GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

I AND II REVIEW
PROFESSIONAL INTEGRATION
WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑠

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑤 + 𝑊𝑠
 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔
𝑾𝒔
𝛾′ 𝜸𝑺 =
𝑽𝒔

𝛾′ NOTES:
1. 𝛾 = bulk/moist/partially
saturated unit weight or unit
weight
2. 𝛾′ = effective/submerged/buoyant
unit weight
3. Density of soil can also be
used to solve soil parameters.

WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
 OTHER RELATIONSHIPS

SOIL COMPACTION 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒄 , 𝒏𝒂 , 𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺.

𝑉1 1 + 𝑒1 𝛾𝑑2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑆 = 1
= =
𝑉2 1 + 𝑒2 𝛾𝑑1
𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛 × 𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝑎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒔, 𝒏𝒂 =
𝑉
where:
S= degree of saturation (expressed in % usually)
𝑉𝑎 n=porosity
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒂𝒄 = e= void ratio
𝑉𝑣
V= total volume of soil
PROPERTIES OF WATER 𝛾𝑑 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁ൗ 3 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏ൗ 3
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔 𝑔
𝜌𝑤 = 1000 ൗ 3 = 1 ൗ𝑐𝑐
𝑚
• Does the value of void ratio e change? When?
• Does the value of 𝐺𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒?
 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
For a given soil, the following are known, 𝐺𝑠 =
2.74, moist unit weight = 19 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚3 and moisture
content = 17%. Determine the following:
a.Dry unit weight
b.Buoyant Unit Weight
c.Void Ratio
d.Porosity
e.Degree of Saturation
f.Determine the weight of water to be added in kN
per cubic meter to reach 100% saturation.
g.Determine the weight of water to be added in kN
per cubic meter to reach 93% saturation.
 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
The void space in a soil sample consists
of 80% air and 20% water. The dry unit
weight is 15.7 kN/m3 and the specific
gravity of soil solids is 2.7. Determine
the water content of the soil.
 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
When the moisture content of a soil sample
is 3.45%, the degree of saturation is
18.09%. When the moisture content of the
same soil sample is 5.56%, determine its
degree of saturation.
 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS:
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A cylindrical sample of partially saturated clay
with degree of saturation 46%, 7.6 cm high and 3.8
cm in diameter, weighs 149.6 grams. The sample was
dried in an oven at 105 ° C for 24 hours and its
weight reduced by 16.9 grams. Determine the
following:
a.Dry density in g/cc.
b. Specific gravity of soil solids
SOIL COMPACTION
It is the densification of soil by removal of air which
requires mechanical energy. The degree of compaction measured
in terms of dry unit weight. The moisture content at which
the maximum dry unit weight is attained is called optimum
moisture content.
 Soil Compaction Tests
1. Proctor Compaction
Test (Standard 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑳𝑨𝑩𝑶𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑶𝑹𝒀
Proctor Test) 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑂𝑀𝐶

2. Modern Proctor Test

3. Sand Cone Method
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 , 𝛾𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
4. Rubber Balloon Method 𝑭𝑰𝑬𝑳𝑫/𝑺𝑰𝑻𝑬
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝛾𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
5. Nuclear Method
 Proctor Test
For each test, the moisture
For each test, the moist unit content of the compacted soil
weight of compaction, 𝛾 , can be is determined in the
calculated as: laboratory. With the known
moisture content, the dry unit
𝑊 weight can be calculated as:
𝛾=
𝑉𝑚 𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
where:
W = weight of the compacted soil where:
in the mold 𝛾 = moist unit weight
𝑉𝑚 =volume of the mold, 944 𝑐𝑚3 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Note: The values of 𝛾𝑑 determined can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture
content for the soil.
 Zero Air Void Unit Weight

𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 =
1 + 𝑤𝐺𝑠

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum

dry unit weight is obtained when no air is in the
void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation
equals 100%.
Field Compaction
 Field Compaction
Compaction is the densification of soils by the
expulsion of air.
Maximum dry unit weight, 𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 , is the maximum unit
weight that a soil can attain using a specified means of
compaction.
Optimum water content, 𝒘𝒐𝒑𝒕, is the water content required
to allow a soil to attain its maximum dry unit weight
following a specified means of compaction.
 Relative Compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is
instructed to achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90
to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the
laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test.
This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be
expressed as:

𝜸𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
𝑹 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒍𝒂𝒃)
 Relative Compaction
Relative Compaction in terms of relative
density, 𝐷𝑟
𝑹𝟎
𝑹=
𝟏 − 𝑫𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝑹𝟎 )

𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅0 =
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑟 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷𝑟 =
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Relative Density/Density Index
Relative density is used to indicate the in situ denseness or
looseness of granular soil.
 Suitability Number
The grain-size distribution of the backfill material is an important factor
that controls the rate of densification. Brown (1977) has defined a
quantity called the suitability number for rating backfill as:

Following is a backfill rating system

proposed by Brown:

The smaller the value of

SN, the more desirable the
backfill material.
 Determination of
Field Unit Weight
of Compaction
Various types of equipment are available to check the
amount of compaction achieved in the field. Three
popular pieces of equipment are (1) the sand cone, (2)
the balloon, and (3) nuclear density meters.
 Determination of Field Unit
Weight of Compaction
The standard procedures for determining
the field unit weight of compaction
include:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method
 Sand Cone Method
The procedure for a sand cone test is as
follows:
1. Fill the jar with a standard sand—a sand
with known density—and determine the weight
of the sand cone apparatus with the jar
filled with sand ( 𝑊1 ). The American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) recommends
Ottawa sand as the standard.
2. Determine the weight of sand to fill the
cone (𝑊2 ).
3. Excavate a small hole in the soil and
determine the weight of the excavated soil
(𝑊3 ).
4. Determine the water content of the
excavated soil (𝑤).
 Sand Cone Method
5. Fill the hole with the standard sand by
inverting the sand cone apparatus over the
hole and opening the valve.
6. Determine the weight of the sand cone
apparatus with the remaining sand in the jar
(𝑊4 ).
7. Calculate the unit weight of the soil as
follows:
 Rubber Balloon Test
The balloon test apparatus consists of a
graduated cylinder with a centrally
placed balloon.
The cylinder is filled with water. The
procedure for the balloon test is as
follows:
1. Fill the cylinder with water and
record its volume, 𝑉1 .
2. Excavate a small hole in the soil and
determine the weight of the excavated
soil (W).
3. Determine the water content of the
excavated soil (w).
 Rubber Balloon Test
4. Use the pump to invert the
balloon to fill the hole.
5. Record the volume of water
remaining in the cylinder, 𝑉2 .
6. Calculate the unit weight of the
soil as follows:
𝑊 𝛾
𝛾= 𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑉1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑉2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
The balloon test is not often used.
 Other formulas Related to Soil Compaction

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒1 − 𝑒2
= 𝑆𝐹 = × 100%
1 + 𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑞 1 + 𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 1 + 𝑒2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑒1 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑒2 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Soil Compaction: Sample Problem 1
A proposed embankment requires 5000 m³ of compaction soil.
The void ratio of the compacted fill is specified as 0.70.
Three borrow pits are available as described in the
following table.

a.Which borrow pit is the most economical?

b. How much is needed to acquire soil from that borrow pit?
 Soil Compaction: Sample
Problem 2
For a sand sample, the maximum and minimum possible void
ratios were determined in the laboratory to be 0.94 and 0.33,
respectively. The relative density of the sand is 60% and the
moisture content is 10%. The specific gravity of soil solids
is 2.65.
a. Determine the moist unit weight of sand compacted in the
field.
b. Determine the maximum possible dry unit weight that the
sand can have.
c. Compute the minimum possible dry unit weight the sand can
have.
 Soil Compaction: Sample
Problem 3
The optimum moisture content of a soil is 16.5%
and its maximum dry density is 1.57 g/cc. The
specific gravity of solids is 2.65. Determine
the following:
a. Degree of saturation and percentage of air
voids of the soil at OMC.
b. The theoretical dry density at OMC
corresponding to zero air voids.
 Soil Compaction: Sample
Problem 4
For constructing an embankment, the soil is transported from
a borrow pit area using a truck which can carry six cubic
meters of soil at a time.

Property Borrow Area Truck Compacted Field

Bulk Density (g/cc) 1.66 1.15 1.82
Water Content (%) 8 6 14

a. Determine the quantity of soil to be excavated from the

borrow pit, in 𝑚3 for a compacted earth fill of 100 𝑚3 .
b. Compute for the number of truck loads of soil required to
obtain 100 𝑚3 of compacted earth fill.
CONSISTENCY OF SOIL:
ATTERBERG LIMITS
 Atterberg Limits
1. Liquid Limit - The water content at which
soils changes from liquid to plastic
state is known as liquid limit. At liquid
limit, soil ceases to be liquid.
Laboratory Tests:
• Casagrande Cup Method
• Fall Cone Method

Flow Index of Soil, 𝑰𝒇 – is the slope of

the flow curve (which gives the shear
strength) which is obtained by considering
at least two points from the data.

𝑤1 − 𝑤2 Where:
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑓 =flow index
𝑁
log 2 𝑤1 =moisture content of soil corresponding to 𝑁1 blows
𝑁1 𝑤2 = moisture content corresponding to 𝑁2 blows
 Atterberg Limits
2. Plastic Limit - The water content at which
soil can be rolled into a thread of 3 mm in
diameter without crumbling is known as plastic
limit.
• Shear strength at plastic limit is about 100
times that at the liquid limit.

𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

3. Shrinkage Limit- is defined as the maximum
water content at which a reduction of water
content does not cause a decrease in volume of
soil.
• Shrinkage limit is the least water content
at which soil is still saturated.
Laboratory Test:
1. Shrinkage Limit Test
 Shrinkage Limit, SL

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝜌𝑤 (𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑆𝐿 = −
𝑚2 𝑚2

where:
𝑚1 =mass of wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test
𝑚2 =mass of dry soil pat in the dish
𝜌𝑤 =density of water=1000 kg/𝑚3 =1 g/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣𝑖 =initial volume of wet soil
𝑣𝑓 =volume of oven dried soil pat
 Shrinkage Parameters
1. Shrinkage Index, SI- It is the difference between the
plastic limit and the shrinkage limit.
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿

2. Shrinkage Ratio, SR - It is defined as the ratio of a

given volume change expressed as a percentage of dry
volume to the corresponding change in the water content.

Where:
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑚2 = mass of the dry soil pat
𝑣𝑓 = volume of oven dried pat soil
𝑝𝑤 = density of water
 Shrinkage Parameters

3. Volumetric Shrinkage - It is defined as the change in volume

expressed as a percentage of dry volume when the water content is
reduced from a given value to the shrinkage limit.

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑆𝑅 𝑤 % − 𝑆𝐿
where:
SR=shrinkage ratio
w= given moisture content
SL=shrinkage limit
VS=volumetric shrinkage
4. Linear Shrinkage- It is defined as the change in length divided
by the initial length when the water content is reduced to
shrinkage limit.
Soil Indices
Soil index properties are properties which facilitate
identification and classification of soils for
engineering purposes.
 Soil Indices
1. Plasticity Index , PI 2. Liquidity Index, LI
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
Liquidity Index Soil Description/Behavior
(LI) State
<0 Semisolid High strength,
brittle
0<LI<1 Plastic Intermediate
strength, soil
deforms plastically
LI>1 Liquid Low strength, soil
flows like a liquid
 Soil Indices
3. Consistency Index, CI 4. Flow Index, 𝐼𝑓

𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 𝐼𝑓 =
𝐶𝐼 = 𝑁2
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐼 log
𝑁1
 Soil Indices
5. Toughness Index, TI 6. Activity Number, A
It is a measure of • It is a measure of water holding
capacity of a soil.
shearing strength of soil • During swelling and shrinkage, the
at the plastic limit. changes in the volume of a soil depend
upon activity.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑇𝐼 = 𝐴=
𝜇
𝜇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛
𝐼𝑓 0.002 𝑚𝑚
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL: SAMPLE
PROBLEM 1
The result of plastic limit determination of a soil sample is given
below.

Trial Mass of Container Mass of Container Moisture

with Wet Soil with Dry Soil Content
(grams) (grams) (%)
1 33.43 29.81
2 32.16 28.52 21.05
3 34.80 20.17
4 35.47 31.29

a. Compute the mass of the container used in all the trials.

b. Compute the mass of the dry soil in the third trial.
c. Compute the plastic limit of the soil.
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL: SAMPLE
PROBLEM 2
The following index properties were determined
for two soils X and Y:
Property X Y
Liquid Limit 75% 85%
Plastic Limit 43% 60%

a. What is the plasticity index of soil X?

b. What is the plasticity index of soil Y?
c. What do percentages for these limits values
represent?
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE
CLASSIFICATION
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USDA
• When classifying soils which
contains gravel according to USDA
textural classification, we need to
disregard the percentage of gravel
thus we need to modify the
percentage of sand, silt and clay.
(MODIFIED SOIL PARTICLES WITH THE
ABSENCE OF GRAVEL)
• When modifying soil we need to add
the word gravelly before its
classification found in the figure.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Textural Classification (USDA)
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝑁 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑆 𝑁𝑂 𝐺𝑅𝐴𝑉𝐸𝐿 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝐼𝑁 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝑆𝑂𝐼𝐿, 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅𝐸 ′ 𝑆 𝑁𝑂 𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐷 𝑇𝑂 𝑀𝑂𝐷𝐼𝐹𝑌 𝐼𝑇.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: AASHTO
Following are some rules for
determining the group index:
1. If Eq. 1 yields a negative value for
GI, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq.
(1) is rounded off to the nearest whole
number (for example, GI 3.4 is rounded
off to 3; GI 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. The group index of soils belonging
to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5,
and A-3 is always 0.
4. When calculating the group index for
soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and
A-2-7, use the partial group index for
PI,

𝑒𝑞. 1 𝑮𝑰 = 𝑭𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝑳𝑳 − 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝑭𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑷𝑰 − 𝟏𝟎

𝐺𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑃 𝐶𝐿𝐴𝑆𝑆𝐼𝐹𝐼𝐶𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 (𝐺𝐼)
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION: Unified Soil
Classification System(USCS)
1. Fine Fraction= 𝐹200
2. Coarse Fraction= 100 − 𝐹200 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3. Gravel Fraction = 100 − 𝐹4
4. Sand Fraction= 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 USCS Classification Procedure
Step 1: Determine 𝐹200 % 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 #200 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒
If 𝐹200 < 50, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2.
If 𝐹200 ≥ 50, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3.
Step 2 (COARSE-GRAINED SOILS):
2.1: Determine the coarse fraction retained on no.4 sieve. If it is
more than 50, proceed to step 2.1.a, if it is equal to 50 or less than 50,
proceed to step 2.1.b.
2.1.a (%ret. on #4>50): Check table 5.2 if the soil is under Clean
Gravels ( 𝐹200 < 5), Gravels with Fines ( 𝐹200 > 12 ) or Dual Symbol(Gravels with
5 ≤ 𝐹200 ≤ 12).
2.1.b (%ret. on #4 ≤ 50): Check table 5.2 if the soil is under Clean
Sands ( 𝐹200 < 5) , Sands with Fines ( 𝐹200 > 12 ) or Dual Symbol (Sands with
5 ≤ 𝐹200 ≤ 12.

100 − 𝐹4
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: %𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜. 4 = × 100%
100 − 𝐹200
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
 USCS Classification Procedure
Step 1: Determine 𝐹200 % 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 #200 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒
If 𝐹200 < 50, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2.
If 𝐹200 ≥ 50, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3.
Step 3 (FINE-GRAINED SOILS): Note: We will only classify inorganic soils.
3.1: Determine the value of Liquid Limit.
3.2: Check the value of PI (Plasticity Index) and use the plasticity
chart to identify the group symbol.
3.3: Identify on which group name the soil belongs using figure 5.5

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐼𝑓 4 ≤ 𝑃𝐼 ≤ 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 , 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐿 − 𝑀𝐿.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
Plasticity Chart
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A sample of dry, coarse-grained material was taken through a layer
of sieves and the following results were obtained:

a. Determine the effective particle size.

b. Determine the uniformity coefficient.
c. Determine the coefficient of curvature.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION: SAMPLE
PROBLEM 2
A soil has modified percentages for
silt and clay which are 26.15% and
43.08%, respectively.
a. Classify the soil according to
USDA textural classification
system.
b. Compute the mass of clay
particles if the mass of silt is
37.18 grams for the same soil.
c. If the soil with a total mass of
348.92 grams consists of gravel,
sand, silt and clay. Compute the
proportion of gravel to the
total mass.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION: SAMPLE
PROBLEM 3
The grain-size characteristics of a soil are given in the following table.

a. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the MIT
system.
b. Repeat Part b using the USDA system.
c. Repeat Part b using the AASHTO system.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION: SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
The sieve analysis of three soils and the liquid and plastic
limits of the fraction passing no.40 sieve are given below. Use
AASHTO classification system.
Sieve Percent Finer, %
No. A B C
10 90 98 42
40 74 80 28
200 58 72 12
LL 38 52 18
PL 12 21 13
a. What is the classification of soil A with its group index?
b. What is the classification of soil B with its group index?
c. What is the classification of soil C with its group index?
a. What is the classification of
soil A with its group index?

Sieve
No. A
10 90
40 74
200 58
LL 38
PL 12

Following are some rules for determining the

group index:
1. If Eq. 1 yields a negative value for GI,
it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (1) is
rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, GI 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI 3.5
is rounded off to 4).
3. The group index of soils belonging to
groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is
always 0.
4. When calculating the group index for soils
that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index for PI,
b. What is the classification of
soil C with its group index?

Sieve
No. B

10 90
40 74
200 32
LL 28
PL 9

Following are some rules for determining the

group index:
1. If Eq. 1 yields a negative value for GI,
it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (1) is
rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, GI 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI 3.5
is rounded off to 4).
3. The group index of soils belonging to
groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is
always 0.
4. When calculating the group index for soils
that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index for PI,
b. What is the classification of
soil C with its group index?

Sieve
No.
C
10 42
40 28
200 12
LL 18
PL 13

Following are some rules for determining the

group index:
1. If Eq. 1 yields a negative value for GI,
it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (1) is
rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, GI 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI 3.5
is rounded off to 4).
3. The group index of soils belonging to
groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is
always 0.
4. When calculating the group index for soils
that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index for PI,
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: SAMPLE PROBLEM 5

Classify the following soils by using the Unified soil

classification system. Give the group symbols and the
group names.
Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc
Limit Index
1 99 57 54 26
2 90 8 39 31 3.9 2.1
Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 5.2
Limit Index
1 99 57 54 26

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc
Limit Index
1 99 57 54 26

Plasticity Chart
Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc
Limit Index
1 99 57 54 26

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 5.2
Limit Index
2 90 8 39 31 3.9 2.1

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

Soil No.4 No.200 Liquid Plasticity Cu Cc
Limit Index
2 90 8 39 31 3.9 2.1

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

 PERMEABILITY
• Measure of how a fluid flow easily through a
porous material.
• In geotechnical engineering, the porous
medium is soil and the fluid is water.
Flow of Water through Soils
When water flows through soils, some
energy is lost in overcoming the
resistance provided by the soils. This
loss of energy, expressed as total
head loss ( ∆ℎ ), is simply the
difference in water levels.

𝐴
𝑢𝐴 𝑢𝐵
𝐵 ∆ℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = + 𝑍𝐴 − + 𝑍𝐵
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Flow of Water through Soils
𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒊
Hydraulic gradient is the total head loss per
unit length.
∆𝒉
𝒊=
𝑳
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
i = hydraulic gradient, vector gradient
between two or more hydraulic head
𝐴 measurements over the length of the flow
path.
𝐵 L = distance between points A and B —that
is, the length of flow over which the loss
of head occurred.
Note: The hydraulic gradient is a constant in a
homogeneous soil, since it is a measure of the
head loss per unit length. It is dimensionless.
If the soil is not homogeneous, the hydraulic
gradient can vary from point to point.
 Darcy’s Law
In 1856, a French engineer Darcy proposed that, what the flow through soils
is laminar, the discharge velocity v, is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient i, Darcy’s law is thus:
𝑣∝𝑖
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
v = discharge/average velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in
unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right
angles to the direction of flow

k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the coefficient of

permeability)

i = hydraulic gradient, m/s, cm/s

𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡

 Seepage Velocity
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒒, 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑺𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒔

𝒒 = 𝒗𝑨 = 𝒌𝒊𝑨 = 𝒗𝒔 𝑨𝒗 𝒗
𝒗𝒔 =
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝒏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
q = volume rate of flow, 𝑚3
Τ𝑠
v = discharge/average velocity, 𝑚Τ𝑠
v = discharge/average velocity, 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑣𝑠 =seepage velocity or actual velocity of
A = 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 =cross-sectional area of the soil
water (through void spaces)
specimen,
n = porosity
𝑣𝑠 =seepage velocity or actual velocity of
water (through void spaces)
𝐴𝑣 =area of voids
 Tests Conducted to Determine
Hydraulic Conductivity
1. Constant Head Test
𝐿𝐴𝐵𝑂𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑂𝑅𝑌
2. Falling Head Test
3. Pumping Test 𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸/𝐹𝐼𝐸𝐿𝐷
Laboratory Determination
of Hydraulic Conductivity
Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the
hydraulic conductivity of soil— the constant-head test
and the falling-head test.
 Constant Head Permeability Test

𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒌

𝐿𝑄
𝑘=
ℎ𝐴𝑡

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
L=length of specimen
Q=volume of water collected
h=constant head difference
A=cross sectional- area of the soil specimen
t=duration of water collection 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
 Temperature Correction Factor

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 𝐥𝐧 𝑻

𝒌𝟐𝟎° = 𝑹𝑻 𝒌

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒
 Falling Head Permeability Test
Water from a standpipe flows through the
soil. The initial head difference ℎ1 at time
t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to
flow through the soil specimen such that the
final head difference at time t = 𝑡2 is ℎ2 .
𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒌
𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌= 𝐥𝐧
𝑨𝒕 𝒉𝟐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
a = area of the standpipe
L = length of the soil specimen
A = cross sectional- area of the soil specimen
t = time taken for the water level in the
standpipe to fall from ℎ1 to ℎ2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙

 Temperature Correction Factor

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 𝐥𝐧 𝑻

𝒌𝟐𝟎° = 𝑹𝑻 𝒌

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
in Stratified Soil
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in
Stratified Soil

𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘
When the flow is parallel to the soil
layers the hydraulic gradient is the same
at all points. The flow through the soil
mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the
flow through each of the layers. If we
consider a unit width of flow.

1
𝑘𝐻 𝑒𝑞 = (𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 +. . .+𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )
𝐻
𝑜𝑟

𝑘𝐻 𝑒𝑞 𝐻 = (𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 +. . .+𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )

 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in
Stratified Soil
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘
For flow normal to the soil layers, the
head loss in the soil mass is the sum of
the head losses in each layer. In this
case, the velocity of flow through all
the layers is the same.

𝐻
𝑘𝑉 𝑒𝑞 =
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3 𝐻
+ + + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel
and normal to soil layers is

𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑉𝑒𝑞

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑘𝑉𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝐻𝑒𝑞

Pumping Test to Determine
Hydraulic Conductivity
One common method of determining the hydraulic conductivity in the
field is by pumping water at a constant flow rate from a well and
measuring the decrease in groundwater level at observation wells.
 Assumptions
1. The water-bearing layer (called an aquifer) is unconfined and
nonleaky.
2. The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum
and is perforated only at the section that is below the groundwater
level.
3. The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.
4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. Flow is radial toward the well.
6. The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum
is constant and is equal to the slope of groundwater surface
(Dupuit’s assumption).
 Permeability Test in the Field
1. Unconfined Aquifer
• Gravity Well
• Water Table Well
𝑧2
𝑧1
𝒓
𝒒 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
𝒌= 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐
𝝅(𝒉𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝟐 )

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑞 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑧1 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟1
𝑧2 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟2
 Permeability Test in the Field
2. Confined Aquifer
• Artesian Well
• Pressure Well

𝒓
𝒒 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟐𝝅𝑯(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑞 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
ℎ1 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐻 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓
Transmissivity or Transmissibility
The ability of an aquifer to transmit water through its entire
thickness.

𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓

𝒓 𝒓
𝑸 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟐 𝑸 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
𝑻= 𝟏 𝑻= = 𝒌𝑯
𝟐𝝅(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 ) 𝟐𝝅(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )

𝒓
𝒒 𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟐𝝅𝑯(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
 Seepage: Sample Problem 1
The figure below shows the layers of soil
in a tube 100mm x 100mm in cross section.
Water is supplied to maintain a constant
head difference of 300 mm across the
sample. The coefficients of permeability
of the soils in the direction of flow
through them are: soil A, 0.10 mm/s; soil
B, 0.03 mm/s; soil C, 0.0049 mm/s. All the
measurements in the figure are in
millimeters.
a. Compute the equivalent coefficient of
permeability of the soils in the
direction of flow.
b. Compute the rate of flow of water across
the soils.
c. If a piezometer is placed at the
junction of soils A and B, compute the
potential drop.
 Seepage: Sample Problem 2
A falling head permeability test was run on a soil
sample 9.60 cm in diameter and 10 cm long. The head at
the start of the test was 90 cm. The coefficient of
permeability of the soil was found to be 5 × 10−6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. The
diameter of the stand pipe was 1 cm.
a. Compute the rate of flow at the start of the test in
cubic meter per hour.
b. What is the potential drop in cm during the first 30
minutes?
c. Compute the rate of flow in cubic meter per hour after
30 minutes.
 Seepage: Sample Problem 3

An unconfined aquifer underlies a

confined aquifer as shown in the
figure.
a. Compute the equivalent
coefficient of permeability for
flow in the horizontal
direction.
b. What is the value of the
hydraulic gradient?
c. Compute the rate of flow from
one stream to another per meter
width.
 Seepage: Sample Problem 4
A pumping test was carried out in a confined aquifer 15
m thick overlain by an impermeable
3
layer 30 m thick.
Rate of pumping was 0.12 𝑚 Τ𝑠 ; drawdowns in observation
wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the
pumping well were 1.60 m and 1.40 m, respectively, from
the initial groundwater level. The diameter of the
pumping well is 0.40 m.
a. Compute the transmissivity of the aquifer.
b. What is the drawdown in the test well?
IN SITU STRESSES
 IN SITU STRESSES 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

To analyze problems (such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of

foundations, stability of embankments, and lateral pressure on earth-retaining
structures), we need to know the nature of the distribution of stress along a given
cross section of the soil profile.
 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Stresses in a Soil

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒/Neutral Stress.

 Stresses in a Soil
1.Total Stress/Overburden Stress, 𝝈 -
The total vertical stress acting at a point
below the ground surface is due to the weight
of everything lying above: soil, water, and
surface loading. Total stresses are calculated
from the unit weight of the soil.
2. Neutral Stress/Pore Water Pressure, u- The
water in the pores of a soil is
called porewater. The pressure within this
porewater is called pore pressure (u). The
magnitude of pore pressure depends on the depth
below the water table and the conditions of
seepage flow. Pore pressure can become
negative.
3. Effective Stress, 𝝈 ’ - It is the pressure
transmitted through contact area of soil
solids. Effective stress can’t be measured
directly. The difference between the total
stress and the pore pressure is called the
effective stress.
 Effective Stress

• The strength and compressibility of the soil depend on the

stresses within the solid granular fabric. These are
called effective stresses.
• The principle of effective stresses applies only to normal
stresses and not to shear stresses.
• Effective stress concept was first recognized by Terzaghi (1883–
1963) in the mid-1920s during his research into soil
consolidation.
• All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as
compression, distortion and a change of shearing resistance are
due exclusively to changes in effective stress.
 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
Case 1. No water table

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐴
𝝈𝑨 = 𝟎 𝒖𝑨 = 𝟎 𝝈′𝑨 = 𝟎

𝐻 𝛾𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝛾

𝐵 𝝈𝑩 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯 𝒖𝑩 = 𝟎 𝝈′𝑩 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
Case 2. Water table at any depth

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐴
𝝈𝑨 = 𝟎 𝒖𝑨 = 𝟎 𝝈′𝑨 = 𝟎

𝐻1
𝛾𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝛾
𝐵 𝝈𝑩 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯𝟏 𝒖𝑩 = 𝟎 𝝈′𝑩 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯𝟏

𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐻2
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐵
𝐶 𝝈𝑪 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯𝟏 + 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑯𝟐 𝒖𝑪 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑯𝟐
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
𝜎′𝐶 = 𝛾𝑑 𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2

𝜎′𝐶 = 𝛾𝑑 𝐻1 + 𝐻2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) 𝝈′𝑪 = 𝜸𝒅 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝟐 (𝜸′)

 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
Case 3. Water table at the ground surface

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐴
𝝈𝑨 = 𝟎 𝒖𝑨 = 𝟎 𝝈′𝑨 = 𝟎
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝐻 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝝈𝑩 = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑯 𝒖𝑩 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑯 𝜎′𝐵 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐻

𝜎′𝐵 = 𝐻(𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 )
𝐵 𝝈′𝑩 = 𝑯𝜸′
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITHOUT SEEPAGE
Case 4. Water table is above the ground level

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝑨, 𝝈𝑨

𝝈𝑨 = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑯𝑨 − 𝑯 + 𝜸𝒘 𝑯

𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑨, 𝒖𝑨 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑯𝑨

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝑨, 𝝈′𝑨 = 𝝈𝑨 − 𝒖𝑨

𝜎′𝐴 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐴

𝝈′𝑨 = (𝑯𝑨 −𝑯)(𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸𝒘 ) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝝈′𝑨 = (𝑯𝑨 −𝑯) × 𝜸′

Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITHOUT SEEPAGE

𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐶

𝐵
 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITH UPWARD SEEPAGE
If water is seeping, the effective stress at any point in a soil mass will
differ from that in the static case. It will increase or decrease, depending
on the direction of seepage. Upward seepage reduces the effective stress at
the bottom of the soil.

𝑦 𝐴

𝐶
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝐵
Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITH UPWARD SEEPAGE
ℎ
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴: 𝑖=
𝐻2
𝑦
𝑦
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴: 𝑖=
𝑧
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑖𝐵→𝐴 = 𝑖𝐶→𝐴
ℎ 𝑦
=
𝐻2 𝑧

𝒉
𝒚=𝒛
𝑯𝟐
 Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITH UPWARD SEEPAGE
If water is seeping, the effective stress at any point in a soil mass will
differ from that in the static case. It will increase or decrease, depending
on the direction of seepage. Upward seepage reduces the effective stress at
the bottom of the soil.

𝑦 𝐴

𝐶
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝐵
 Critical Hydraulic Gradient, 𝒊𝒄𝒓
If the rate of seepage and thereby the
hydraulic gradient gradually are increased, a
limiting condition will be reached, at which
𝑦
point
𝜎′𝐶 = 𝑧𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝑐𝑟 z𝛾𝑤 0 = 𝑧𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝑐𝑟 z𝛾𝑤
The effective stress in the system become zero.
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
Under such a situation, soil stability is lost.
This situation generally is referred to as
boiling, or a quick condition. Under such a
situation, soil stability is lost. This
situation generally is referred to as boiling,
or a quick condition.
𝜸′
𝒊𝒄𝒓 =
𝜸𝒘
Note: For most soils, the value of 𝑖𝑐𝑟 varies
from 0.9 to 1.1, with an average of 1. where: 𝑖𝑐𝑟 = critical hydraulic gradient
Critical Hydraulic Gradient, 𝒊𝒄𝒓
𝜸′
𝒊𝒄𝒓 =
𝜸𝒘

′
𝜸𝒘 (𝑮𝒔 − 𝟏)
𝜸 =
𝟏+𝒆

𝜸𝒘 (𝑮𝒔 − 𝟏)
𝒊𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏+𝒆
𝜸𝒘
(𝑮𝒔 −𝟏)
𝒊𝒄𝒓 =
𝟏+𝒆
Stresses in a Saturated Soil
WITH DOWNWARD SEEPAGE

𝐵
 Seepage Force, F
It shows that the effect of seepage is to increase or decrease the
effective stress at a point in a layer of soil.

𝑭 = 𝐢𝜸𝒘
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐹 = 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
 Capillary Rise
in Soils
Capillary rise is a well known unsaturated soil phenomenon that
describes the movement of pore water from lower elevation to higher
elevation driven by the hydraulic head gradient acting across the
curved pore air/pore water interface.
 Capillary Rise in Soils
The continuous void spaces in soil can behave as bundles of capillary tubes
of variable cross section. Because of surface tension force, water may rise
above the phreatic surface.
 Capillary Rise in Soils
1
𝑧𝑐 ∝
𝑑
The smaller the soil pores, the higher the capillary
zone. The capillary zone in fine sands will be
𝐺𝑊𝑇 larger than for medium or coarse sands.

The porewater pressure due to capillarity is

negative (suction), as shown in the figure, and is
a function of the size of the soil pores and the
water content. At the groundwater level, the
porewater pressure is zero and decreases (becomes
negative) as you move up the capillary zone. The
effective stress increases because the porewater
pressure is negative.

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙.

Capillary Rise in Soils

𝒁𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆

 Capillary Rise in Soils
• The pore water pressure u at a point in a layer of soil fully saturated by
capillary rise is equal to −𝜸𝒘 𝒉 (h height of the point under
consideration measured from the groundwater table).
• If partial saturation is caused by capillary action, it can be
approximated as
𝑺
𝒖=− 𝜸𝒘 𝒉
𝟏𝟎𝟎
where:
S = degree of saturation, in percent.
Capillary rise, 𝒉𝒄
𝑪
𝒉𝒄 =
𝒆𝒅𝟏𝟎
where:
C = capillary constant Capillarity also has many other effects
𝑑10 =effective size like bulking of sand and siphoning of
water.
 Effective stress in Capillary
Rise in Soils
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴
𝑆
𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑑 𝜎′𝐴 = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 − ℎ − − 𝛾 ℎ
100 𝑤
𝒁𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝐴
ℎ1 ℎ3 𝑺
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐵 𝝈′𝑨 = 𝜸𝒅 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉 + 𝜸 𝒉
ℎ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒘
𝑆 ℎ4
𝐶
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵
𝑆
ℎ2 𝜎′𝐵 = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 − ℎ + 𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 ℎ3 − − 𝛾 ℎ
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 100 𝑤 4

𝑺
𝐷 𝝈′𝑩 = 𝜸𝒅 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉 + 𝜸𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝟑 + 𝜸 𝒉
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒘 𝟒
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
 Capillary Rise in Soils
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐶
𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑑
𝜎′𝐶 = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 − ℎ + 𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 ℎ − 0
𝒁𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝐴
ℎ1 ℎ3 𝝈′𝑪 = 𝜸𝒅 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉 + 𝜸𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒉
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐵 ℎ
𝑆 ℎ4
𝐶
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐷
𝝈′𝑫 = 𝜸𝒅 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉 + 𝜸𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒉 + 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝟐 − 𝜸𝒘 𝒉𝟐
ℎ2 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝐷
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
 In-Situ Stresses: Sample
Problem 1
In the soil deposit shown, the water table
was originally at the ground surface. The
water table was then lowered by drainage to a 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑
depth of 25 ft whereupon the degree of
saturation of the sand above the lowered 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 135 𝑝𝑐𝑓
50 𝑓𝑡
water table was decreased to 20%. 𝛾𝑑 = 116 𝑝𝑐𝑓
a. Compute the vertical effective stress at
mid-height of the clay before lowering the
water table. 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦
b. Compute the vertical effective stress at 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 120 𝑝𝑐𝑓 25 𝑓𝑡
mid-height of the clay after lowering the
water table.
 In-Situ Stresses: Sample Problem 2
A layer of sand 4.50 m thick ( 𝐺𝑠 = 2.60, 𝑒 = 0.70, 𝑆 = 0.85) is
underlain with 5 m thick clay ( 𝐺𝑠 = 2.65, 𝜔 = 28%) . Ground
water table is located at the interface of the two
soils.

a. At what depth below the ground surface would the

vertical effective stress be 100 kPa?
b. Compute the vertical effective stress at a depth 8 m
below the ground surface.
c. Compute the depth of excavation to reduce the
vertical effective stress by 60 kPa?
 In-Situ Stresses: Sample
Problem 3
The figure shows a layer of granular soil
in a tank where upward seepage of water
is caused by opening the valve located
below the tank. The rate of water supply
is kept constant. Assume the soil has
reached boiling condition.
a.Compute the critical hydraulic
gradient.
b. Compute the elevation of water in the
piezometer placed at point A.
c. Compute the elevation of water in the
piezometer placed at point B if the
elevation of point B is 1 m.
 In-Situ Stresses: Sample
Problem 4
A dense silt layer has the following properties: e =
0.50, 𝐷10 =10 𝜇𝑚 , Capillary constant = 0.20 cm2. Free
ground water level is 8 m below the ground surface. Unit
weight of soil particles = 26.50 kN/m3.

a. Find the height of capillary rise using Hazen

formula.
b. Find the vertical effective stress at 5 m depth.
Assume that the soil above the capillary zone is
partially saturated at 50%.
c. Find the vertical effective stress at 10 m depth.
Assume that the soil above the capillary zone is
partially saturated at 50%.
FLOW NETS
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
OF WATER THROUGH SOILS
Assumptions in Laplace’s Equation

1. The flow is two-dimensional.

2. The flow is steady and laminar.
3. Water and the soil are incompressible.
4. The soil mass is homogeneous and isotropic.
5. The soil is fully saturated and Darcy’s law is valid.
Flow Nets
 Two-Dimensional Flow of Water through Soils
Flow Nets
A flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field that satisfies Laplace’s
equation and comprises a family of flow lines and equipotential lines. A flow net is a
graphical representation of flow of water through a soil mass.
• A flow line is a line along which a
water particle will travel from upstream
to the downstream side in the permeable
soil medium.

• An equipotential line is a line along

which the potential head at all points is
equal. Thus, if piezometers are placed at
different points along an equipotential
line, the water level will rise to the
same elevation in all of them.

• A flow channel is a tube or channel

between two flow lines.
Flow Nets
A flow net must meet the following criteria:

1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied.

2. Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at
right angles.
3. The area between flow lines and equipotential
lines must be curvilinear squares. A curvilinear
square has the property that an inscribed circle can
be drawn to touch each side of the square and
continuous bisection results, in the limit, in a
point.
4. The quantity of flow through each flow channel is
constant.
5. The head loss between each consecutive
equipotential line is constant.
6. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
7. An equipotential line cannot intersect another
equipotential line.
Flow Nets (SHEET PILE)
Flow Nets (DAM)
 Interpretation of Flow Nets
Rate of Flow, q
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏 𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍 Anisotropy is the property of being directionally
dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which means
homogeneity in all directions. It can be defined
𝑁𝑓 as a difference in one soil physical property
𝑞 = k∆𝐻 along different directions.
𝑁𝑑

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑁𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠

𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑑 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠
𝑞= 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧 ∆𝐻 ∆𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑑

𝑵𝒇
𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑵𝒅
 Flow Nets: Sample Problem 1

A deposit of cohesionless soil

with a permeability of 0.03 cm/s
has a depth of 10 m with an
impervious ledge below. A sheet
pile wall is driven into this
deposit to a depth of 7.5 m. The
wall extends above the surface of
the soil and a 2.5 m depth of
water acts on one side. Determine
the seepage quantity per meter
length of the wall (cm³/s).
 Flow Nets: Sample Problem 2
A sketch of an earth dam and
foundation is given.
k of sand layer: 0.0004 m/s
Elevation of water surface at
reservoir: 26 m
Elevation of water surface at the
right of dam: 2 m

a. Determine the seepage in the

foundation.
b. Determine the uplift pressure
under the earth dam if the width
at the bottom is 30 m.