
100 <class 'int'>

1000.55 <class 'float'>
Dev <class 'str'>
# Print word separated by tab.
>>> print ("Hello World\t","hi");
Hello World hi
>>> print ("Hello World","hi");
Hello World hi
Multiple Assignment
Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables
simultaneously. For example −
a = b = c = 1
print(a, b, c)
Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are
assigned to the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects
to multiple variables. For example −
a,b,c = 1,2,"john"
print(a, b, c)
Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and
b respectively, and one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the
variable c.
Standard Data Types

The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's
age is stored as a numeric value and his or her address is stored as
alphanumeric characters. Python has various standard data types that are
used to define the operations possible on them and the storage method for
each of them.
Python has many native datatypes. Here are the important ones:
• Booleans are either True (1) or False (0).

• Numbers can be integers (1 and 2), floats (1.1 and 1.2), fractions (1/2 and 2/3),
or even complex numbers (5+2j). Long is no longer supported in python 3.
• Strings are sequences of Unicode characters, e.g. an html document.
• Bytes and byte arrays, e.g. a jpeg image file.
• Lists are ordered, mutable sequences of values.
• Tuples are ordered, immutable sequences of values.
• Dictionaries are unordered bags of key-value pairs.
• Sets are unordered bags of values.
In-memory size of a Python structure

import sys
import decimal
d = {
"int": 0,
"float": 0.0,
"dict": dict(),
"set": set(),
"tuple": tuple(),
"list": list(),
"str": "a",
"unicode": u"a",
"decimal": decimal.Decimal(0),
"object": object()}
for k, v in d.items():
print( k, '\t', '\t', sys.getsizeof(v))
int 24
float 24
dict 240
set 224
tuple 48
list 64
str 50
unicode 50
decimal 104
object 16
Difference between len() and sys.getsizeof() methods in python?

len() Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping (dictionary).
getsizeof() Return the size of an object in bytes. The object can be any type of
object. Python string objects are not simple sequences of characters, 1 byte per
character.
var='hari';
sys.getsizeof(var);
53
len(var)
4
var='h';
sys.getsizeof(var);
50
len(var)
1
vnum = 0
sys.getsizeof(vnum);
24
vnum=1
28
Python Numbers
Integer Objects
All integers are implemented as “long” integer objects of arbitrary size.
Python has arbitrary precision integers so there is no true fixed maximum.
You're only limited by available memory.
Can Integer Operations Overflow in Python?
Integer representations
Integers are typically represented in memory as a base-2 bit pattern, and in

python the built-in function bin can be used to inspect that:
bin(19)
'0b10011'
If the number of bits used is fixed, the range of integers that can be
represented would be fixed and can potentially overflow. That is the case for
many languages such as C/C++.
In python, integers have arbitrary precision and therefore we can represent

an arbitrarily large range of integers (only limited by memory available).
# Here output is curtailed to two pages.

2 ** 200000
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3241052962837072102965453054676279993251235617499811651071952557810585362461905795107
9590057782132245556459774730582030589545542955745707117699763678874048929041982380781
3236508718040471224386172143746012795141118720783733448364379281350507591937473800836
6151939255936473526827477600519256134883337982424679986579993328692548703160930208793
9896132428034892503272715922078074451745886513181096260158869865727576526630293814678
7506635584658992822714764067730122001539062416947564658942484611099520304402921240097
9266326264199650830708616935528991070908547072517476709203262614439238243384314373725
8533678778306638090919015657329678621458694985640729664124676679486799307164172448471
7716935988895391420565071244878681094109809791781202050711285496408330614883662852224
1167796921685443460830326453994906841835781370424200197723581994583555726106130499810
2722449307846394274070176627155187016054373697102072183520446201940637529507123692725
9359135862868370850673679479589447792054200378307538107749413639828191342898729677969
4518401116684938475413796651877927882237421793591034013400862573271598659273418719320
8817055496046162130382288090491173511014426479321567250874866787131980462124386276634
0827412302847102420237574036336396134939023765391961750300680098007969854090019019002
8577555980618260157867940814652525761110096897130489920881149182566251732183127450414
883431426677256371704560393009047126822615571693035875265
Can integers overflow in python?
Short answers:
No
if the operations are done in pure python, because python integers have
arbitrary precision
Yes
if the operations are done in the pydata stack (numpy/pandas), because they
use C-style fixed-precision integers.
Arbitrary precision
So how do python integers achieve arbitrary precision?
In python 2, there were actually two integers types: int and long, where int
is the C-style fixed-precision integer and long is the arbitrary-precision
integer. Operations are automatically promoted to long if int is not sufficient,
so there's no risk of overflowing. In python 3, int is the only integer type,
long is obsoleted and it is arbitrary-precision.
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when
you assign a value to them. For example −
var1 = 20
var2 = 40
var3 = 60
var4 = 70
var5 = 80
print(var1, '\t', var2, '\t', var3, '\t', var4, '\t', var5)
20 40 60 70 80
Viewing all defined variables

dir() will give you the list of in scope variables:
globals() will give you a dictionary of global variables
locals() will give you a dictionary of local variables
>>> dir()
['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__',
'__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'cls', 'name',
'os', 'value', 'var1', 'var2', 'var3', 'var4', 'var5', 'vars']
>>> globals()
{'__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, '__package__': None,
'__loader__': <_frozen_importlib_external.SourceFileLoader object at
0x0000023858E3F0B8>, '__spec__': None, '__annotations__': {},
'__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-in)>, '__cached__': None,
'os': <module 'os' from 'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\lib\\os.py'>,
'cls': <function <lambda> at 0x0000023858DB3E18>, 'name': 'var5',
'value': 80, 'var1': 20, 'var2': 40, 'var3': 60, 'var4': 70, 'var5':
80, 'vars': 'vars'}
>>> locals()
{'__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, '__package__': None,
0x0000023858E3F0B8>, '__spec__': None, '__annotations__': {},
'__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-in)>, '__cached__': None,
'cls': <function <lambda> at 0x0000023858DB3E18>, 'name': 'var5',
'value': 80, 'var1': 20, 'var2': 40, 'var3': 60, 'var4': 70, 'var5':
80, 'vars': 'vars'}
>>> locals('%var%')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: locals() takes no arguments (1 given)
import sys, pprint

sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
locals()
{'__annotations__': {},
'__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-in)>,
'__cached__': None,
'__doc__': None,
0x0000023858E3F0B8>,
'__name__': '__main__',
'__package__': None,
'__spec__': None,
'cls': <function <lambda> at 0x0000023858DB3E18>,
'name': 'var5',
'pprint': <module 'pprint' from 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python36\\lib\\pprint.py'>,
'sys': <module 'sys' (built-in)>,
'value': 80,
'var1': 20,
'var2': 40,
'var3': 60,
'var4': 70,
'var5': 80,
'vars': 'vars'}
for vars in dir():

if vars.startswith("var"):
print(vars)
var1
var2
var3
var4
var5
vars
for vars in dir():

print(vars)
__annotations__
__builtins__
__cached__
__doc__
__loader__
__name__
__package__
__spec__
cls
name
os
value
var1
var2
var3
var4
var5
vars
You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del
statement. The syntax of the del statement is −
del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]]
You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement.
For example −
del var1
del var2, var5
>>> print(var1, '\t', var2, '\t', var3, '\t', var4, '\t', var5)
NameError: name 'var1' is not defined
>>> print(var3, '\t', var4)

60 70
Python supports four different numerical types −
• int (signed integers)
• long (long integers, they can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal)
• float (floating point real values)
• complex (complex numbers)
NOTE: The long() function is no longer supported by Python 3. It only has one built-in
integral type, named int; but it behaves mostly like the old long type. So you just need
to use int() built-in function in python-3.x.
import sys
sys.maxsize
9223372036854775807
sys.maxint
AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute 'maxint'
vnum=9223372036854775807999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999;
vnum
922337203685477580799999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999
sys.getsizeof(sys.maxsize);
36
68
Examples
Here are some examples of numbers −
int long float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j

100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j
-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j
• Python allows you to use a lowercase l with long, but it is recommended that you
use only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays
long integers with an uppercase L.
• A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers

denoted by a + bi, where a and b are the real numbers and i is the imaginary
unit.
v_num = 99999;
print(v_num, type(v_num))
99999 <class 'int'>
v_num = '99999';
99999 <class 'str'>
v_num = float(99999);
99999.0 <class 'float'>
del v_num
v_num = long(5.5)
NameError: name 'long' is not defined
v_comp = complex(2,3)
print(v_comp, type(v_comp))
(2+3j) <class 'complex'>
v_comp.real
2.0
v_comp.imag
3.0
v_comp.conjugate() # Change the sign of imaginary part.
(2-3j)
Several built-in functions support complex numbers:

abs(3 + 4j)
5.0
pow(3 + 4j, 2)
(-7+24j)
Complex number manipulations:

x = complex(1,2)
print x
(1+2j)
y = complex(3,4)
print y
(3+4j)
z = x+y
print z
(4+6j)
z = x-y
print(z)
(-2-2j)
z = x*y
print z
(-5+10j)
z = x/y
print z
(0.44+0.08j)
print x.conjugate()
(1-2j)
print x.real
1.0
print x.imag
2.0
print x>y
File "<pyshell#149>", line 1, in <module>
print x>y
TypeError: no ordering relation is defined for complex numbers
print x==y
False
Python Strings
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented
in the quotation marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double
quotes. Subsets of strings can be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:]
) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the string and working their
way from -1 at the end.
The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is
the repetition operator. For example −
str = 'Hello World!'

print(str) # Prints complete string
print(str[0]) # Prints first character of the string
print(str[2:5]) # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print(str[2:]) # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print(str * 2) # Prints string two times
print(str + "TEST") # Prints concatenated string
print(str[-5:-2]) # Extract from rear end
This will produce the following result −
Hello World!
H
llo
llo World!
Hello World!Hello World!
Hello World!TEST
orl
Update and delete from string

print(str)
Hello World!
str[5] = '-'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
del str[2:5]
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item deletion
Python Numbers
Integer Objects
All integers are implemented as “long” integer objects of arbitrary size.
https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/long.html
Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types,
means that changing the value of a number data type results in a new
allocated object.
Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example
−
var1 = 1
var2 = 10
id(var1)
1539688112
id(var2)
1539688400
NOTE: Here object is reallocated.

var1 = 100
var2 = 200
id(var1)
1539691280
id(var2)
1539694480
You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del
statement. The syntax of the del statement is −
del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]]
You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement.
For example:
del var
del var_a, var_b
Python supports four different numerical types −
• int (signed integers): They are often called just integers or ints, are positive or
negative whole numbers with no decimal point.
• long (long integers ): Also called longs, they are integers of unlimited size,
written like integers and followed by an uppercase or lowercase L. No longer
supported in Version 3.x.
• float (floating point real values) : Also called floats, they represent real
numbers and are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and fractional
parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the power
of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 102 = 250).
• complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats
and J (or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). The
real part of the number is a, and the imaginary part is b. Complex numbers are
not used much in Python programming.
What is the range of int in python?
Python has arbitrary precision integers so there is no true fixed maximum. You're only
limited by available memory. sys.maxint does not even exist in Python 3, since int and
long were unified into a single arbitrary precision int type.
v_num =
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999;
print(v_num);
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999
Examples
Here are some examples of numbers
int long float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j
100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j
-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEL 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j
Number Type Conversion

Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed types
to a common type for evaluation. But sometimes, you need to coerce a
number explicitly from one type to another to satisfy the requirements of an
operator or function parameter.
• Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer.
• Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number.

• Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and
imaginary part zero.
• Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part x and
imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions
float(2);
2.0
float(5.55);
5.55
complex(5)
(5+0j)
complex(5,2)
(5+2j)
Mathematical Functions
Python includes following functions that perform mathematical calculations.
Function Returns ( description )
The absolute value of x: the (positive) distance between x and zero.

abs(x)
abs(-5);
5
The ceiling of x: the smallest integer not less than x

ceil(x)
import math
math.ceil(4.4);
5
math.ceil(4.7);
5
cmp(x, -1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y Python 3 doesn't have a cmp function.
y)
exp(x) The exponential of x: ex

math.exp(1e-5)
1.00001000005
The absolute value of x.

fabs(x)
math.fabs(-5.5)
5.5
abs(-5.5)
5.5
The floor of x: the largest integer not greater than x

floor(x)
math.floor(4.4);
4
math.floor(4.8);
4
log(x) The natural logarithm of x, for x> 0
math.log(5);
1.6094379124341003
The base-10 logarithm of x for x> 0 .

log10(x
) math.log10(5);
0.6989700043360189
max(x1, The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity
x2,...) max(10,20,66,45,87,55,23,58)
87
min(x1, The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity
x2,...) min(10,20,66,45,87,55,23,58)
10
modf(x) The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign
The integer part is returned as a float.

math.modf(5.0);
(0.0, 5.0)
math.modf(1,5);
TypeError: modf() takes exactly one argument (2 given)
pow(x, The value of x**y.
y) math.pow(2,5);
32.0
x rounded to n digits from the decimal point.

round(x
[,n]) Python rounds away from zero as a tie-breaker:
round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0.
round(7676567.6556757,3);
7676567.656
round(7676567.6544757,3);
7676567.654
The square root of x for x > 0

sqrt(x)
math.sqrt(16)
4.0
Random Number Functions

Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security, and
privacy applications. Python includes following functions that are commonly
used.
Function Description
choice(seq) A random item from a list, tuple, or string.

import random;
x=[1, 2, 3, 5, 9];
print(type(x))
<class 'list'>
x=(1, 2, 3, 5, 9);
print(type(x))
<class 'tuple'>
random.choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]);
5
random.choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]);
1
random.choice((1, 2, 3, 5, 9));
5
random.choice((1, 2, 3, 5, 9));
2
random.choice('India is my country.');
'd'
random.choice('India is my country.');
'm'
randrange A randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step)
([start,] stop random.randrange(100, 1000, 2);

334
[,step]) random.randrange(100, 1000, 2);
434
random.randrange(100, 1000, 2);
624
random() A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1
print("random() : ", random.random());
random() : 0.0623392041549814
print("random() : ", random.random());

random() : 0.9609234212687972
seed([x]) Sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this
function before calling any other random module function. Returns None.
random.seed( 10 )
print("Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random())
Random number with seed 10 : 0.5714025946899135
random.seed( 10 )
random.seed( 10 )
shuffle(lst) Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None.

list = [20, 16, 10, 5];
random.shuffle(list);
print(list);
[10, 5, 20, 16]
print(list);
[5, 16, 10, 20]
print(list);
[20, 16, 5, 10]
A random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y
uniform(x, y)
print("Random Float uniform(1, 10) : ", random.uniform(1, 10))
Random Float uniform(1, 10) : 6.418091089533576

Mathematical Constants
The module also defines two mathematical constants −
Constants Description
pi The mathematical constant pi.
import math
math.pi
3.141592653589793
e The mathematical constant e.
math.e
2.718281828459045
Python Strings
Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them
simply by enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the
same as double quotes. Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to
a variable. For example −
var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"
Accessing Values in Strings

Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of
length one, thus also considered a substring.
To access substrings, use the brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain your substring. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python

var2 = "Python Programming"
print("var1[0]: ", var1[0])

print("var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5])
print("var2[:10]: ", var2[:10])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
var2[:10]: Python Pro
Updating Strings
You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another
string. The new value can be related to its previous value or to a completely
different string altogether. You cannot update a character of a string. For
example −

print(var1);
var1 = 'Hello World, Welcome to Python!'

print(var1);
var1 = 'ABC';
var1[2] = 'D'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
Escape Characters
Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be
represented with backslash notation.
An escape character gets interpreted; in a single quoted as well as double

quoted strings.
Backslash Hexadecimal Description

notation character
\a 0x07 Bell or alert sound generate from your laptop
print('Calling Bell!', '\a');

Calling Bell!
\b 0x08 Backspace
print('Calling Bell!'+' open the door.');

Calling Bell! open the door.
print('Calling Bell!'+'\b'+' open the door.');

Calling Bell open the door.
print('Calling Bell!'+'\b\b\b\b\b'+' open the door.');

Calling open the door.
\e 0x1b Escape
\f 0x0c Formfeed
print('Calling Bell!','\f','Open the door');
\n 0x0a Newline
print('Calling Bell!','\n','\bOpen the door');
Calling Bell!
Open the door
\nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range 0.7
\r 0x0d Carriage return
print('Calling Bell!','\r','Open the door', '\r',

'Guests are welcome.');
Guest are welcome.
\s 0x20 Space
\t 0x09 Tab
print('Hello''\t''World');
Hello World
\v 0x0b Vertical tab
\x Character x
\xnn Hexadecimal notation, where n is in the range 0.9, a.f, or A.F
print('Hello''\xad''World');
Hello-World
print('Hello''\xae''World');
Hello®World
String Special Operators
Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then −
Operator Description Example
+ Concatenation - Adds values on either side of the a + b will give HelloPython

operator
a = 'Hello'
b = 'Python'
a+b
'HelloPython'
* Repetition - Creates new strings, concatenating a*2 will give –HelloHello

multiple copies of the same string
a*3
'HelloHelloHello'
[] Slice - Gives the character from the given index a[1] will give e
[:] Range Slice - Gives the characters from the a[1:4] will give ell
given range
in Membership - Returns true if a character exists H in a will give 1 (True)

in the given string
'l' in var1
True
'w' in var1
False
not in Membership - Returns true if a character does M not in a will give 1 (True)
not exist in the given string
'w' not in var1
True
r/R Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of print r'\n' prints \n and print R'\n'prin
Escape characters. The syntax for raw strings is
exactly the same as for normal strings with the print('\n')
exception of the raw string operator, the letter
"r," which precedes the quotation marks. The "r"
print(r'\n')
can be lowercase (r) or uppercase (R) and must
\n
be placed immediately preceding the first quote
mark.
% Format - Performs String formatting v_num = 100;
print('v_num is: %d' %(v_num));
v_num is: 100
String Formatting Operator

One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This
operator is unique to strings and makes up for the pack of having functions
from C's printf() family. Following is a simple example −
#!/usr/bin/python
print("Heavyweight boxer %s, total win %d/58" % ('Michael Gerard Tyson', 50));
Heavyweight boxer Michael Gerard Tyson, total win 50/58
Here is the list of complete set of symbols which can be used along with % −
Format Symbol Conversion
%c Character
fname='Rakhee'
lname='Harlalka'
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %d kg!" %
(fname[0],lname[0], 65));
My name initial is RH and weight is 65 kg!
%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting
print("My name is %s" %("Michael Gerard Tyson"));

My name is Michael Gerard Tyson
print("My name is {} {} and surname {} ".format('Michael',

'Gerard', 'Tyson'));
My name is Michael Gerard and surname Tyson
print('%s' % ('test',))
test
print('%10s' % ('test',))
test
%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

(fname[0],lname[0], +65));
My name initial is HY and weight is 65 kg!

(fname[0],lname[0], -65));
My name initial is HY and weight is -65 kg!
%u unsigned decimal integer
Obsolete type – it is identical to ‘d’. See PEP 237.
%o octal integer
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %o kg!" %

(fname[0],lname[0], -65));
My name initial is HY and weight is -101 kg!
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %o kg!" %

(fname[0],lname[0], +65));
%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %x kg!" %

%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)
%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %e kg!" %

(fname[0],lname[0], +65));
My name initial is HY and weight is 6.500000e+01 kg!
%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %E kg!" %

(fname[0],lname[0], -65));
My name initial is HY and weight is -6.500000E+01 kg!

%f floating point real number
print("My name initial is %c%c and weight is %.2f kg!" %

My name initial is HY and weight is 65.00 kg!
Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table −
Symbol Functionality
* argument specifies width or precision
- left justification
print('%10d' %(837.64)); # right justified.

837
print('%-10d' %(837.64)); # left justified.
837
+ display the sign
print('%010d' %(+837.64));
0000000837
print('%+010d' %(837.64));
+000000837
print('%010d' %(-837.64));
-000000837
<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number
print('% 010d' %(837.64));
000000837
# add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading

'0x' or '0X', depending on whether 'x' or 'X' were used.
print("%#x" % 17 )
0x11
print("%#x" % 18 )
0x12
print("%x" % 17 )
11
print("%x" % 18 )
12
0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)
print('%10d' %(837.64));
837
print('%010d' %(837.64));
0000000837
f Represent the value in floating point.
print('%f' %(837.64759678));
837.647597
print('%.1f' %(837.64759678));
837.6
print('%.2f' %(837.64759678));
837.65
print('%.4f' %(837.64759678));
837.6476
print('%010.2f' %(837.64759678));
0000837.65
print('%010.4f' %(837.64759678));
00837.6476
% '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%'
print('I have scored %d%%' %(85));

I have scored 85%
print('I have scored %d%% %d%%' %(85,90));

I have scored 85% 90%
Triple Quotes
Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span
multiple lines, including verbatim NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special
characters.
The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double
quotes.
para_str = """this is a long string that is made up of

several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( \t ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [ \n ], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.
"""
print(para_str)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how
every single special character has been converted to its printed form, right
down to the last NEWLINE at the end of the string between the "up." and
closing triple quotes. Also note that NEWLINEs occur either with an explicit
carriage return at the end of a line or its escape code (\n) –
this is a long string that is made up of

several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [
], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.
Raw strings do not treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every
character you put into a raw string stays the way you wrote it −
print('C:\\nowhere')
C:\nowhere
Now let's make use of raw string. We would put expression

in r'expression'as follows −
print(r'C:\\nowhere')
C:\\nowhere
Unicode String
Normal strings in Python are stored internally as 8-bit ASCII, while Unicode
strings are stored as 16-bit Unicode. This allows for a more varied set of
characters, including special characters from most languages in the world.
Var1 = 'Hello, world!';

Var2 = u'Hello, world!';
print(u'Hello, world!')
Hello, world!
As you can see, Unicode strings use the prefix u, just as raw strings use the
prefix r.
unicode() GLOBAL FUNCTION#

Python 2 had two global functions to coerce objects into strings: unicode() to
coerce them into Unicode strings, and str() to coerce them into non-Unicode
strings. Python 3 has only one string type so the str() function is all you need.
(The unicode() function no longer exists.)
Notes Python 2 Python 3

unicode(anything) str(anything)
Built-in String Methods

Python includes the following built-in methods to manipulate strings −
SN Methods with Description
1 capitalize()
Capitalizes first letter of string
print(str.capitalize('Michael Gerard Tyson'));
Michael gerard tyson

2 center(width, fillchar)
Returns a space-padded string with the original string centered to a total of

width columns.
vname = 'MICHAEL GERARD TYSON';

print(vname.center(30,'x'));
xxxxxMICHAEL GERARD TYSONxxxxx
print(vname.center(30,' '));
MICHAEL GERARD TYSON
print(vname.center(30,' x '));
TypeError: The fill character must be exactly one character long
3 count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string))
Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a substring of string if

starting index beg and ending index end are given.
4
decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
Decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. encoding
defaults to the default string encoding.
5
encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
Returns encoded string version of string; on error, default is to raise a

ValueError unless errors is given with 'ignore' or 'replace'.
6 endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string))

Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending
index end are given) ends with suffix; returns true if so and false otherwise.
7 expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults to 8 spaces per tab if
tabsize not provided.
8 find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index

beg and ending index end are given returns index if found and -1 otherwise.
9 index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))
Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not found.
10 isalnum()
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are
alphanumeric and false otherwise.
11 isalpha()
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are
alphabetic and false otherwise.
12
isdigit()
Returns true if string contains only digits and false otherwise.
13 islower()
Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character and all cased characters
are in lowercase and false otherwise.
14 isnumeric()
Returns true if a unicode string contains only numeric characters and false
otherwise.
15 isspace()
Returns true if string contains only whitespace characters and false

otherwise.
16
istitle()
Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise.
17 isupper()
Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased
characters are in uppercase and false otherwise.
18
join(seq)
Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence

seq into a string, with separator string.
19 len(string)
Returns the length of the string
20
ljust(width[, fillchar])
Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a total

of width columns.
21
lower()
Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase.

print(str.lower('Michael Gerard Tyson'));
michael gerard tyson
22
lstrip()
Removes all leading whitespace in string.
23 maketrans()
Returns a translation table to be used in translate function.
24 max(str)
Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.
25 min(str)
Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.
26 replace(old, new [, max])
Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max

occurrences if max given.
27
rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Same as find(), but search backwards in string.
28
rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))
Same as index(), but search backwards in string.
29 rjust(width,[, fillchar])
Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to a

total of width columns.
30 rstrip()
Removes all trailing whitespace of string.
31 split(str="", num=string.count(str))
Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns list
of substrings; split into at most num substrings if given.
32 splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))
Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line with
NEWLINEs removed.
33
startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending
index end are given) starts with substring str; returns true if so and false
otherwise.
34 strip([chars])
Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string
35
swapcase()
Inverts case for all letters in string.
36
title()
Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with uppercase
and the rest are lowercase.
37 translate(table, deletechars="")
Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars), removing

those in the del string.
38 upper ()
Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.
print(str.upper('Michael Gerard Tyson'));
MICHAEL GERARD TYSON
39
zfill (width)
Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters;

intended for numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).
40
isdecimal()
Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and false
otherwise.
Python Lists
The most basic data structure in Python is the sequence. Each element of a
sequence is assigned a number - its position or index. The first index is zero,
the second index is one, and so forth.
Python has six built-in types of sequences, but the most common ones are
lists and tuples, which we would see here.
There are certain things you can do with all sequence types. These operations
include indexing, slicing, adding, multiplying, and checking for membership.
In addition, Python has built-in functions for finding the length of a sequence
and for finding its largest and smallest elements.
Python Lists
The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written
as a list of comma-separated values (items) between brackets. Important
thing about a list is that items in a list need not be of the same type.
Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values

between brackets. For example −
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]
Similar to string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced,
concatenated and so on.
Accessing Values in Lists

To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the
index or indices to obtain value available at that index. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7];
print "list1[0]: ", list1[0]
print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5]
list1[0]: physics
list2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Lists
You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the
left-hand side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a
list with the append() method. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
print "Value available at index 2 : "
print (list[2])
list[2] = 2001;
print "New value available at index 2 : "
print list[2]
Note: append() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Value available at index 2 :

1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001
Delete List Elements

To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know
exactly which element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do
not know. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
print list1
del list1[2];
print "After deleting value at index 2 : "
print list1
When the above code is executed, it produces following result −
['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]

After deleting value at index 2 :
['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]
Note: remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Basic List Operations

Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean
concatenation and repetition here too, except that the result is a new list, not
a string.
In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on

strings in the prior chapter.
Python Expression Results Description
len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length
[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation
['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition
3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership
for x in [1, 2, 3]: print x, 123 Iteration
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists
as they do for strings.
Assuming following input −
L = ['spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!']
L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero

L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the
right
L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections
Built-in List Functions & Methods:

Python includes the following list functions −
SN Function with Description
1 cmp(list1, list2)
Compares elements of both lists.
2 len(list)
Gives the total length of the list.
3
max(list)
Returns item from the list with max value.
4
min(list)
Returns item from the list with min value.
5 list(seq)
Converts a tuple into list.

Python includes following list methods
1 list.append(obj)
Appends object obj to list
2 list.count(obj)
Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list
3
list.extend(seq)
Appends the contents of seq to list
4
list.index(obj)
Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears
5
list.insert(index, obj)
Inserts object obj into list at offset index
6 list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Removes and returns last object or obj from list
7 list.remove(obj)
Removes object obj from list
8 list.reverse()
Reverses objects of list in place
9 list.sort([func])
Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given
Python Tuples
A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences,
just like lists. The differences between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot
be changed unlike lists and tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use
brackets.
Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values.

Optionally you can put these comma-separated values between parentheses
also. For example −
tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );
tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";
The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing −
tup1 = ();
To write a tuple containing a single value you must include a comma, even
though there is only one value −
tup1 = (50,);
Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced,
concatenated, and so on.
Accessing Values in Tuples:

To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the
index or indices to obtain value available at that index. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 );
print ("tup1[0]: ", tup1[0])
print ("tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5])
tup1[0]: physics
tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Tuples
Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update or change the values
of tuple elements. You are able to take portions of existing tuples to create
new tuples as the following example demonstrates −
#!/usr/bin/python
tup1 = (12, 34.56);
tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz');
# Following action is not valid for tuples
# tup1[0] = 100;
# So let's create a new tuple as follows
tup3 = tup1 + tup2;
print tup3
(12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz')
Delete Tuple Elements

Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course,
nothing wrong with putting together another tuple with the undesired
elements discarded.
To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. For example:
#!/usr/bin/python
tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
print tup
del tup;
print "After deleting tup : "
print tup
This produces the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because
after del tup tuple does not exist any more −
('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)

After deleting tup :
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined
Basic Tuples Operations

Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean
concatenation and repetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple,
not a string.
In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on

strings in the prior chapter −
len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length
(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation
('Hi!',) * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition
3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership
for x in (1, 2, 3): print x 123 Iteration
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for
tuples as they do for strings. Assuming following input −
L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!')

L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero
L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the

right
L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections
No Enclosing Delimiters
Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying
symbols, i.e., brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples,
as indicated in these short examples −
#!/usr/bin/python
print 'abc', -4.24e93, 18+6.6j, 'xyz'
x, y = 1, 2;
print "Value of x , y : ", x,y
abc -4.24e+93 (18+6.6j) xyz

Value of x , y : 1 2
Built-in Tuple Functions

Python includes the following tuple functions −
1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
Compares elements of both tuples.
2 len(tuple)
Gives the total length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple)
Returns item from the tuple with max value.
4 min(tuple)
Returns item from the tuple with min value.
5 tuple(seq)
Converts a list into tuple.
Python Dictionary
Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated
by commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in braces. An empty dictionary
without any items is written with just two braces, like this: {}.
Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a
dictionary can be of any type, but the keys must be of an immutable data
type such as strings, numbers, or tuples.
Accessing Values in Dictionary:

To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar brackets along with
the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example −
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']
dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7
If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not part of the
dictionary, we get an error as follows −
#!/usr/bin/python
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice']
dict['Alice']:
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
KeyError: 'Alice'
Updating Dictionary
You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or a key-value pair,
modifying an existing entry, or deleting an existing entry as shown below in
the simple example −
#!/usr/bin/python
dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry
dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry

print "dict['School']: ", dict['School']
dict['Age']: 8
dict['School']: DPS School
Delete Dictionary Elements

You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire
contents of a dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in a single
operation.
To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement.

Following is a simple example −
#!/usr/bin/python
del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key 'Name'
dict.clear(); # remove all entries in dict
del dict ; # delete entire dictionary
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School']
This produces the following result. Note that an exception is raised because
after del dict dictionary does not exist any more −
dict['Age']:
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable
Note: del() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Properties of Dictionary Keys

Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python
object, either standard objects or user-defined objects. However, same is not
true for the keys.
There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys −
(a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no duplicate key
is allowed. When duplicate keys encountered during assignment, the last
assignment wins. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'}
dict['Name']: Manni
(b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use strings, numbers or
tuples as dictionary keys but something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following
is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
TypeError: list objects are unhashable
Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods −
Python includes the following dictionary functions −
1 cmp(dict1, dict2)
Compares elements of both dict.
2 len(dict)
Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of
items in the dictionary.
3 str(dict)
Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary
4
type(variable)
Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary, then
it would return a dictionary type.
Python includes following dictionary methods −
1 dict.clear()
Removes all elements of dictionary dict
2 dict.copy()
Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict
3 dict.fromkeys()
Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.
4 dict.get(key, default=None)
For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary
5
dict.has_key(key)
Returns true if key in dictionary dict, false otherwise
6 dict.items()
Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs
7
dict.keys()
Returns list of dictionary dict's keys
8 dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict
9
dict.update(dict2)
Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict
10 dict.values()
Returns list of dictionary dict's values

Python Date & Time
A Python program can handle date and time in several ways. Converting
between date formats is a common chore for computers. Python's time and
calendar modules help track dates and times.
What is Tick?
Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular
instants in time are expressed in seconds since 12:00am, January 1, 1970.
There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions

for working with times, and for converting between representations. The
function time.time() returns the current system time in ticks since 12:00am,
January 1, 1970(epoch).
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import time; # This is required to include time module.
ticks = time.time()
print("Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks);
This would produce a result something as follows −
Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970: 1507888743.720282
Date arithmetic is easy to do with ticks. However, dates before the epoch
cannot be represented in this form. Dates in the far future also cannot be
represented this way - the cutoff point is sometime in 2038 for UNIX and
Windows.
What is TimeTuple?
Many of Python's time functions handle time as a tuple of 9 numbers, as
shown below:
Index Field Values

0 4-digit year 2008
1 Month 1 to 12
2 Day 1 to 31
3 Hour 0 to 23
4 Minute 0 to 59
5 Second 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)
6 Day of Week 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)
7 Day of year 1 to 366 (Julian day)
8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST
The above tuple is equivalent to struct_time structure. This structure has

following attributes:
Index Attributes Values
0 tm_year 2008
1 tm_mon 1 to 12
2 tm_mday 1 to 31
3 tm_hour 0 to 23
4 tm_min 0 to 59
5 tm_sec 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)
6 tm_wday 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)
7 tm_yday 1 to 366 (Julian day)
8 tm_isdst -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST
Getting current time

To translate a time instant from a seconds since the epoch floating-point
value into a time-tuple, pass the floating-point value to a function (e.g.,
localtime) that returns a time-tuple with all nine items valid.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time;
localtime = time.localtime(time.time())
print("Local current time :", localtime);
This would produce the following result, which could be formatted in any other
presentable form −
Local current time : time.struct_time(tm_year=2017, tm_mon=10, tm_mday=13, tm_hour=16,

tm_min=2, tm_sec=8, tm_wday=4, tm_yday=286, tm_isdst=0)
Getting formatted time

You can format any time as per your requirement, but simple method to get
time in readable format is asctime() :
#!/usr/bin/python
import time;
localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )
print("Local current time :", localtime)
This would produce the following result −
Local current time : Fri Oct 13 16:10:30 2017
Getting calendar for a month

The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to play with yearly and
monthly calendars. Here, we print a calendar for a given month ( Jan 2017 )
#!/usr/bin/python
import calendar
cal = calendar.month(2017, 1)
print(cal)
This would produce the following result −
January 2017
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31
The time Module

There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions
for working with times and for converting between representations. Here is
the list of all available methods:
1 time.altzone
The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative
if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use
this if daylight is nonzero.
print("time.altzone %d " % time.altzone)

time.altzone -23400
2 time.asctime([tupletime])
Accepts a time-tuple and returns as character readable 24-character string such as 'Tue Dec
11 18:07:14 2008'.
print(time.gmtime())
time.struct_time(tm_year=2017, tm_mon=10, tm_mday=13, tm_hour=10, tm_min=54,

tm_sec=4, tm_wday=4, tm_yday=286, tm_isdst=0)
# Output in UTC (Coordinated Universal Time (formerly known as Greenwich Mean

Time, or GMT).
time.asctime(time.gmtime())
'Fri Oct 13 10:56:04 2017'
time.asctime(time.localtime())
'Fri Oct 13 16:26:18 2017'
3
time.clock( )
Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds. To measure

computational costs of different approaches, the value of time.clock is more useful than that
of time.time(). On Unix and in Windows it returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first
call to this function, as a floating point number.
time.clock( )
2.1935462828870445
time.clock( )
4.097568009977395
time.clock( )
5.349900923483391
4 time.ctime([secs])
Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( )
time.asctime(time.gmtime())
'Fri Oct 13 11:25:41 2017'
time.asctime(time.localtime())
'Fri Oct 13 16:57:43 2017'
time.ctime()
'Fri Oct 13 16:57:52 2017'
5
time.gmtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the
UTC time. Note : t.tm_isdst is always 0
time.gmtime()

6 time.localtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the
local time (t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on whether DST applies to instant secs by local
rules).
time.localtime()

7 time.mktime(tupletime)
The method mktime() is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the
struct_time or full 9-tuple and it returns a floating point number, for compatibility
with time().
If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time,

either OverflowErroror ValueError will be raised.
time.localtime()
t =(2017,10,13,17,18,50,4,286,0);
time.mktime(t);
1507895330.0
time.mktime(time.localtime())
1507895862.0
8
time.sleep(secs)
Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds.
print("Start : %s" % time.ctime())
Start : Fri Oct 13 18:46:57 2017
time.sleep( 5 )
print("End : %s" % time.ctime())
End : Fri Oct 13 18:47:02 2017
9
time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a string representing
the instant as specified by string fmt.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for strftime() method:
time.strftime(format[, t])
Format elements
• %a - abbreviated weekday name
• %A - full weekday name
• %b - abbreviated month name
• %B - full month name
• %c - preferred date and time representation
• %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)

• %d - day of the month (01 to 31)
• %D - same as %m/%d/%y
• %e - day of the month (1 to 31)
• %g - like %G, but without the century
• %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
• %h - same as %b
• %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)
• %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)
• %j - day of the year (001 to 366)
• %m - month (01 to 12)
• %M - minute
• %n - newline character
• %p - either am or pm according to the given time value
• %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
• %R - time in 24 hour notation
• %S - second
• %t - tab character
• %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
• %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1
• %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day
of the first week
• %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is the
first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the first
day of the week
• %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first day
of the first week
• %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0
• %x - preferred date representation without the time
• %X - preferred time representation without the date
• %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
• %Y - year including the century

• %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
t =(2017,10,13,17,18,50,4,286,0);
t = time.mktime(t)
print(time.strftime("%b %d %Y %H:%M:%S", time.gmtime(t)))
Oct 13 2017 11:48:50
10 time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')
Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in time-tuple format. The
method strptime() parses a string representing a time according to a format. The return
value is a struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().
The format parameter uses the same directives as those used by strftime(); it defaults to
"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" which matches the formatting returned by ctime().
If string cannot be parsed according to format, or if it has excess data after parsing,
ValueError is raised.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for strptime() method:
time.strptime(string[, format]
t = time.strptime("30 Nov 2017 16 30 45", "%d %b %Y %H %M %S");
print(t)

tm_sec=45, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=334, tm_isdst=-1)
11 time.time( )
Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch.
time.time( )
1507904917.6235135
12 time.tzset()
Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment variable TZ
specifies how this is done.
Availability: Unix.
Let us go through the functions briefly −
There are following two important attributes available with time module:
SN Attribute with Description
1 time.timezone
Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local time zone (without
DST) from UTC (>0 in the Americas; <=0 in most of Europe, Asia, Africa).
time.timezone
-19800
2 time.tzname
Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings, which are the

names of the local time zone without and with DST, respectively.
time.tzname
('India Standard Time', 'India Daylight Time')
The calendar Module

The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions, including functions
to print a text calendar for a given month or year.
By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week and Sunday
as the last one. To change this, call calendar.setfirstweekday() function.
Here is a list of functions available with the calendar module:

1 calendar.calendar(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)
Returns a multiline string with a calendar for year year formatted into three columns separated
by c spaces. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has length 21*w+18+2*c. l
is the number of lines for each week.
print(calendar.calendar(2017,w=1,l=1,c=1));
2017
January February March

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
29 30 31 26 27 28 26 27 28 29 30 31
April May June

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
July August September

1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30 31
October November December

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31
2 calendar.firstweekday( )
Returns the current setting for the weekday that starts each week. By default, when calendar
is first imported, this is 0, meaning Monday.
calendar.firstweekday( )
0
3 calendar.isleap(year)
Returns True if year is a leap year; otherwise, False.
calendar.isleap(2016)
True
calendar.isleap(2017)
False
4 calendar.leapdays(y1,y2)
Returns the total number of leap days in the years within range(y1,y2).
calendar.leapdays(2000,2017)
5 calendar.month(year,month,w=2,l=1)
Returns a multiline string with a calendar for month month of year year, one line per week
plus two header lines. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has length 7*w+6.
l is the number of lines for each week.
print(calendar.month(2017,10,w=2,l=1))
October 2017
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
6 calendar.monthcalendar(year,month)
Returns a list of lists of ints. Each sublist denotes a week. Days outside month month of year
year are set to 0; days within the month are set to their day-of-month, 1 and up.
print(calendar.monthcalendar(2017,10))
[[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
21], [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28], [29, 30, 31, 0, 0, 0, 0]]
7 calendar.monthrange(year,month)
Returns two integers. The first one is the code of the weekday for the first day of the month
month in year; the second one is the number of days in the month. Weekday codes are 0
(Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 to 12.
>>> print(calendar.calendar(2017,w=1,l=1,c=1));
2017

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
29 30 31 26 27 28 26 27 28 29 30 31
April May June

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
calendar.monthrange(2017,1)
(6, 31)
(2, 28)
(2, 31)
(5, 30)
(0, 31)
(3, 30)
8 calendar.prcal(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)
Like print(calendar.calendar(year,w,l,c));
calendar.prcal(2017,w=2,l=1,c=2)
2017

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
29 30 31 26 27 28 26 27 28 29 30 31
April May June

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
July August September

1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30 31
October November December

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31
9 calendar.prmonth(year,month,w=2,l=1)
Like print(calendar.month(year,month,w=1,l=1));
print(calendar.month(2017,1,w=1,l=1));
January 2017
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
calendar.prmonth(2017,1,w=2,l=1)
January 2017
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
10 calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday)
Sets the first day of each week to weekday code weekday. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to
6 (Sunday).
import calendar
0
calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY);
6
11 calendar.timegm(tupletime)
The inverse of time.gmtime: accepts a time instant in time-tuple form and returns the same
instant as a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch.
import calendar
import time
import datetime
d = datetime.datetime(2017, 10, 31)

calendar.timegm(d.timetuple())
1509408000
time.mktime(d.timetuple())
1509388200.0
d = datetime.datetime(2017, 10, 31, 16, 30, 30)
calendar.timegm(d.timetuple())
1509467430
time.mktime(d.timetuple())
1509447630.0
12 calendar.weekday(year,month,day)
Returns the weekday code for the given date. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday);
month numbers are 1 (January) to 12 (December).
print(calendar.month(2017,10,w=2,l=1));
October 2017
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
calendar.weekday(2017,10,3)
Other Modules & Functions:

If you are interested, then here you would find a list of other important
modules and functions to play with date & time in Python:
• The datetime Module
• The pytz Module
• The dateutil Module
Data Type Conversion

Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types.
To convert between types, you simply use the type name as a function.
There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type
to another. These functions return a new object representing the converted
value.
Function Description
int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer. base specifies the base if x is a string.
# integer
print("int(123) is:", int(123))
int(123) is: 123
# float
print("int(123.23) is:", int(123.23))
int(123.23) is: 123
# string
print("int('123') is:", int('123'))
int('123') is: 123
Like 123 = 1*102 +2*101+3*100

123 = 100 + 20 + 3
# binary 0b or 0B
print("For 1010, int is:", int('1010', 2))
For 1010, int is: 10
Like 1010 = 1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 0*20

1010 = 8+0+2+0 => 10
For 101010, int is: 42
print("For 0b101010, int is:", int('0b101010', 2))
For 0b101010, int is: 42
print("For 0B101010, int is:", int('0B101010', 2))
For 0B101010, int is: 42

# octal 0o or 0O

For 234, int is: 156
Like (234)8 = 2*82 + 3*81 + 4*80

(234)8 = 128 + 24 + 4 => 156
print("For 0o234, int is:", int('0o234', 8))

For 0o234, int is: 156
# hexadecimal
print("For A, int is:", int('A', 16))
For A, int is: 10
print("For ABC, int is:", int('ABC', 16))
For ABC, int is: 2748
Like (ABC)16 = A*162 + B*161 + C*160

(ABC)16 = 10*162 + 11*161 + 12*160 => 2748
(ABC)16 = 10*256 + 11*16 + 12*1 => 2748
(ABC)16 = 2560 + 176 + 12 => 2748
print("For 0xA, int is:", int('0xA', 16))
For 0xA, int is: 10
print("For 0xABC, int is:", int('0xABC', 16))
For 0xABC, int is: 2748
long(x [,base] ) Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if x is a string. As Python
3 treats all integers as long integer this long() has been removed. (Python 3's
int is the same as Python 2's long). there is no distinction between long and int
in python3. (long does not exist...)
long('234')

NameError: name 'long' is not defined
int(float('234.89'))
234
float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.
float('12345')
12345.0
float('12345.55')
12345.55
complex(real Creates a complex number.

[,imag]) complex(3,5)
(3+5j)
str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.
str(12)
'12'
str(99.99)
'99.99'
str('abc')
'abc'
user = "Dev"
lines = 50
print("Congratulations, " + user + "! You just wrote " + str(lines)
+ " lines of code.")
Congratulations, Dev! You just wrote 50 lines of code.
lines_yesterday = "50"
lines_today = "108"
lines_more = int(lines_today) - int(lines_yesterday)
print(lines_more)
58
repr(x) ▪ Converts object x to an expression string. repr() compute the “official”
string representation of an object (a representation that has all
information about the object) and str() is used to compute the “informal”
string representation of an object (a representation that is useful for
printing the object).
import datetime
today = datetime.datetime.now()
# Prints readable format for date-time object

print(str(today))
# prints the official format of date-time object

print(repr(today))
Output:
2016-02-22 19:32:04.078030
datetime.datetime(2016, 2, 22, 19, 32, 4, 78030)
eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.
x = 1
eval('x+1')
tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.
In Python:
• a tuple is an immutable ordered sequence of elements contained

within parentheses ( ).
sea_creatures = ['shark', 'cuttlefish', 'squid', 'mantis shrimp']
print(type(sea_creatures))
<class 'list'>
x = tuple(sea_creatures);
print(x, '\t', type(x));

('shark', 'cuttlefish', 'squid', 'mantis shrimp')
<class 'tuple'>
list(s) Converts s to a list.
In Python:
• a list is a mutable ordered sequence of elements that is contained

within brackets [ ].
sea_creatures = ('shark', 'cuttlefish', 'squid', 'mantis shrimp')
print(type(sea_creatures));
<class 'tuple'>
x = list(sea_creatures);
['shark', 'cuttlefish', 'squid', 'mantis shrimp']
<class 'list'>
set(s) Converts s to a set prior to 2.6
lang = ("Perl", "Python", "Java")
print(type(lang));
<class 'tuple'>
x = set(lang)
{'Python', 'Java', 'Perl'} <class 'set'>
We can define sets (since Python2.6) without using the built-in set function. We
can use braces instead:
x = {"cheap","expensive","inexpensive","economical"}
x
{'economical', 'inexpensive', 'expensive', 'cheap'}
print(x,'\t',type(x))
{'economical', 'inexpensive', 'expensive', 'cheap'} <class 'set'>
Immutable Sets Sets are implemented in a way, which doesn't allow mutable objects. The
following example demonstrates that we can include tuples as elements in the
sets but cannot include multiple lists as elements (single list is allowed):
x = {"cheap","expensive","inexpensive","economical"}
cities = set((("Python","Perl"), ("Paris", "Berlin", "London")))
# Here we used tuples.
print(cities)
{('Paris', 'Berlin', 'London'), ('Python', 'Perl')}
# Here we are going to use lists. Single list is allowed as in frozenset.

cities = set((["Python","Perl"], ["Paris", "Berlin", "London"]))
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
cities = set(["Paris", "Berlin", "London"],["Delhi","Mumbai"])

TypeError: set expected at most 1 arguments, got 2
frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.
Though sets can't contain mutable objects (list), multiple lists are not allowed
single list is allowed, sets are mutable:
# This is mutable set because it have only 1 mutable object (list).
cities = set(["Paris", "Berlin", "London"])

cities.add("Rome")
cities
{'London', 'Berlin', 'Rome', 'Paris'}
Frozensets are like sets except that they cannot be changed, i.e. they are
immutable:
cities = frozenset(["Paris", "Berlin", "London"])

cities
frozenset({'London', 'Berlin', 'Paris'})
cities.add("Rome")

AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'
Set Operations add(element)
A method which adds an element, which has to be immutable, to a set.
colours = {"red","green"}
colours.add("yellow")
colours
{'green', 'yellow', 'red'}
colours.add(["black","white"]) # List cannot be added.

TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
Of course, an element will only be added, if it is not already contained in the

set. If it is already contained, the method call has no effect.
colours.add("yellow")
colours
{'yellow', 'green', 'red'}
clear
colours.clear()
colours
set()
copy
cities = {"Delhi","Mumbai","Chennai","Kolkata"};
metro = cities.copy();
metro
{'Chennai', 'Kolkata', 'Mumbai', 'Delhi'}

metro1 = cities;
metro1
{'Chennai', 'Kolkata', 'Mumbai', 'Delhi'}
difference()
This method returns the difference of two or more sets as a new set.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"b","c"}
z = {"c","d"}
x.difference(y)
{'a', 'e', 'd'}
{'a', 'c', 'e', 'd', 'b'}
x.difference(y).difference(z)
{'a', 'e'}
Instead of using the method difference, we can use the operator "-":
x - y
{'a', 'e', 'd'}
x - y - z
{'a', 'e'}
difference_update()
The method difference_update removes all elements of another set from this
set. x.difference_update(y) is the same as "x = x - y"
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"b","c"}
x.difference_update(y)
x
{'a', 'e', 'd'}
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"b","c"}
x = x - y
x
{'a', 'e', 'd'}
discard(el)
An element el will be removed from the set, if it is contained in the set. If el is

not a member of the set, nothing will be done.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
x.discard("a")
x
{'c', 'b', 'e', 'd'}
x.discard("z")
x
{'c', 'b', 'e', 'd'}
x["b"]
TypeError: 'set' object is not subscriptable
del x["b"]
TypeError: 'set' object does not support item deletion
remove(el)
works like discard(), but if el is not a member of the set, a KeyError will be
raised.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
x.remove("a")
x
{'c', 'b', 'e', 'd'}
x.remove("z")
KeyError: 'z'
union(s)
This method returns the union of two sets as a new set, i.e. all elements that
are in either set.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d","e","f","g"}
x.union(y)
{'d', 'a', 'g', 'c', 'f', 'b', 'e'}
This can be abbreviated with the pipe operator "|":
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d","e","f","g"}
x | y
{'d', 'a', 'g', 'c', 'f', 'b', 'e'}
intersection(s)
Returns the intersection of the instance set and the set s as a new set. In other
words: A set with all the elements which are contained in both sets is returned.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d","e","f","g"}
x.intersection(y)
{'c', 'e', 'd'}
This can be abbreviated with the ampersand operator "&":
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d","e","f","g"}
x & y
{'c', 'e', 'd'}
isdisjoint()
This method returns True if two sets have a null intersection.
x = {"a","b","c"}
y = {"c","d","e"}
x.isdisjoint(y)
False
x = {"a","b","c"}
y = {"d","e","f"}
x.isdisjoint(y)
True
issubset()
x.issubset(y) returns True, if x is a subset of y. "<=" is an abbreviation for

"Subset of" and ">=" for "superset of" and "<" is used to check if a set is a
proper subset of a set.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d"}
x.issubset(y)
False
y.issubset(x)
True
x < y
False
y < x # y is a proper subset of x

True
x < x # a set can never be a proper subset of oneself.

False
x <= x
True
issuperset()
x.issuperset(y) returns True, if x is a superset of y. ">=" is an abbreviation for

"issuperset of" ">" is used to check if a set is a proper superset of a set.
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
y = {"c","d"}
x.issuperset(y)
True
x > y
True
x >= y
True
x >= x
True
x > x
False
x.issuperset(x)
True
pop()
pop() removes and returns an arbitrary set element. The method raises a
KeyError if the set is empty
x = {"a","b","c","d","e"}
x.pop()
'a'
x.pop()
'c'
x.pop()
'e'
x.pop()
'd'
x.pop()
'b'
x.pop()
KeyError: 'pop from an empty set'
dict(d) Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples.
state_population = {"UP":199581477, "MH":112372972,

"BR":103804637, "WB": 91347736, "AP": 84665533, "MP":72597565,
"TN":72138958, "RJ":68621012, "KA":61130704, "GJ":60383628,
"OD":41947358};
print(type(state_population))
<class 'dict'>
state_population["UP"]
199581477
state_population["MH"]
112372972
state_population["Punjab"] = 27704236;
# Add new element
state_population["Punjab"] = 27704236;
state_population
{'UP': 199581477, 'MH': 112372972, 'BR': 103804637, 'WB':

91347736, 'AP': 84665533, 'MP': 72597565, 'TN': 72138958, 'RJ':
68621012, 'KA': 61130704, 'GJ': 60383628, 'OD': 41947358,
'Punjab': 27704236}
# Convert tuple to dictionary.
t = (('a','Apple'), ('b','Ball'), ('c', 'Cat'), ('d', 'Dog'));

print(t, type(t))
(('a', 'Apple'), ('b', 'Ball'), ('c', 'Cat'), ('d', 'Dog')) <class

'tuple'>
x = dict(t);
print(x, type(x))
{'a': 'Apple', 'b': 'Ball', 'c': 'Cat', 'd': 'Dog'} <class 'dict'>
y = dict((x, y) for x, y in t);

print(y, type(y))
{'a': 'Apple', 'b': 'Ball', 'c': 'Cat', 'd': 'Dog'} <class 'dict'>
y['a']
'Apple'
y['d']
'Dog'
z = dict(map(reversed, t));
print(z, type(z))
{'Apple': 'a', 'Ball': 'b', 'Cat': 'c', 'Dog': 'd'} <class 'dict'>
# Convert list to dictionary.
x=[('hi','goodbye')]
print(x,type(x));
[('hi', 'goodbye')] <class 'list'>
y = dict(x);
print(y,type(y));
{'hi': 'goodbye'} <class 'dict'>
Character Values in ASCII
chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.
The chr() method takes a single parameter, an integer.
The valid range of the integer is from 0 through 1,114,111.
print(chr(97));
print(chr(65));
print(chr(90));
print(chr(1119));
print(chr(63))
a
A
Z
џ
?
unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.
Can't use unichr in Python 3.1
print(unichr(1119));

NameError: name 'unichr' is not defined
ord(x) The ord() method returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the
given Unicode character.
The ord() method is the inverse of chr().
The ord(x) method takes a single parameter:
x - character string of length 1 whose Unicode code point is to be found.
print(ord('1'))
49
print(ord('5'))
53
print(ord('A'))
65
print(ord('Z'))
90
hex(x) The hex() function converts an integer number to the corresponding

hexadecimal string.
The hex() function takes a single argument.
print(hex(110));
print(hex(111));
print(hex(112));
print(hex(113));
print(hex(114));
print(hex(115));
0x6e
0x6f
0x70
0x71
0x72
0x73
Hexadecimal representation of a float.
print(float.hex(2.5));
0x1.4000000000000p+1
print(float.hex(5.5));
0x1.6000000000000p+2
oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.
print(oct(555));
0o1053
print(oct(555.55));

TypeError: 'float' object cannot be interpreted as an integer
Python Basic Operators

Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.
Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and +

is called operator.
Types of Operator
Python language supports the following types of operators.
• Arithmetic Operators
• Comparison (Relational) Operators
• Assignment Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Membership Operators
• Identity Operators
Python Arithmetic Operators
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −
a = 10
b = 20
+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 30
- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand. a – b = -10
* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 200
/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b/a=2
% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns b%a=0
remainder
** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b =10 to

the power 20
// Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is 9//2 = 4 and
the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are 9.0//2.0 =
removed. But if one of the operands is negative, the result is 4.0, -11//3 =
floored, i.e., rounded away from zero (towards negative -4, -11.0//3
infinity): = -4.0
Python Comparison Operators

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the
relation among them. They are also called Relational operators.

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition (a == b)

becomes true. is not
true.
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes

true.
> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is
operand, then condition becomes true. not true.
< If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, (a < b) is
then condition becomes true. true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of (a >= b)
right operand, then condition becomes true. is not
true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b)
right operand, then condition becomes true. is true.
Python Assignment Operators

= Assigns values from right side operands to c = a + b assigns value

left side operand of a + b into c
+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand and c += a is equivalent to
assign the result to left operand c=c+a
-= Subtract AND It subtracts right operand from the left c -= a is equivalent to
operand and assign the result to left operand c=c-a
*= Multiply AND It multiplies right operand with the left c *= a is equivalent to

operand and assign the result to left operand c=c*a
/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand c /= a is equivalent to
and assign the result to left operand c=c/a
%= Modulus AND It takes modulus using two operands and c %= a is equivalent to

assign the result to left operand (return c=c%a
remainder)
**= Exponent AND Performs exponential (power) calculation on c **= a is equivalent to

operators and assign value to the left c = c ** a
operand
//= Floor Division It performs floor division on operators and c //= a is equivalent to
assign value to the left operand (return c = c // a
quotient)
c=58;
c %=a;
print(c);
c=58;
c //=a;
print(c);
Python Logical Operators

There are following logical operators supported by Python language. Assume
variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then
and Logical AND If both the operands are true then condition becomes true. (a and b) is
true.
or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero then condition (a or b) is
becomes true. true.
not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. Not(a and b)
is false.
Example.
x = True;
y = False;
print('x and y is ',x and y);
x and y is False
print('x or y is ',x or y);

x or y is True
print('not x is ',not x);

not x is False
Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a
= 60; and b = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows −
a = 0011 1100 => 60
b = 0000 1101 => 13
-----------------
a&b = 0000 1100 => 12
a|b = 0011 1101 => 61
a^b = 0011 0001 => 49
~a = 1100 0011 => -61 (-64+3)

There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python language
& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in (a & b) (means
both operands 0000 1100)
a = 60;
b = 13;
x = a&b;
print(x);
12
| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (a | b) = 61

(means 0011
1101)
x = a|b;
print(x);
61
^ Binary XOR Write the bit as 1 if it is set in one operand (a ^ b) = 49

(exclusive OR) otherwise 0 if matches in both operand. (means 0011
0001)
x = a^b;
print(x);
49
~ Binary Ones It is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. (~a ) = -61
Complement (means 1100
0011 in 2's
complement
form due to a
signed binary
number.
x = ~a;
print(x);
-61
<< Binary Left Shift The left operands value is moved left by the a << 2 = 240
number of bits specified by the right operand. (means 1111
0000)
x = a << 2 ;
print(x);
240
>> Binary Right Shift The left operands value is moved right by the a >> 2 = 15
number of bits specified by the right operand. (means 0000
1111)
x = a >> 2 ;
print(x);
15
Python Membership Operators

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as
strings, lists, or tuples. There are two membership operators as explained
below
in Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the x in y, here in results in a 1 if x is a

specified sequence and false otherwise. member of sequence y.
not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable x not in y, here not in results in a 1
in the specified sequence and false otherwise. if x is not a member of sequence y.
Example
a = 10
b = 20
l_num = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
if ( a in l_num ):
print("a is available in the given list");
else:
print("a is not available in the given list");
if ( b not in l_num ):
print("b is not available in the given list");
else:
print("b is available in the given list");
x = 2
if ( x in l_num ):
print("x is available in the given list");
else:
print("x is not available in the given list");
When you execute the above program it produces the following result:
a is not available in the given list

b is not available in the given list
x is available in the given list
print( a in l_num );
False
print( b in l_num );
False
x = 2
print( x in l_num );
True
Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to verify if two variables point to the same
memory location or not. Identity operators are of two types:
(1) is
(2) is not.
is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of x is y, here is results in 1 if

the operator point to the same object and false id(x) equals id(y).
otherwise.
is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side x is not y, here is not results in
of the operator point to the same object and true 1 if id(x) is not equal to id(y).
otherwise.
Example
a = 20
b = 20
if ( a is b ):
print("Line 1 - a and b have same identity")
else:
print("Line 1 - a and b do not have same identity")
if ( id(a) == id(b) ):
else:
b = 30
if ( a is b ):
else:
if ( a is not b ):
else:
When you execute the above program it produces the following result −
Line 1 - a and b have same identity

Line 2 - a and b have same identity
Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity
Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity
a = 20
b = 20
id(a)
1539688720
id(b)
1539688720
a = 555
b = 555
id(a)
1390899932912
id(b)
1390901046000
a = 1000
b = 1000
id(a)
1390901046096
id(b)
1390899932912
a = 20
b = 20
id(a)
1539688720
id(b)
1539688720
id(1000)
1390899932912
b = 1000
id(b)
1390899930224
Python Operators Precedence

The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.
Operator Description
** Exponentiation (raise to the power)
~+- Complement, unary plus and minus (method names for the last two are +@
and -@)
a = 20
b = 1000
-a
-20
+a
20
-b
-1000
+b
1000
~a
-21
~b
-1001
* / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
+- Addition and subtraction
>> << Right and left bitwise shift
& Bitwise 'AND'
^| Bitwise exclusive ÒR' and regular ÒR'
<= < > >= Comparison operators
<> == != Equality operators
= %= /= //= -= += Assignment operators

*= **=
is, is not Identity operators
in, not in Membership operators
not, or, and Logical operators
Operator precedence affects how an expression is evaluated.
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator

* has higher precedence than +, so it first multiplies 3*2 and then adds into
7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table,
those with the lowest appear at the bottom.
Example
a = 20
b = 10
c = 15
d = 5
e = 0
e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5
print("Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e)
e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5
print("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e)
e = (a + b) * (c / d); # (30) * (15/5)

print("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e)
e = a + (b * c) / d; # 20 + (150/5)
print("Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e)
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is 90
Value of a + (b * c) / d is 50
Does Python have a ternary conditional operator?
Yes, it was added in version 2.5.

The syntax is:
a if condition else b
First condition is evaluated, then either a or b is returned based on the

Boolean value of condition
If condition evaluates to True a is returned, else b is returned.
'true' if True else 'false'

'true'
'false' if True else 'false'

'false'
'true' if False else 'false'

'false'
'true' if 1 else 'false'

'true'
'true' if 0 else 'false'

'false'
Python Decision Making
Decision making is anticipation of conditions occurring while execution of the
program and specifying actions taken according to the conditions.
Decision structures evaluate multiple expressions which produce TRUE or

FALSE as outcome. You need to determine which action to take and which
statements to execute if outcome is TRUE or FALSE otherwise.
Following is the general form of a typical decision-making structure found in

most of the programming languages –
Three ways to denote conditions:
1. True
False
2. 0 for False
1 for True
3. <condition expression>
Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values
as TRUE, and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as FALSE value.
Python programming language provides following types of decision making

statements. Click the following links to check their detail.
Statement Description
if statements An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or

more statements.
if...else statements An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement,

which executes when the boolean expression is FALSE.
nested if statements You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else
if statement(s).
The elif Statement
The elif statement allows you to check multiple expressions for TRUE
and execute a block of code as soon as one of the conditions
evaluates to TRUE.
Similar to the else, the elif statement is optional. However, unlike
else, for which there can be at most one statement, there can be an
arbitrary number of elif statements following an if.
Syntax:
The syntax of the nested if...elif...else construct may be:
if expression1:
statement(s)
if expression2:
statement(s)
elif expression3:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
elif expression4:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
var1 = 5555
if var1:
print("1 – Condition evaluated true");
print(var1);
var2 = 0
if var2:
print("2 - Condition evaluated false");
print(var2);
else:
print("Good bye!");
v_marks = 85
if (v_marks<50) :
print("He is fail.");
print("He should work hard.");
print("He stood 2nd."); print("He need improvements.");
print("He stood 1st.");
else :
print("Outstanding.");
print("Well done.");
1 - Condition evaluated true

5555
Good bye!
Outstanding.
Well done.
# Another Example
var = 100
if var < 200:
print("Expression value is less than 200");
if var == 150:
print("Which is 150");
elif var == 100:
elif var == 50:
elif var < 50:
print("Expression value is less than 50");
else:
print("Could not find true expression");
print("Good bye!"); # This statement is not the of any if.

# Output
Expression value is less than 200
Which is 100
>>> print("Good bye!"); # This statement is not the of any if.
Good bye!
Single Statement Suites

If the suite of an if clause consists only of a single line, it may go on the same
line as the header statement.
Here is an example of a one-line if clause −
var = 100
if ( var == 100 ) : print "Value of expression is 100"
print "Good bye!"
Value of expression is 100

Good bye!
Example 2.
if ( var == 100 ) : print("Value of expression is 100"); print("hello");
else: print("good bye")
^
Value of expression is 100

hello

good bye
Python Loops
In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a
function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on. There may be
a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of
times.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for

more complicated execution paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements

multiple times. The following diagram illustrates a loop statement −
Python programming language provides following types of loops to handle

looping requirements. There are two types of loops in Python, for and while.
Loop Type Description
while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is

TRUE. It tests the condition before executing the loop body.
for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the
code that manages the loop variable.
Python While Loop
The while loop in Python is used to iterate over a block of code as long as the test
expression (condition) is true.
We generally use this loop when we don't know beforehand, the number of times to
iterate.
Syntax
while test_expression:
Body of while
In Python, the body of the while loop is determined through indentation.
Body starts with indentation and the first unindented line marks the end.
Python interprets any non-zero value as True. None and 0 are interpreted as False.
# Prints out 1,2,3,4,5

count = 1
while count <= 5:
print(count)
count += 1
print("Good Bye While Loop");
# Output
1
2
3
4
5
Good Bye While Loop
In Python, break and continue statements can alter the flow of a normal
loop. The break statement terminates the loop containing it and pass the
control of the program to the statement immediately after the body of the
loop.
If break statement is inside a nested loop (loop inside another loop), break
will terminate the innermost loop.
# Prints out 1,2,3,4,5
count = 1
while True:
print(count)
count += 1
if count > 5:
break
print("Good Bye While Loop");
# Output
1
2
3
4
5
Good Bye While Loop
# Prints out 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,10
count = 1
while (count<=10):
if (count==5):
count=count+1
continue
else:
print(count)
count=count+1
print("Good Bye While Loop")
# Output
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
Good Bye While Loop
We use "else" clause in loops.
When the loop condition of "for" or "while" statement fails then code part in
"else" is executed. If break statement is executed inside for loop then the
"else" part is skipped. Note that "else" part is executed even if there is a
continue statement.
# While loop with else.
# Print out 1,2,3,4,5 and then it prints "count value reached 5"
count=1
while(count<5):
print(count)
count +=1
else:
print("count value reached %d" %(count))
# Output
1
2
3
4
count value reached 5
Python For Loop
The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a sequence (list, tuple, string) or other
iterable objects. Iterating over a sequence is called traversal.
Syntax of for Loop

for val in sequence:
Body of for
Here, val is the variable that takes the value of the item inside the sequence on each
iteration. Loop continues until we reach the last item in the sequence. The body of for
loop is separated from the rest of the code using indentation.
for x in (1,2,3,4,5):
print(x)
# Output
1
2
3
4
5
for x in [1,2,3,4,5]:
print(x)
# Output
1
2
3
4
5
for x in ['a','b','c','d','e']:
print(x)
# Output
a
b
c
d
e
for x in range(5):
print(x)
# Output
0
1
2
3
4
for x in range(3, 6):

print(x)
# Output
3
4
5
# range in increment order of 2

for x in range(3, 10, 2):
print(x)
# Output
3
5
7
9
# Prints out only odd numbers - 1,3,5,7,9

for x in range(10):
# Check if x is even
if x % 2 == 0:
continue;
print(x);
# Output
1
3
5
7
9
# Prints out 1,2,3,4

for i in range(1, 10):
if(i%5==0):
break
print(i)
else:
print("this is not printed because for loop is terminated because of break but
not due to fail in condition")
# Output
1
2
3
4
# Program to find the sum of all numbers stored in a list
# List of numbers
numbers = [6, 5, 3, 8, 4, 2, 5, 4, 11]
sum = 0
for val in numbers:
sum = sum+val;
else:
print("The sum is", sum);
# Output
The sum is 48
Python Pass Statement

It is used as a placeholder for future implementation of functions, loops, etc.
In Python programming, pass is a null statement. The difference between a
comment and pass statement is that the interpreter ignores a comment
entirely, pass is not ignored it is executed. However, nothing happens when
pass is executed. It results into no operation (NOP).
Syntax of pass
pass
We generally use it as a placeholder.

Suppose we have a loop or a function that is not implemented yet, but we
want to implement it in the future. They cannot have an empty body. The
interpreter would complain. So, we use the pass statement to construct a
body that does nothing.
# pass is just a placeholder for functionality to be added later.
sequence = [1,2,3,4,5]
for val in sequence:
pass
Python Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a
single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application
and a high degree of code reusing.
As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(),
etc. but you can also create your own functions. These functions are
called user-defined functions.
Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple
rules to define a function in Python.
• Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function_name and
parentheses ( ( ) ).
• Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses.

You can also define parameters inside these parentheses.
• The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation

string of the function or docstring.
• The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.
• The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an

expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as
return None.
Syntax
def function_name(parameter1, parameter2, …parametern):
"""function_docstring"""
function_suite
return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform

them in the same order that they were defined.
Example
The following function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on
standard screen.
def print_myname(str):
"This function prints your name."
print(str)
return
Calling a Function
Defining a function only gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to
be included in the function and structures the blocks of code.
Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling
it from another function or directly from the Python prompt. Following is the
example to call print_myname() function −
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def print_myname( str ):
"This function print your name."
print(str)
return;
# Now you can call print me function

print_myname("Capgemini India")
Output:
Capgemini India
Pass by reference vs value

All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are passed by reference.
It means if you change what a parameter refers to within a function, the
change also reflects back in the calling function. For example −
#!/usr/bin/python
def change_mylist(mylist):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist.append([1,2,3,4]);
print("Values inside the function: ", mylist)
print(id(mylist))
# Now you can call change_mylist function by using a list variable mylist as
reference
v_list = [10,20,30];
print("Values before passing in the function: ", v_list)
change_mylist( v_list );
print("Values after passing in the function: ", v_list)
Here, we are maintaining reference of the passed object and appending

values in the same object. So, this would produce the following result −
Values before passing in the function: [10, 20, 30]

Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]
Values after passing in the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]
There is one more example where argument is being passed by reference and
the reference is being overwritten inside the called function.
#!/usr/bin/python

def change_mylist1( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist = [1,2,3,4]; # This would assig new reference in mylist
print("Values inside the function: ", mylist)
print("Object ID of mylist inside function: ", id(mylist))
return
# Now you can call change_mylist1 function

mylist = [10,20,30];
print("Object ID of mylist outside function: ", id(mylist))
change_mylist1(mylist);
print("Values outside the function: ", mylist)
The parameter mylist is local to the function change_mylist1. Changing

mylist within the function does not affect mylist. The function accomplishes
nothing and finally this would produce the following result:
Object ID of mylist outside function: 2301171593544

Values inside the function: [1, 2, 3, 4]
Object ID of mylist inside function: 2301171594056
Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30]
Function Arguments
You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments:
• Required arguments (positional order)
• Keyword arguments (keyword notation)
• Default arguments
• Variable-length arguments
Required arguments
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct
positional order. Here, the number of arguments in the function call should
match exactly with the function definition.
To call the function print_myname(), you definitely need to pass one

argument, otherwise it gives a syntax error as follows –
#!/usr/bin/python
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print(str);
return;
# Now you can call print_myname function
print_myname()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

TypeError: print_myname() missing 1 required positional argument: 'str'
Keyword arguments (parameter named

notation)
Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword
arguments in a function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the
parameter name.
This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the
Python interpreter is able to use the keywords provided to match the values
with parameters.
You can also make keyword calls to the print_myname() function in the
following ways −
#!/usr/bin/python
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print(str)
return;
# Now you can call print_myname function
print_myname( str = "Michael Gerard Tyson")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Michael Gerard Tyson

The following example gives more clear picture. Note that the order of
parameters does not matter.
#!/usr/bin/python
def personal_info(name,age):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print("Name: ", name)
print("Age ", age)
return;
# Now you can call personal_info function

personal_info( age=50, name="Michael Gerard Tyson")
Name: Michael Gerard Tyson

Age 50
Default arguments
A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is
not provided in the function call for that argument. The following example
gives an idea on default arguments, it prints default age if it is not passed −
#!/usr/bin/python

def personal_info( name, age, design = "Trainer" ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print("Name: ", name)
print("Age ", age)
print("Designation ", design)
return;
# Now you can call personal_info function
personal_info( age=50, name="Michael Gerard Tyson" )
personal_info( age=50, name="Michael Gerard Tyson" , design='Chairman')

Age 50
Designation Trainer

Age 50
Designation Chairman
Variable-length arguments
You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified
while defining the function. These arguments are called variable-length
arguments and are not named in the function definition, unlike required and
default arguments.
Syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is this −
def function_name([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ):

"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that holds the values of all
non keyword variable arguments. This tuple remains empty if no additional
arguments are specified during the function call. Following is a simple
example −
#!/usr/bin/python
def student_marks( name, *score_tuple ):
"This prints a variable length passed arguments"
print("Student subject details is: ")
print(type(score_tuple))
print("Student name ",name)
for var in score_tuple:

print(var)
return;
# Now you can call student_marks function

student_marks("Dev Singh")
student_marks ("Sami", 70, 60, 50 )
Student subject details is:

Dev Singh

Sami
70
60
50
def student_marks( name, *score_tuple, *class ):

"This prints a variable passed arguments"
print(name, class)
print(var)
return;
NOTE: Only one variable-length argument can be specified.
def student_marks(*score_tuple, name):

"This prints a variable passed arguments"
print(name)
print(var)
return;
print("Good Bye. . . . . ")
student_marks("Dev Singh")
TypeError: student_marks() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'name'
student_marks(name="Dev Singh")
Dev Singh
NOTE: Any statement written after return keyword is not executed.
student_marks (70, 60, 50, "Sami" )

TypeError: student_marks() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'name'
student_marks (70, 60, 50, name="Sami" )

Sami
70
60
50
The Anonymous Functions
These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the
standard manner by using the def keyword. You can use
the lambda keyword to create small anonymous functions.
• Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the
form of an expression. They cannot contain commands or multiple expressions.
• An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires

an expression
• Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables
other than those in their parameter list and those in the global namespace.
• Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they are
not equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is bypassing
function stack allocation during invocation for performance reasons.
Syntax
The syntax of lambda functions contains only a single statement, which is as
follows −
lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]]: expression
Following is the example to show how lambda form of function works −
#!/usr/bin/python
sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2;
# Now you can call sum as a function

print("Value of total : ", sum(10,20))
print("Value of total : ", sum(20,20))
Value of total : 30
Value of total : 40
it_rate10 = lambda arg1: (arg1*10)/100;
it_rate10(300000)
30000.0
it_rate20(600000)
120000.0
it_rate30(2000000)
600000.0
The return Statement

The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back
an expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same
as return None. Any statement written after return keyword is not executed.
All the above examples are not returning any value. You can return a value
from a function as follows −
#!/usr/bin/python

def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2
print("Total Inside the function : ", total)
return total;
# Now you can call sum function
v_total = sum(10, 20);
print("Total Outside the function : ", v_total);
Total Inside the function : 30

Total Outside the function : 30
Scope of Variables
All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that
program. This depends on where you have declared a variable.
The scope of a variable determines the portion of the program where you can
access a particular identifier. There are two basic scopes of variables in
Python:
• Global variables
• Local variables
Global vs. Local variables

Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those
defined outside have a global scope.
This means that local variables can be accessed only inside the function in
which they are declared, whereas global variables can be accessed
throughout the program body by all functions. When you call a function, the
variables declared inside it are brought into scope. Following is a simple
example −
#!/usr/bin/python
total = 0; # This is global variable.
def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2; # Here total is local variable.
print("Inside the function local total : ", total)
print(id(total))
return total;
# Now you can call sum function
print(sum(10, 20))
print("Outside the function global total : ", total)
Inside the function local total : 30

30
Outside the function global total : 0

Python Modules
Modules refer to a file containing Python statements and definitions like

function and class definitions. A module allows you to logically organize your
Python code.
We use modules to break down large programs into small manageable and
organized files. Furthermore, modules provide reusability of code.
We can define our most used functions in a module and import it, instead of
copying their definitions into different programs.
Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define

functions, classes and variables.
Example
Let’s create a module. Type the following and save it as example.py.
# Python Module example
def add(a, b):

"""This program adds two
numbers and return the result"""
result = a + b
return result
Here, we have defined a function add() inside a module named example.

The function takes in two numbers and returns their sum.
I have copied this python module file example.py to C:\Program

Files\Python36 directory because this is the environment variable path.
How to import modules in Python?
We can import the definitions of a module on the interactive prompt of Python
or inside another module.
We use the import keyword to do this. To import our previously defined

module example we type the following in the Python prompt.
(AMD64)] on win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
>>> import example

>>> example.add(50,45.5);
95.5
Import with renaming

We can import a module by renaming it as follows.
>>> import example as ex

>>> ex.add(50,45.5);
95.5
95.5
Using the module name we can access the function using dot (.) operation.
A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is
imported.
Python from...import statement

We can import specific function from a module without importing the module
as a whole. Here we will add another function in example.py file. In such
case we don't use the dot operator.
def sub(a, b):

"""This program subtract two
numbers and return the result"""
result = a - b
return result
(AMD64)] on win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
>>> from example import sub
>>> sub(50,45.5);
4.5
>>> add(50,45.5);
NameError: name 'add' is not defined
>>> from example import add

>>> add(50,45.5);
95.5
The from...import * Statement:

It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current
namespace by using the following import statement.
Add this private function in the module example
def _income_tax(income, rate): # private method

"""This program calculate tax and return the result"""
result = (income*rate)/100
print("Your tax is Rs : ")
return result
win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
>>> import example

95.5
>>> example.sub(50,45.5);
4.5
>>> example._income_tax(400000,10)
Your tax is Rs :
40000.0
>>> exit()
This import all object definition except those beginning with an underscore
(private objects), visible in our scope. Objects are access without dot operator
(.)
win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
>>> from example import *

NameError: name 'example' is not defined
>>> add(50,45.5);
95.5
>>> sub(50,45.5);
4.5
>>> _income_tax(400000,10)
NameError: name '_income_tax' is not defined
Importing everything with the asterisk (*) symbol is not a good programming
practice. This can lead to duplicate definitions for an identifier.
Locating Modules
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module
in the following sequences −
• The current directory.
• If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable
PYTHONPATH.
• If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is
normally /usr/local/lib/python/.
The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path
variable. The sys.path variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH,
and the installation-dependent default.
>>> import sys
>>> sys.path
['', 'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\python36.zip', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python36\\DLLs', 'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\lib',
'C:\\Program Files\\Python36', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python36\\lib\\site-packages']
C:\Users\haryadav>echo %PATH%
C:\Program Files\Python36\Scripts\;C:\Program
Files\Python36\;C:\Program Files\Teradata\Client\15.10\bin;C:\Program
Files
(x86)\Teradata\Client\15.10\bin;C:\app\haryadav\product\11.2.0\dbhome_
1\bin;C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\WINDOWS\System32\Wbem;C:\WINDO
WS\System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\;C:\Program Files
(x86)\QuickTime\QTSystem\;C:\Program Files\CapgeminiScripts\Support
Tools\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft SQL
Server\100\Tools\Binn\;C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL
Server\100\DTS\Binn\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft SQL
Server\100\Tools\Binn\VSShell\Common7\IDE\;C:\Program Files
(x86)\Microsoft Visual Studio
9.0\Common7\IDE\PrivateAssemblies\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft
SQL Server\100\DTS\Binn\;C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL
Server\110\DTS\Binn\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft SQL
Server\110\Tools\Binn\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft SQL
Server\110\Tools\Binn\ManagementStudio\;C:\Program Files
(x86)\Microsoft Visual Studio
10.0\Common7\IDE\PrivateAssemblies\;C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft
SQL
Server\110\DTS\Binn\;C:\Users\haryadav\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Windows
Apps;
import sys
sys.builtin_module_names
('_ast', '_bisect', '_blake2', '_codecs', '_codecs_cn', '_codecs_hk',

'_codecs_iso2022', '_codecs_jp', '_codecs_kr', '_codecs_tw',
'_collections', '_csv', '_datetime', '_functools', '_heapq', '_imp',
'_io', '_json', '_locale', '_lsprof', '_md5', '_multibytecodec',
'_opcode', '_operator', '_pickle', '_random', '_sha1', '_sha256',
'_sha3', '_sha512', '_signal', '_sre', '_stat', '_string', '_struct',
'_symtable', '_thread', '_tracemalloc', '_warnings', '_weakref',
'_winapi', 'array', 'atexit', 'audioop', 'binascii', 'builtins',
'cmath', 'errno', 'faulthandler', 'gc', 'itertools', 'marshal',
'math', 'mmap', 'msvcrt', 'nt', 'parser', 'sys', 'time', 'winreg',
'xxsubtype', 'zipimport', 'zlib')
The PYTHONPATH Variable:

The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of
directories. The syntax of PYTHONPATH is the same as that of the shell
variable PATH.
Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system:
C:\Users\haryadav> set PYTHONPATH=c:\python20\lib
C:\Users\haryadav> set PYTHONPATH

PYTHONPATH=c:\python20\lib
C:\Users\haryadav> echo %PYTHONPATH%

c:\python20\lib
# To unset the environment variable
C:\Users\haryadav> set PYTHONPATH=
C:\Users\haryadav> echo %PYTHONPATH%

%PYTHONPATH%
C:\Users\haryadav> set PYTHONPATH

Environment variable PYTHONPATH not defined
And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system:

set PYTHONPATH=/usr/local/lib/python
Namespaces and Scoping

Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a
dictionary of variable names (keys) and their corresponding objects (values).
A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in

the global namespace. If a local and a global variable have the same name,
the local variable shadows the global variable.
Each function has its own local namespace.
Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It

assumes that any variable assigned a value in a function is local.
Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function,

you must use the global statement to reference the variable defined outside
the function.
The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global

variable. Python stops searching the local namespace for the variable.
For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the
function AddMoney, we assign Money a value, therefore Python
assumes Money as a local variable.
#!/usr/bin/python
Money = 2000
def AddMoney():
# local variable Money is referenced before assignment. It will throw error.
Money = Money + 1
return Money
print(Money)
2000
AddMoney()
File "<stdin>", line 4, in AddMoney
UnboundLocalError: local variable 'Money' referenced before assignment
def AddMoney():
# local variable Money is assigned:
Money = 5000
Money = Money + 1
return Money
AddMoney()
5001
print(Money)
2000
def AddMoney():
# Here global variable Money is referenced using global keyword
# local variable Money is commented
global Money
# Money = 5000
Money = Money + 1
return Money
AddMoney()
2001
print(Money)
2001
The dir( ) Function
The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names
defined by a module.
The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that
are defined in a module.
#!/usr/bin/python
Add the following lines in the example module which you defined in previous exercise.
# Global variables defined

g_result = 0
g_score = 0
import example
content = dir(example)
print(content)
['__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', '_income_tax', 'add', 'g_result',
'g_score', 'sub']
type(content)
<class 'list'>
Here, the special string variable __name__ is the module's name,

and __file__is the filename from which the module was loaded.
The globals() and locals() Functions

The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the
global and local namespaces depending on the location from where they are
called.
If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can
be accessed locally from that function.
If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that
can be accessed globally from that function.
g_result = 0
g_score = 0
def currency():
Rupees = 5000
Usd = 5000
Euro= 5000
Ruble=5000
v_result = Rupees + Usd + Euro + Ruble
print('Local variables are : ', '\n', locals() )
print('Global variables are : ', '\n', globals())
return v_result
currency()
Local variables are :
{'v_result': 20000, 'Ruble': 5000, 'Euro': 5000, 'Usd': 5000, 'Rupees': 5000}
Global variables are :

{'__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, '__package__': None, '__loader__':
<_frozen_importlib_external.SourceFileLoader object at 0x0000020EDB74F0B8>,
'__spec__': None, '__annotations__': {}, '__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-
in)>, '__cached__': None, 'os': <module 'os' from 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python36\\lib\\os.py'>, 'cls': <function <lambda> at 0x0000020EDB5C3E18>,
'AddMoney': <function AddMoney at 0x0000020EDB8AD8C8>, 'g_result': 0, 'g_score': 0,
'currency': <function currency at 0x0000020EDB8AD950>}
20000
The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can
be extracted using the keys() function.
def currency():
Rupees = 5000
Usd = 5000
Euro= 5000
Ruble=5000
v_result = Rupees + Usd + Euro + Ruble
print('Local variables are : ', '\n', locals() )
dict = locals()
print(dict.keys())
print(dict.values())
return v_result
currency()
Local variables are :
{'v_result': 20000, 'Ruble': 5000, 'Euro': 5000, 'Usd': 5000, 'Rupees': 5000}
dict_keys(['v_result', 'Ruble', 'Euro', 'Usd', 'Rupees'])
dict_values([20000, 5000, 5000, 5000, 5000])
20000
The reload() Function

When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion
of a module is executed only once.
Therefore, if you want to re execute the top-level code in a module, you can
use the reload() function. The reload() function imports a previously
imported module again. The syntax of the reload() function is this −
reload(module_name)
Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not
the string containing the module name. For example, to reload hello module,
do the following −
reload(hello)
reload(example)
NameError: name 'reload' is not defined
For >= Python3.4:
import example
import importlib
importlib.reload(example)
<module 'example' from 'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\example.py'>
For <= Python3.3:

import imp
imp.reload(example)
<module 'example' from 'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\example.py'>
For Python2.x:
reload(example)
Packages in Python
A bundle of multiple modules together form a package.
A package is basically a hierarchical directory structure with Python files and

a file with the name __init__.py. This means that every directory inside of
the Python path, which contains a file named __init__.py, will be treated as
a package by Python. It's possible to put several modules into a Package.
Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using

"dotted module names". A.B stands for a submodule named B in a package
named A. Two different packages like P1 and P2 can both have modules with
the same name. The submodule A of the package P1 and the submodule A of
the package P2 can be totally different.
A package is imported like a "normal" module.
Create a Phone directory where your package will be stored as shown below
:-
NOTE: Run this terminial as administrator if you have privilege issue.

C:\Users\haryadav>cd ..
C:\Users>cd ..
C:\>chdir C:\Program Files\Python36\
C:\Program Files\Python36>mkdir Phone
C:\Program Files\Python36>cd Phone
C:\Program Files\Python36\Phone>
C:\Program Files\Python36\Phone>python
win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
Create a file Basicphone.py available in Phone directory. This file has
following line of source code −
def Basicphone():
print("This is Basic Phone")
Similar way, we have another two files having different functions as shown
below :−
• Phone/Isdnphone.py file having function Isdnphone() code as below:
def Isdnphone():
print("This is ISDN Phone")
• Phone/IPphone.py file having function IPphone() code as below:
def IPphone():
print("This is IP Phone")
Now, create one more file __init__.py in Phone directory.
Phone/__init__.py
To make all of your functions available when you've imported Phone, you
need to put explicit import statements in __init__.py as follows −
from Basicphone import Basicphone

from Isdnphone import Isdnphone
from IPphone import IPphone
After you add these lines to __init__.py, you have all of these functions
available when you import the Phone package.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Now import your Phone Package.
import Phone
Phone.Basicphone()
Phone.Isdnphone()
Phone.IPphone()
This is Basic Phone

This is ISDN Phone
This is IP Phone
In the above example, we have taken example of a single functions in each

file, but you can keep multiple functions in your files. You can also define
different Python classes in those files and then you can create your packages
out of those classes.
Python Files I/O
This topic covers all the basic I/O functions available in Python. For more
functions, please refer to standard Python documentation.
Printing to the Screen

The simplest way to produce output is using the print statement where you
can pass zero or more expressions separated by commas. This function
converts the expressions you pass into a string and writes the result to
standard output as follows −
#!/usr/bin/python
print("Python is really a great language,", "it is very interesting?")
This produces the following result on your standard screen −
Python is really a great language,", "it is very interesting?
Reading Keyboard Input

Python provides two built-in functions to read a line of text from standard
input, which by default comes from the keyboard. These functions are −
• raw_input ( prior to Python 3.0)
• input
The raw_input Function

The raw_input([prompt]) function reads one line from standard input and
returns it as a string (removing the trailing newline).
#!/usr/bin/python
str = raw_input("Enter your input: ");
print("Received input is : ", str)
This prompts you to enter any string and it would display same string on the
screen. When I typed "Hello Python!", its output is like this −
Enter your input: Hello Python

Received input is : Hello Python
The input Function
The input([prompt]) function is equivalent to raw_input, it assumes the input
as character string.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = input("Enter your input: ");
print("Received input is : ", str)
This would produce the following result against the entered input –
Enter your input: Capgemini India

Received input is : Capgemini India
NOTE: Input is treated as character string and arithmetic operation is not possible.
str = input("Enter your input: ");

Enter your input: 100
v_result = str + 200

TypeError: must be str, not int
v_result = int(str) + 200

print('Result is : ', v_result)
Result is : 300
Opening and Closing Files

Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and
output. Now, we will see how to use actual data files.
Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files

by default. You can do most of the file manipulation using a file object.
The open Function
Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-
in open() function. This function creates a file object, which would be
utilized to call other support methods associated with it.
Syntax
file_object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])
Here are parameter details:
• file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name of
the file that you want to access.
• access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has to
be opened, i.e. read, write, append etc. A complete list of possible values is
given below in the table. This is optional parameter and the default file access
mode is read (r).
• buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering takes place. If the

buffering value is 1, line buffering is performed while accessing a file. If you
specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then buffering action is
performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the system
default(default behavior).
Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file −
Modes Description
r Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning
of the file. This is the default mode.
rb Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed at
the beginning of the file. This is the default mode.
r+ Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer is placed at the
beginning of the file.
rb+ Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file
pointer placed at the beginning of the file.
w Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the
file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.
wb Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the file
exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.
w+ Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if
the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading and
writing.
wb+ Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites the
existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file
for reading and writing.
a Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the
file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not
exist, it creates a new file for writing.
ab Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the end
of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the
file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.
a+ Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the
end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the
file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.
ab+ Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file
pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the
append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading
and writing.
The file Object Attributes

Once a file is opened and you have one file object, you can get various
information related to that file.
Here is a list of all attributes related to file object:
Attribute Description
file.closed Returns true if file is closed, false otherwise.
file.mode Returns access mode with which file was opened.
file.name Returns name of the file.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
v_file = open("resume.txt", "w")
print("Name of the file: ", v_file.name)
print("Closed or not : ", v_file.closed)
print("Opening mode : ", v_file.mode)
v_file.close()
NOTE: Run this terminial as administrator if you have privilege issue.

C:\Users\haryadav>cd ..
C:\Users>cd ..
C:\>chdir C:\Program Files\Python36\
C:\Program Files\Python36>mkdir fileIO
C:\Program Files\Python36>cd fileIO
C:\Program Files\Python36\fileIO>
C:\Program Files\Python36\fileIO>python
win32
Welcome to Python!
Hari Yadav
v_file = open("resume.txt", "wb")
print("Closed or not : ", v_file.closed)
print("Open mode of the file : ", v_file.mode)
v_file.close()
print("File closed : ", v_file.closed)
Name of the file: resume.txt

Closed or not : False
Open mode of the file : wb
File closed : True
We create a file object using open() function and get a list of all possible
methods that can be used with a file object, using Python built-in dir()
function. The dir() function accepts a Python object as an argument and
returns a list of attributes and methods related to them.
dir(v_file)
['__class__', '__del__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__enter__',

'__eq__', '__exit__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getstate__', '__gt__',
'__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__',
'__new__', '__next__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '_checkClosed', '_checkReadable', '_checkSeekable',
'_checkWritable', '_dealloc_warn', '_finalizing', 'close', 'closed', 'detach', 'fileno',
'flush', 'isatty', 'mode', 'name', 'raw', 'read', 'read1', 'readable', 'readinto',
'readinto1', 'readline', 'readlines', 'seek', 'seekable', 'tell', 'truncate', 'writable',
'write', 'writelines']
The close() Method

The close() method of a file object flushes any unwritten information and
closes the file object, after which no more writing can be done.
Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is

reassigned to another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to
close a file.
Syntax
fileObject.close();
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
v_file = open("resume.txt", "wb")
# Close opened file

v_file.close()
print("File is closed : ", v_file.closed)
Name of the file: resume.txt

File is closed : True
Reading and Writing Files

The file object provides a set of access methods to make our lives easier. We
would see how to use read() and write() methods to read and write files.
The write() Method

The write() method writes any string to an open file. It is important to note
that Python strings can have binary data and not just text.
The write() method does not add a newline character ('\n') to the end of the
string. You have to do it explicitly.
Syntax
fileObject.write(string);
Here, passed parameter is the content to be written into the opened file.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
v_file = open("resume.txt", "w")
print("Open mode of the file : ", v_file.mode)
v_file.write( "Python is a great language.\nYeah its great!!\n");
# Close opend file

v_file.close()
The above method would create resume.txt file and would write given
content in that file and finally it would close that file. If you would open this
file, it would have following content.
Open mode of the file : w

Python is a great language.
Yeah its great!!
The read() Method

The read() method reads a string from an open file. It is important to note
that Python strings can have binary data. apart from text data.
Syntax
fileObject.read([count]);
Here, passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from the opened
file. This method starts reading from the beginning of the file and if count is
missing, then it tries to read as much as possible, maybe until the end of file.
Example
Let's read the data from our file resume.txt, which we created above.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
v_file = open("resume.txt", "r+")
str = v_file.read(10);
print("Read String is : ", str)
str = v_file.read();
v_file.write( "Python can be installed on both window and linux.\nLinux provide

better security!!\n");
v_file.close()
str = v_file.read();
# Close opend file
v_file.close()
# Readlines from the file.

import os
os.getcwd()
'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO'
myFileObject = open('C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\resume.txt')

filedata = myFileObject.readlines()
filedata
['Python is a great language.\n', 'Yeah its great!!\n', 'Python can be installed on
both window and linux.\n', 'Linux provide better security!!\n']
myFileObject.close()
Read String is : Python is

Read String is : a great language.
Yeah its great!!
Read String is : Python is a great language.
Yeah its great!!
Python can be installed on both window and linux.
Linux provide better security!!
File Positions
The tell() method tells you the current position within the file; in other
words, the next read or write will occur at that many bytes from the beginning
of the file.
The seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position.
The offset argument indicates the number of bytes to be moved.

The from argument specifies the reference position from where the bytes are
to be moved.
If from is set to:
0 means use the beginning of the file as the reference position.
1 means use the current position as the reference position.
2 means at the end of the file would be taken as the reference position.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
# Check current position

v_position = v_file.tell();
print("Current file position is : ", v_position)
# Reposition pointer at the beginning once again

v_position = v_file.seek(0, 0);
print("Again Read String is : ", str)

print("Current file position is now : ", v_position)

print("Current file position is now : ", v_position)
# Reposition pointer to the end

# Reposition pointer back to the beginning

# Close opened file

v_file.close()
Renaming and Deleting Files

Python os module provides methods that help you perform file-processing
operations, such as renaming and deleting files.
To use this module you need to import it first and then you can call any
related functions.
The rename() Method

The rename() method takes two arguments, the current filename and the
new filename.
Syntax
os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name)
Example
Following is the example to rename an existing file resume.txt:
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
# Rename a file from resume.txt to Hari_Yadav_Resume.txt

os.rename( "resume.txt", "New_Resume.txt" )
os.rename( "New_Resume.txt", "C:\\Program
Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\New_Resume_2.txt"))
os.rename("New_Resume.txt","resume.txt")
The copyfile() Method

from shutil import copyfile
copyfile("resume.txt","New_Resume_1.txt")
'New_Resume_1.txt'
copyfile("New_Resume_1.txt","New_Resume_2.txt")
New_Resume_2.txt'
The remove() Method

You can use the remove() method to delete files by supplying the name of
the file to be deleted as the argument.
Syntax
os.remove(file_name)
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
os.remove("New_Resume_2.txt")
Directories in Python
All files are contained within various directories, and Python has no problem
handling these too. The os module has several methods that help you create,
remove, and change directories.
The mkdir() Method
You can use the mkdir() method of the os module to create directories in the
current directory. You need to supply an argument to this method which
contains the name of the directory to be created.
Syntax
os.mkdir("newdir")
Example
Following is the example to create a directory test in the current directory −
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
os.mkdir("fileIO_1")
os.mkdir("fileIO_2")
The chdir() Method

You can use the chdir() method to change the current directory. The chdir()
method takes an argument, which is the name of the directory that you want
to make the current directory.
Syntax
os.chdir("newdir")
Example
Following is the example to go into "/home/newdir" directory −
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
# Changing a directory to "/home/newdir"
os.chdir('C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\fileIO_1')
os.getcwd()
'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\fileIO_1'
os.chdir('C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO')
os.getcwd()
'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO'
# Switch to sub directory

os.chdir("fileIO_1")
os.getcwd()
'C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\fileIO_1'
The getcwd() Method

The getcwd() method displays the current working directory.
Syntax
os.getcwd()
Example
Following is the example to give current directory −
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
# This would give location of the current directory
os.getcwd()
The rmdir() Method

The rmdir() method deletes the directory, which is passed as an argument in
the method.
Before removing a directory, all the contents in it should be removed.
Syntax:
os.rmdir('dirname')
Example
Following is the example to remove "/tmp/test" directory. It is required to
give fully qualified name of the directory, otherwise it would search for that
directory in the current directory.
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
os.listdir()
['fileIO_1', 'fileIO_2', 'New_Resume_1.txt', 'resume.txt']
os.rmdir("fileIO_1")
os.rmdir('C:\\Program Files\\Python36\\fileIO\\fileIO_2')
os.listdir()
['New_Resume_1.txt', 'resume.txt']
File & Directory Related Methods

There are three important sources, which provide a wide range of utility
methods to handle and manipulate files & directories on Windows and Unix
operating systems. They are as follows:
File Object Methods: The file object provides functions to manipulate files.
A file object is created using open function and here is a list of functions
which can be called on this object:
Sr.No. Methods with Description
1 file.close()
Close the file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more.
2 file.flush()
Flush the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some
file-like objects.
3 file.fileno()
Returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying

implementation to request I/O operations from the operating system.
4 file.isatty()
Returns True if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else False.
5 file.next()
Returns the next line from the file each time it is being called.
6 file.read([size])
Reads at most size bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF before
obtaining size bytes).
7 file.readline([size])
Reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in
the string.
8 file.readlines([sizehint])
Reads until EOF using readline() and return a list containing the lines. If
the optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF,
whole lines totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding
up to an internal buffer size) are read.
9 file.seek(offset[, whence])
Sets the file's current position
10 file.tell()
Returns the file's current position
11 file.truncate([size])
Truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file
is truncated to (at most) that size.
12 file.write(str)
Writes a string to the file. There is no return value.
13 file.writelines(sequence)
Writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable
object producing strings, typically a list of strings.
OS Object Methods: This provides methods to process files as well as directories.
The os module provides a big range of useful methods to manipulate files

and directories.
Sr.No. Methods with Description
1 os.access(path, mode)
Use the real uid/gid to test for access to path.
2 os.chdir(path)
Change the current working directory to path
3 os.chflags(path, flags)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags.
4 os.chmod(path, mode)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.
5 os.chown(path, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid.
6 os.chroot(path)
Change the root directory of the current process to path.
7 os.close(fd)
Close file descriptor fd.
8 os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)
Close all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive),
ignoring errors.
9 os.dup(fd)
Return a duplicate of file descriptor fd.
10 os.dup2(fd, fd2)
Duplicate file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if necessary.
11 os.fchdir(fd)
Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the

file descriptor fd.
12 os.fchmod(fd, mode)
Change the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode.
13 os.fchown(fd, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid
and gid.
14 os.fdatasync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.
15 os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]])
Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd.
16 os.fpathconf(fd, name)
Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. name

specifies the configuration value to retrieve.
17 os.fstat(fd)
Return status for file descriptor fd, like stat().
18 os.fstatvfs(fd)
Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with
file descriptor fd, like statvfs().
19 os.fsync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.
20 os.ftruncate(fd, length)
Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at most

length bytes in size.
21 os.getcwd()
Return a string representing the current working directory.
22 os.getcwdu()
Return a Unicode object representing the current working directory.
23 os.isatty(fd)
Return True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like)

device, else False.
24 os.lchflags(path, flags)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags, like chflags(), but do not follow
symbolic links.
25 os.lchmod(path, mode)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.
26 os.lchown(path, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This
function will not follow symbolic links.
27 os.link(src, dst)
Create a hard link pointing to src named dst.

28 os.listdir(path)
Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by
path.
29 os.lseek(fd, pos, how)
Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by

how.
30 os.lstat(path)
Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links.
31 os.major(device)
Extract the device major number from a raw device number.
32 os.makedev(major, minor)
Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.
33 os.makedirs(path[, mode])
Recursive directory creation function.
34 os.minor(device)
Extract the device minor number from a raw device number.
35 os.mkdir(path[, mode])
Create a directory named path with numeric mode mode.
36 os.mkfifo(path[, mode])
Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named path with numeric mode mode. The
default mode is 0666 (octal).
37 os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device])
Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
filename.
38 os.open(file, flags[, mode])
Open the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its
mode according to mode.
39 os.openpty()
Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors

(master, slave) for the pty and the tty, respectively.
40 os.pathconf(path, name)
Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.
41 os.pipe()
Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading
and writing, respectively.
42 os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]])
Open a pipe to or from command.
43 os.read(fd, n)
Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd. Return a string containing
the bytes read. If the end of the file referred to by fd has been reached,
an empty string is returned.
44 os.readlink(path)
Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.
45 os.remove(path)
Remove the file path.
46 os.removedirs(path)
Remove directories recursively.
47 os.rename(src, dst)
Rename the file or directory src to dst.

48 os.renames(old, new)
Recursive directory or file renaming function.
49 os.rmdir(path)
Remove the directory path
50 os.stat(path)
Perform a stat system call on the given path.
51 os.stat_float_times([newvalue])
Determine whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects.
52 os.statvfs(path)
Perform a statvfs system call on the given path.
53 os.symlink(src, dst)
Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst.
54 os.tcgetpgrp(fd)
Return the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an
open file descriptor as returned by open()).
55 os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg)
Set the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open
file descriptor as returned by open()) to pg.
56 os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]])
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary

file.
57 os.tmpfile()
Return a new file object opened in update mode (w+b).
58 os.tmpnam()
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary
file.
59 os.ttyname(fd)
Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with file
descriptor fd. If fd is not associated with a terminal device, an exception
is raised.
60 os.unlink(path)
Remove the file path.
61 os.utime(path, times)
Set the access and modified times of the file specified by path.
62 os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[,

followlinks=False]]])
Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-
down or bottom-up.
63 os.write(fd, str)
Write the string str to file descriptor fd. Return the number of bytes
actually written.
Python Exceptions Handling
Python provides two very important features to handle any unexpected error
in your Python programs and to add debugging capabilities in them −
• Exception Handling:
• Assertions:
List of Standard Exceptions:
EXCEPTION NAME DESCRIPTION
Exception Base class for all exceptions
StopIteration Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point to any
object.
SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function.
StandardError Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and
SystemExit.
ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.
OverflowError Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a numeric type.
FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.
ZeroDivisionError Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all numeric
types.
AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.
AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment.
EOFError Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or input()
function and the end of file is reached.
ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.
KeyboardInterrupt Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by pressing
Ctrl+C.
LookupError Base class for all lookup errors.
IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.
KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.
NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global namespace.
UnboundLocalError Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or method but
no value has been assigned to it.
EnvironmentError Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python environment.
IOError Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print statement
or the open() function when trying to open a file that does not exist.
IOError
Raised for operating system-related errors.
SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.
IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.
SystemError Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when this
error is encountered the Python interpreter does not exit.
SystemExit Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit() function.
If not handled in the code, causes the interpreter to exit.
TypeError Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is invalid for the
specified data type.
ValueError Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type of
arguments, but the arguments have invalid values specified.
RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.
NotImplementedError Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented in an

inherited class is not actually implemented.
Assertions in Python
An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are
done with your testing of the program.
The easiest way to think of an assertion is like to a raise-if statement (or to

be more accurate, a raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if
the result comes up false, an exception is raised.
Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to
Python, introduced in version 1.5.
Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for

valid input, and after a function call to check for valid output.
The assert Statement
When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying
expression, which is hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises
an AssertionError exception.
The syntax for assert is −
assert Expression[, Arguments]
If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for

the AssertionError. AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like
any other exception using the try-except statement, but if not handled, they
will terminate the program and produce a traceback.
Example 1.
Here is a function that converts a temperature from degrees Celsius to
Fahrenheit. Since zero degrees celsius is as cold as it gets, the function bails
out if it sees a negative temperature
#!/usr/bin/python
def CelsiusToFahrenheit(Temperature):
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
return (Temperature * 1.8)+32
print(CelsiusToFahrenheit(37))
print(int(CelsiusToFahrenheit(37)))
print(CelsiusToFahrenheit (-5))
print(CelsiusToFahrenheit(37))
98.60000000000001
print(int(CelsiusToFahrenheit(37)))
98
print(CelsiusToFahrenheit (-5))
File "<stdin>", line 2, in CelsiusToFahrenheit
AssertionError: Colder than absolute zero!
Example 2.
def value_comparison_f():
return 3
def test_value_comparison_f():
# argument not specified
assert value_comparison_f() == 4
test_value_comparison_f()

File "<stdin>", line 3, in test_value_comparison_f
AssertionError
def test_set_comparison():
set1 = set("12345")
set2 = set("678910")
assert (set1 == set2), "Set elements should match."
test_set_comparison()

File "<stdin>", line 4, in test_set_comparison
AssertionError: Set elements should match.
What is Exception?
An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program
that disrupts the normal flow of the program's instructions. In general, when
a Python script encounters a situation that it cannot cope with, it raises an
exception. An exception is a Python object that represents an error.
When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception
immediately otherwise it terminates and quits.
Handling an exception
If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can
defend your program by placing the suspicious code in a try: block. After the
try: block, include an except: statement, followed by a block of code which
handles the problem as elegantly as possible.
Syntax
Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks −
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
Here are few important points about the above-mentioned syntax −
• A single try statement can have multiple except statements. This is useful when
the try block contains statements that may throw different types of exceptions.
• You can also provide a generic except clause, which handles any exception.
• After the except clause(s), you can include an else-clause. The code in the else-
block executes if the code in the try: block does not raise an exception.
• The else-block is a good place for code that does not need the try: block's
protection.
Example
This example opens a file, writes content in the, file and comes out gracefully
because there is no problem at all:
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
fh = open("testfile.txt", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print("Error: can\'t find file or read data")
else:
print("Written content in the file successfully")
fh.close()
Error: can't find file or read data
NOTE: With admin priviliges.
C:\Users\haryadav>chdir C:\Program Files\Python36\fileIO\
C:\Program Files\Python36\fileIO>python
win32
Hari Yadav
Welcome to python
try:
except IOError:
else:
fh.close()
Written content in the file successfully
The except Clause with No Exceptions

You can also use the except statement with no exceptions defined as follows
−
try:
......................
except:
If there is any exception, then execute this block.
......................
else:
try:
except IOError:
else:
fh.close()
try:
v_num =100/0
except:
print("Unknown error. Please check your program carefully.")
Unknown error. Please check your program carefully.
try:
# v_num =100/0
except:
print("Unknown error. Please check your program carefully.")
Unknown error. Please check your program carefully.
This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur.
Using this kind of try-except statement is not considered a good
programming practice though, because it catches all exceptions but does not
make the programmer identify the root cause of the problem that may occur.
The except Clause with Multiple

Exceptions
You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions
as follows −
try:
......................
except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]):
If there is any exception from the given exception list,
then execute this block.
......................
else:
NOTE: dev_resume.txt file is not available.

try:
f = open("dev_resume.txt")
name = input("Enter your name : ")
except (KeyboardInterrupt, FileNotFoundError, PermissionError):
print("\nPlease try again.")
NOTE: After run, Press control + c to interupt the input from keyboard.
try:
# f = open("dev_resume.txt")
name = input("Enter your name : ")
except (KeyboardInterrupt, FileNotFoundError, PermissionError):
print("\nPlease try again.")
The try-finally Clause

You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally block is a
place to put any code that must execute, whether the try-block raised an
exception or not. The syntax of the try-finally statement is this −
try:
......................
Due to any exception, this may be skipped.
finally:
This would always be executed.
......................
You cannot use else clause as well along with a finally clause.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
finally:
If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will
produce the following result:

PermissionError: [Errno 13] Permission denied: 'testfile'
Same example can be written more cleanly as follows −
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
try:
finally:
print("Going to close the file")
fh.close()
except IOError:
When an exception is thrown in the try block, the execution immediately

passes to the finally block. After all the statements in the finally block are
executed, the exception is raised again and is handled in the except
statements if present in the next higher layer of the try-except statement.
Argument of an Exception
An exception can have an argument, which is a value that gives additional
information about the problem. The contents of the argument vary by
exception. You capture an exception's argument by supplying a variable in
the except clause as follows −
try:
......................
except ExceptionType, Argument:
You can print value of Argument here...
If you write the code to handle a single exception, you can have a variable
follow the name of the exception in the except statement. If you are trapping
multiple exceptions, you can have a variable follow the tuple of the exception.
This variable receives the value of the exception mostly containing the cause
of the exception. The variable can receive a single value or multiple values in
the form of a tuple. This tuple usually contains the error string, the error
number, and an error location.
Example
Following is an example for a single exception −
#!/usr/bin/python
# Define a function here.

def temp_convert(var):
try:
return int(var)
except ValueError as Argument:
print "The argument does not contain numbers\n", Argument
# Call above function here.

temp_convert("xyz");
The argument does not contain numbers

invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'xyz'
Raising an Exception
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The
general syntax for the raise statement is as follows.
Syntax
raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]
Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError)

and argument is a value for the exception argument. The argument is
optional; if not supplied, the exception argument is None.
The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice),
and if present, is the traceback object used for the exception.
Example
An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that
the Python core raises are classes, with an argument that is an instance of
the class. Defining new exceptions is quite easy and can be done as follows
−
def functionName( level ):

if level < 1:
raise "Invalid level!", level
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception
Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the

same exception thrown either class object or simple string. For example, to
capture above exception, we must write the except clause as follows −
try:
Business Logic here...
except "Invalid level!":
Exception handling here...
else:
Rest of the code here...
User-Defined Exceptions
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes
from the standard built-in exceptions.
Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is
subclassed from RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more
specific information when an exception is caught.
In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except
block. The variable e is used to create an instance of the class Networkerror.
class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def __init__(self, arg):
self.args = arg
So once you defined above class, you can raise the exception as follows −
try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror as e:
print e.args
Python 3 - Object Oriented

Python has been an object-oriented language since the time it existed. Due
to this, creating and using classes and objects are downright easy.
Overview of OOP Terminology

• Class − A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes
that characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data members (class
variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dot notation.
• Class variable − A variable that is shared by all instances of a class. Class
variables are defined within a class but outside any of the class's methods. Class
variables are not used as frequently as instance variables are.
• Data member − A class variable or instance variable that holds data associated
with a class and its objects.
• Function overloading − The assignment of more than one behavior to a

particular function. The operation performed varies by the types of objects or
arguments involved.
• Instance variable − A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs only
to the current instance of a class.
• Inheritance − The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that

are derived from it.
• Instance − An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs to

a class Circle, for example, is an instance of the class Circle.
• Instantiation − The creation of an instance of a class.
• Method − A special kind of function that is defined in a class definition.
• Object − A unique instance of a data structure that is defined by its class. An

object comprises both data members (class variables and instance variables) and
methods.
• Operator overloading − The assignment of more than one function to a

particular operator.
Creating Classes
The class statement creates a new class definition. The name of the class
immediately follows the keyword class followed by a colon as follows −
class ClassName:
'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite
• The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed

via ClassName.__doc__.
• The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining class

members, data attributes and functions.
Example
Following is an example of a simple Python class –
del(Employee)
class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0
def __init__(self, name, salary):
self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1
def displayCount(self):
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
def displayEmployee(self):
print ("Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary)
• The variable empCount is a class variable whose value is shared among all the
instances in this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from
inside the class or outside the class.
• The first method __init__() is a special method, which is called class

constructor or initialization method that Python calls when you create a new
instance of this class.
• You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that the
first argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to the list
for you; you do not need to include it when you call the methods.
Creating Instance Objects

To create instances of a class, you call the class using class name and pass
in whatever arguments its __init__ method accepts.
# This would create first object of Employee class
emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
# This would create second object of Employee class
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)

Accessing Attributes
You access the object's attributes using the dot operator with object. Class
variable would be accessed using class name as follows −
emp1.displayEmployee()
Now, putting all the concepts together −
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Employee:
empCount = 0
self.name = name
#This would create first object of Employee class"
#This would create second object of Employee class"

Name : Zara ,Salary: 2000
Name : Manni ,Salary: 5000
Total Employee 2
You can add, remove, or modify attributes of classes and objects at any time
−
Name : Zara , Salary: 2000
emp1.salary = 7000 # Update 'salary' attribute.

emp1.name = 'Mark Tully' # Update 'name' attribute.
Name : Mark Tully , Salary: 7000
emp1.age = 50 # Add 'age' attribute.
Name : Mark Tully , Salary: 7000
del emp1.salary # Delete 'salary' attribute.
File "<stdin>", line 11, in displayEmployee
AttributeError: 'Employee' object has no attribute 'salary'
Name : Manni , Salary: 5000
Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can use the
following functions −
• The getattr(obj, name[, default]) − to access the attribute of object.
• The hasattr(obj,name) − to check if an attribute exists or not.
• The setattr(obj,name,value) − to set an attribute. If attribute does not exist,

then it would be created.
• The delattr(obj, name) − to delete an attribute.
hasattr(emp1, 'salary') # Returns true if 'salary' attribute exists
False
hasattr(emp1, 'name') # Returns true if 'name' attribute exists
True
hasattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns true if 'age' attribute exists
True
getattr(emp1, 'name') # Returns value of 'name' attribute

'Mark Tully'
getattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns value of 'age' attribute
50
getattr(emp1, 'salary') # Returns value of 'salary' attribute
setattr(emp1, 'salary', 7000) # Set attribute 'salary' at 7000
7000
delattr(emp1, 'salary') # Delete attribute 'salary'
Built-In Class Attributes

Every Python class keeps following built-in attributes and they can be
accessed using dot operator like any other attribute −
• __dict__ − Dictionary containing the class's namespace.
• __doc__ − Class documentation string or none, if undefined.
• __name__ − Class name.
• __module__ − Module name in which the class is defined. This attribute is

"__main__" in interactive mode.
• __bases__ − A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in the order of
their occurrence in the base class list.
For the above class let us try to access all these attributes:
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Employee:
empCount = 0
self.name = name
print ("Employee.__doc__:", Employee.__doc__)
print ("Employee.__name__:", Employee.__name__)
print ("Employee.__module__:", Employee.__module__)
print ("Employee.__bases__:", Employee.__bases__)
print ("Employee.__dict__:", Employee.__dict__ )

Employee.__doc__: Common base class for all employees
Employee.__name__: Employee
Employee.__module__: __main__
Employee.__bases__: (<class 'object'>,)
Employee.__dict__: {
'displayCount': <function Employee.displayCount at 0x0160D2B8>,
'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': 'Common base class for all employees',
'empCount': 2, '__init__':
<function Employee.__init__ at 0x0124F810>, 'displayEmployee':
<function Employee.displayEmployee at 0x0160D300>,
'__weakref__':
<attribute '__weakref__' of 'Employee' objects>, '__dict__':
<attribute '__dict__' of 'Employee' objects>
}
Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection)

Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or class instances)
automatically to free the memory space. The process by which Python
periodically reclaims blocks of memory that no longer are in use is termed as
Garbage Collection.
Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered

when an object's reference count reaches zero. An object's reference count
changes as the number of aliases that point to it changes.
An object's reference count increases when it is assigned a new name or
placed in a container (list, tuple, or dictionary). The object's reference count
decreases when it is deleted with del, its reference is reassigned, or its
reference goes out of scope. When an object's reference count reaches zero,
Python collects it automatically.
a = 40 # Create object <40>
b = a # Increase ref. count of <40>
c = [b] # Increase ref. count of <40>
del a # Decrease ref. count of <40>
b = 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
c[0] = -1 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
You normally will not notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned
instance and reclaims its space. However, a class can implement the special
method __del__(), called a destructor, that is invoked when the instance is
about to be destroyed. This method might be used to clean up any non-
memory resources used by an instance.
Example
This __del__() destructor prints the class name of an instance that is about
to be destroyed −
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Point:
def __init__( self, x=0, y=0):
self.x = x
self.y = y
def __del__(self):
class_name = self.__class__.__name__
print (class_name, "destroyed")
pt1 = Point()
pt2 = pt1
pt3 = pt1
print (id(pt1), id(pt2), id(pt3)); # prints the ids of the obejcts
del pt1
del pt2
del pt3

3083401324 3083401324 3083401324
Point destroyed
Note − Ideally, you should define your classes in a separate file, then you
should import them in your main program file using import statement.
In the above example, assuming definition of a Point class is contained

in point.py and there is no other executable code in it.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import point
p1 = point.Point()
Class Inheritance
Instead of starting from scratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a
pre-existing class by listing the parent class in parentheses after the new
class name.
The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use
those attributes as if they were defined in the child class. A child class can
also override data members and methods from the parent.
Syntax
Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of
base classes to inherit from is given after the class name −
class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]):
'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Parent: # define parent class
parentAttr = 100
def __init__(self):
print ("Calling parent constructor")
def parentMethod(self):
print ('Calling parent method')
def setAttr(self, attr):
Parent.parentAttr = attr
def getAttr(self):
print ("Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr)
class Child(Parent): # define child class
def __init__(self):
print ("Calling child constructor")

def childMethod(self):
print ('Calling child method')
def getAttr(self):
print ("In child accessing Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr)
c = Child() # instance of child
c.childMethod() # child calls its method
c.parentMethod() # calls parent's method
c.setAttr(200) # again call parent's method
c.getAttr() # again call parent's method

Calling child constructor
Calling child method
Calling parent method
Parent attribute : 200
In a similar way, you can drive a class from multiple parent classes as follows
−
class A: # define your class A
.....
class B: # define your class B
.....
class C(A, B): # subclass of A and B
.....
You can use issubclass() or isinstance() functions to check a relationships of

two classes and instances.
• The issubclass(sub, sup) boolean function returns True, if the given

subclass sub is indeed a subclass of the superclass sup.
• The isinstance(obj, Class) boolean function returns True, if obj is an instance

of class Class or is an instance of a subclass of Class
Overriding Methods
You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for overriding
parent's methods is that you may want special or different functionality in
your subclass.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Parent: # define parent class
def myMethod(self):
print ('Calling parent method')
class Child(Parent): # define child class
def myMethod(self):
print ('Calling child method')
c = Child() # instance of child
c.myMethod() # child calls overridden method

Calling child method
Base Overloading Methods

The following table lists some generic functionality that you can override in
your own classes −
S.No. Method, Description & Sample Call
__init__ ( self [,args...] )

1
Constructor (with any optional arguments)
Sample Call : obj = className(args)
__del__( self )
2
Destructor, deletes an object
Sample Call : del obj
__repr__( self )
3 Evaluatable string representation
Sample Call : repr(obj)
__str__( self )
4 Printable string representation
Sample Call : str(obj)
__cmp__ ( self, x )
5 Object comparison
Sample Call : cmp(obj, x)
Overloading Operators
Suppose you have created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional
vectors. What happens when you use the plus operator to add them? Most
likely Python will yell at you.
You could, however, define the __add__ method in your class to perform
vector addition and then the plus operator would behave as per expectation
−
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Vector:
def __init__(self, a, b):
self.a = a
self.b = b
def __str__(self):
return 'Vector (%d, %d)' % (self.a, self.b)
def __add__(self,other):
return Vector(self.a + other.a, self.b + other.b)
v1 = Vector(2,10)
v2 = Vector(5,-2)
print (v1 + v2)

Vector(7,8)
object.__add__(self, other)
object.__sub__(self, other)
object.__mul__(self, other)
object.__matmul__(self, other)
object.__truediv__(self, other)
object.__floordiv__(self, other)
object.__mod__(self, other)
object.__divmod__(self, other)
object.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])
object.__lshift__(self, other)
object.__rshift__(self, other)
object.__and__(self, other)
object.__xor__(self, other)
object.__or__(self, other)
Data Hiding
An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition.
You need to name attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those
attributes then will not be directly visible to outsiders.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class JustCounter:
__secretCount = 0
def count(self):
self.__secretCount += 1
print (self.__secretCount)
counter = JustCounter()
counter.count()
counter.count()
print (counter.__secretCount)

1
2
print counter.__secretCount
AttributeError: JustCounter instance has no attribute '__secretCount'
Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include

the class name. You can access such attributes
as object._className__attrName. If you would replace your last line as
following, then it works for you −
.........................
print (counter._JustCounter__secretCount)

1
2
2
Python 3 - Regular Expressions
A regular expression is a special sequence of characters that helps you match
or find other strings or sets of strings, using a specialized syntax held in a
pattern. Regular expressions are widely used in UNIX world.
The module re provides full support for Perl-like regular expressions in

Python. The re module raises the exception re.error if an error occurs while
compiling or using a regular expression.
We would cover two important functions, which would be used to handle

regular expressions. Nevertheless, a small thing first: There are various
characters, which would have special meaning when they are used in regular
expression. To avoid any confusion while dealing with regular expressions,
we would use Raw Strings as r'expression'.
Basic patterns that match single chars

S.No. Expression & Matches
a, X, 9, <
1
ordinary characters just match themselves exactly.
. (a period)
2
matches any single character except newline '\n'
\w
3
matches a "word" character: a letter or digit or underbar [a-zA-Z0-9_].
\W
4
matches any non-word character.
\b
5
boundary between word and non-word
\s
6
matches a single whitespace character -- space, newline, return, tab
\S
7
matches any non-whitespace character.
\t, \n, \r
8
tab, newline, return
\d
9
decimal digit [0-9]
^
10
matches start of the string
$
11
match the end of the string
\
12
inhibit the "specialness" of a character.
Compilation flags
Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions
work. Flags are available in the re module under two names, a long name
such as IGNORECASE and a short, one-letter form such as I.
S.No. Flag & Meaning
ASCII, A
1
Makes several escapes like \w, \b, \s and \d match only on ASCII
characters with the respective property.
DOTALL, S
2
Make, match any character, including newlines
IGNORECASE, I
3
Do case-insensitive matches
LOCALE, L
4
Do a locale-aware match
MULTILINE, M
5
Multi-line matching, affecting ^ and $
VERBOSE, X (for ‘extended’)

6
Enable verbose REs, which can be organized more cleanly and
understandably
The match Function

This function attempts to match RE pattern to string with optional flags.
Here is the syntax for this function −
re.match(pattern, string, flags = 0)
Here is the description of the parameters −
S.No. Parameter & Description
pattern
1
This is the regular expression to be matched.
string
2
This is the string, which would be searched to match the pattern at the
beginning of string.
flags
3
You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are modifiers,
which are listed in the table below.
The re.match function returns a match object on success, None on failure.

We use group(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched
expression.
S.No. Match Object Method & Description
group(num = 0)
1
This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num)
groups()
2
This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if there
weren't any)
Example 1.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"
matchObj = re.match( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)
if matchObj:
print ("matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group())
print ("matchObj.group(1) : ", matchObj.group(1))
print ("matchObj.group(2) : ", matchObj.group(2))
else:
print ("No match!!")

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than dogs
matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter
Example 2.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
# Sample strings.
list = ["dog dot", "do don't", "dumb-dumb", "no match"]
# Loop.
for element in list:
# Match if two words starting with letter d.
m = re.match("(d\w+)\W(d\w+)", element)
# See if success.
if m:
print(m.groups())
NOTE: Pattern details

Pattern: (d\w+)\W(d\w+)
d Lowercase letter d.
\w+ One or more word characters.
\W A non-word character.
('dog', 'dot')
('do', 'don')
('dumb', 'dumb')
Example 3.
# Sample strings.
list = ["dog dot", "do don't", "dumb-dumb", "no match"]
# Loop.
# Match if two words starting with letter n and m.
m = re.match("(n\w+)\W(m\w+)", element)
# See if success.
if m:
print(m.groups())

('no', 'match')
The search Function

Search. This method is different from match. Both apply a pattern. But
search attempts this at all possible starting points in the string. Match just
tries the first starting point.
So:
Search scans through the input string and tries to match at any location.
Here is the syntax for this function −
re.search(pattern, string, flags = 0)
Here is the description of the parameters −
S.No. Parameter & Description
pattern
1
This is the regular expression to be matched.
string
2
This is the string, which would be searched to match the pattern anywhere
in the string.
flags
3
You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are modifiers,
which are listed in the table below.
The re.search function returns a match object on success, none on failure.

We use group(num) or groups() function of match object to get the
matched expression.
S.No. Match Object Method & Description
group(num = 0)
1
This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num)
groups()
This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if there

weren't any)
Example 1.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";
searchObj = re.search( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)
if searchObj:
print ("searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group())
print ("searchObj.group(1) : ", searchObj.group(1))
print ("searchObj.group(2) : ", searchObj.group(2))
else:
print ("Nothing found!!")

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than dogs
matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter
Example 2.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
# Input.
value = "voorheesville"
m = re.search("(vi.*)", value)
if m:
# This is reached.
print("search:", m.group(1))
m = re.match("(vi.*)", value)
if m:
# This is not reached.
print("match:", m.group(1))
Pattern: (vi.*)
vi The lowercase letters v and i together.

.* Zero or more characters of any type.
Output
search: ville
Matching Versus Searching
Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular
expressions: match checks for a match only at the beginning of the string,
while search checks for a match anywhere in the string.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";
matchObj = re.match( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)

if matchObj:
print ("match --> matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group())
else:
print ("No match!!")
searchObj = re.search( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)

if searchObj:
print ("search --> searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group())
else:
print ("Nothing found!!")

No match!!
search --> matchObj.group() : dogs
The Search and Replace function (sub)

One of the most important re methods that use regular expressions is sub.
Syntax
re.sub(pattern, repl, string, max=0)
This method replaces all occurrences of the RE pattern in string with repl,
substituting all occurrences unless max is provided. This method returns
modified string.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
phone = "2004-959-559 # This is Phone Number"
# Delete Python-style comments
num = re.sub(r'#.*$', "", phone)
print ("Phone Num : ", num)
# Remove anything other than digits
num = re.sub(r'\D', "", phone)
print ("Phone Num : ", num)

Phone Num : 2004-959-559
Phone Num : 2004959559
The split Function

Split. The re.split() method accepts a pattern argument. This pattern
specifies the delimiter. With it, we can use any text that matches a pattern as
the delimiter to separate text data.
A split() method is also available directly on a string. This method handles no

regular expressions. It is simpler.
Syntax
re.split(pattern, string)
We split the string on one or more non-digit characters.
Example 1.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
# Input string.
value = "one 1 two 2 three 3"
# Separate on one or more non-digit characters.

result = re.split("\D+", value)
# Print results.
for element in result:
print(element)
Pattern: \D+
\D+ One or more non-digit characters.

1
2
3
Example 2.
Split the string wherever there is a capital letter.
import re
# Input string.
value = "DogCatElephant"
# Separate on one or more capital letters.

result = re.split("([A-Z][Â-Z]*)", value)
# Print results.
for element in result:
print(element)

Dog
Cat
Elephant
[s for s in re.split("([A-Z][Â-Z]*)", "DogCatElephant") if s]
['Dog', 'Cat', 'Elephant']
The Findall Function

Findall. This is similar to split(). Findall accepts a pattern that indicates
which strings to return in a list. It is like split() but we specify matching
parts, not delimiters.
Syntax
re.findall(pattern, string[, pos[, endpos]])
We scan a string for all words starting with the letter d or p, and with one or
more following word characters.
Example 1.
import re
# Input.
value = "abc 123 def 456 dot map pat"
# Find all words starting with d or p.

list = re.findall("[dp]\w+", value)
# Print result.
print(list)
Pattern: [dp]\w+
[dp] lowercase d, or a lowercase p.

\w+ One or more word characters.

['def', 'dot', 'pat']
The Finditer Function

Unlike re.findall, which returns strings, finditer returns matches. For each
match, we call methods like start() or end(). And we can access the value of
the match with group().
start(), end(). We can use special characters in an expression to match the

start and end of a string. For the start, we use the character "^" and for the
end, we use the "$" sign.
Syntax
re.findall(pattern, string[, pos[, endpos]])
We loop over a list of strings and call re.match. We detect all the strings that
start or end with a digit character "\d."
Tip:
The match method tests from the leftmost part of the string. So to test the
end, we use ".*" to handle these initial characters.
Example 1.
import re
list = ["123", "4cat", "dog5", "6mouse"]

# See if string starts in digit.

m = re.match("^\d", element)
if m:
print("START:", element)
# See if string ends in digit.

m = re.match(".*\d$", element)
if m:
print(" END:", element)
Pattern details
^\d Match at the start, check for single digit.

.*\d$ Check for zero or more of any char.
Check for single digit.
Match at the end.
START: 123
END: 123
START: 4cat
END: dog5
START: 6mouse
Regular Expression Modifiers: Option Flags

Regular expression literals may include an optional modifier to control various
aspects of matching. The modifiers are specified as an optional flag. You can
provide multiple modifiers using exclusive OR (|), as shown previously and
may be represented by one of these −
S.No. Modifier & Description
re.I
1
Performs case-insensitive matching.
re.L
2 Interprets words according to the current locale. This interpretation affects

the alphabetic group (\w and \W), as well as word boundary behavior (\b
and \B).
re.M
3
Makes $ match the end of a line (not just the end of the string) and makes
^ match the start of any line (not just the start of the string).
re.S
4
Makes a period (dot) match any character, including a newline.
re.U
5
Interprets letters according to the Unicode character set. This flag affects
the behavior of \w, \W, \b, \B.
re.X
6 Permits "cuter" regular expression syntax. It ignores whitespace (except

inside a set [] or when escaped by a backslash) and treats unescaped # as
a comment marker.
Regular Expression Patterns
Except for the control characters, (+ ? . * ^ $ ( ) [ ] { } | \), all characters
match themselves. You can escape a control character by preceding it with a
backslash.
The following table lists the regular expression syntax that is available in
Python −
Here is the list of regular expression syntax in Python.
Regular Expression Examples

Literal characters
S.No. Example & Description
python
1
Match "python".
Character classes
[Pp]ython
1
Match "Python" or "python"
rub[ye]
2
Match "ruby" or "rube"
[aeiou]
3
Match any one lowercase vowel
[0-9]
4
Match any digit; same as [0123456789]
5 [a-z]
Match any lowercase ASCII letter
[A-Z]
6
Match any uppercase ASCII letter
[a-zA-Z0-9]
7
Match any of the above
[âeiou]
8
Match anything other than a lowercase vowel
[^0-9]
9
Match anything other than a digit
Special Character Classes

.
1
Match any character except newline
\d
2
Match a digit: [0-9]
\D
3
Match a nondigit: [^0-9]
\s
4
Match a whitespace character: [ \t\r\n\f]
\S
5
Match nonwhitespace: [^ \t\r\n\f]
\w
6
Match a single word character: [A-Za-z0-9_]
\W
7
Match a nonword character: [Â-Za-z0-9_]
Repetition Cases
ruby?
1
Match "rub" or "ruby": the y is optional
ruby*
2
Match "rub" plus 0 or more ys
ruby+
3
Match "rub" plus 1 or more ys
\d{3}
4
Match exactly 3 digits
\d{3,}
5
Match 3 or more digits
\d{3,5}
6
Match 3, 4, or 5 digits
Nongreedy repetition
This matches the smallest number of repetitions −
<.*>
1
Greedy repetition: matches "<python>perl>"
<.*?>
2
Nongreedy: matches "<python>" in "<python>perl>"
Grouping with Parentheses

\D\d+
1
No group: + repeats \d
(\D\d)+
2
Grouped: + repeats \D\d pair
([Pp]ython(,)?)+
3
Match "Python", "Python, python, python", etc.
Backreferences
This matches a previously matched group again −
([Pp])ython&\1ails
1
Match python&pails or Python&Pails
(['"])[^\1]*\1
2
Single or double-quoted string. \1 matches whatever the 1st group
matched. \2 matches whatever the 2nd group matched, etc.
Alternatives
python|perl
1
Match "python" or "perl"
rub(y|le)
2
Match "ruby" or "ruble"
Python(!+|\?)
3
"Python" followed by one or more ! or one ?
Anchors
This needs to specify match position.
^Python
1
Match "Python" at the start of a string or internal line
Python$
2
Match "Python" at the end of a string or line
\APython
3
Match "Python" at the start of a string
Python\Z
4
Match "Python" at the end of a string
\bPython\b
5
Match "Python" at a word boundary
\brub\B
6
\B is nonword boundary: match "rub" in "rube" and "ruby" but not alone
Python(?=!)
7
Match "Python", if followed by an exclamation point.
Python(?!!)
8
Match "Python", if not followed by an exclamation point.
Special Syntax with Parentheses

R(?#comment)
1
Matches "R". All the rest is a comment
R(?i)uby
2
Case-insensitive while matching "uby"
R(?i:uby)
3
Same as above
rub(?:y|le))
4
Group only without creating \1 backreference

Python Reading Material

Uploaded by

Python Reading Material

Uploaded by

Contents

• Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You

• Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique

• Python is a Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the beginner-

Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C,

Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute,

• Easy-to-maintain: Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

• It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building

• It supports automatic garbage collection.

Python - Environment Setup

Local Environment Setup

• Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.)

• Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K)

• DOS (multiple versions)

• Nokia mobile phones

You can download Python documentation from https://www.python.org/doc/

The documentation is available in HTML, PDF, and PostScript formats.

Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms −

Unix and Linux Installation

• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

• Download and extract files.

• Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.

• run ./configure script

This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries at

• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/

Programs and other executable files can be in many directories, so operating

The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string

Setting path at Unix/Linux

• In the csh shell − type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press

• In the bash shell (Linux) − type export PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python"

• In the sh or ksh shell − type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press

• Note − /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory

Setting path at Windows

C:\>chdir C:\Program Files\Python36

Simply, In my case environment variable is already set to

Microsoft Windows [Version 10.0.10586]

3.6.2 (v3.6.2:5fd33b5, Jul 8 2017, 04:57:36) [MSC v.1900 64 bit

Welcome to Python 3.6's help utility!

If this is your first time using Python, you should definitely

Enter the name of any module, keyword, or topic to get help on

To get a list of available modules, keywords, symbols, or

Python Environment Variables

S.No. Variable & Description

It contains the path of an initialization file containing Python source code.

It is used in Windows to instruct Python to find the first case-insensitive

It is an alternative module search path. It is usually embedded in the

Insert Environment Variables PYTHONSTARTUP

Or if file present at different location.

Enter python the command line.

Start coding right away in the interactive interpreter.

Here is the list of all the available command line options −

It provides debug output.

It generates optimized bytecode (resulting in .pyo files).

Do not run import site to look for Python paths on startup.

verbose output (detailed trace on import statements).

disable class-based built-in exceptions (just use strings); obsolete starting

run Python script sent in as cmd string

run Python script from given file

Script from the Command-line

$python script.py # Unix/Linux

python% script.py # Unix/Linux

C: >python script.py # Windows/DOS

Note − Be sure the file permission mode allows execution.

Integrated Development Environment

• Unix − IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python.

Python Basic Syntax

First Python Program

>>> print "Hello, Python!"

>>> print("Hello, Python!")

Script Mode Programming

Let us write a simple Python program in a script. Python files have

print ("Hello, Python!")

This produces the following result:

print ("Hello, Python!")