SHELL SCRIPTING

REFERENCE CUM LAB MANUAL

Version 3.0
By
Musabuddin Syed (Redhat Certified)

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#101, Namdev Block, Balaji Towers
Prime Hospital Lane, Ameerpet Hyd-TS
Contact: +91 799 309 6092, 040-6666 6092
Email: info@virtualpathtech.com
Website: www.virtualpathtech.com, www.musab.in
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Shell Scripting…..…………………………………………………………………… 01-04

2. Getting Started ....………………….………...………………………………………………………….. 05-06
3. Echo Command…………………….………........………………………………………………………. 06-08
4. Colorizing the Output ………….....……………………………………………………….…………... 09-11
5. Miscellaneous Commands ………………..……………………..………………………………...... 12-16
6. Quotes and Filter commands ……………...……………………………………………………..…. 17-27
7. AWK Command …………………………...........………………………………………………………. 28-32
8. SED Command ……………………………….………………………………………………….…………. 33-44
9. Variables, Command Substitutions and Arrays ………………………..........……………. 45-53
10. Read Command for User Input ………………………………………………………………………. 54-55
11. Tests, if Conditions and Compound Expressions...…………………………………………. 56-74
12. LOOPS (while, until, for and Select loops)………………………………………………………. 75-87
13. Functions……………………………………………………………….………………………….……….... 88-92
14. Option Parsing & GETOPTS …..................….……………………………..…………….……. 93-101
15. Sample classroom scripts ………………………….……………………………………….…………. 102-117
16. Additional Stuff and Scripts ……………………….……………………………………….…………. 118-122

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 INTRODUCTION
What's Kernel
Kernel is the heart of Linux O/S. It manages resource of Linux O/S. Resources means facilities
available in Linux. For e.g. Facility to store data, print data on printer, memory, file
management etc. Kernel decides who will use this resource, for how long and when. It runs
your programs (or set up to execute binary files) its Memory resident portion of Linux. It
performance following task:-

→ I/O management
→ Process management
→ Device management
→ File management
→ Memory management

What’s Linux Shell?

Computer understand the language of 0's and 1's called binary language, In early days of
computing, instruction are provided using binary language, which is difficult for all of us, to
read and write. So in O/s there is special program called Shell. Shell accepts your instruction
or commands in English and translate it into computer’s native binary language.

This is what Shell Does for US

You type Your command and shell convert it as

→ Its environment provided for user interaction.

→ Shell is a command language interpreter that executes commands read from the
standard input device (keyboard) or from a file.

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Types of Shells in Linux:
→ Shell is not part of the system kernel, but it uses system kernel to execute the
programs.
→ There are 13 types of shells widely used across, Among them SH, BASH, KSH are
more popular

TYPES OF SHELLS DEVELOPED BY WHERE

BSH/ SH (Bourne SHell) Stephen Bourne AT & T Bell Labs

BASH ( Bourne-Again Brian Fox and Chet Free Software

SHell ) Ramey Foundation

CSH (C SHell) Bill Joy University of California

(For BSD)
KSH (Korn SHell) David Korn AT & T Bell Labs

Accessing a shell in Linux:

As soon as we login into the system successfully, we would be landing into the home
directory and by default we would be given a program that would be running in the
background call shell. To use a shell you just need to login into the system and you would be
able to access it.

What is a Shell Script?

Shell scripting is writing a series of command for the shell to execute. It can combine
lengthy and repetitive sequences of commands into a single and simple script, which can be
stored and executed anytime. This reduces the effort required by the end user.

Why Shell Scripting?

→ Shell script can take input from user, file and output them on screen.
→ Useful to create our own commands.
→ Save lots of time.
→ To automate some task of day today life.
→ System Administration part can be also automated.

Limitation of Shell Script:

→ Compatibility problems between different platforms.
→ Slow execution speed.
→ A new process launched for almost every shell command executed.

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Creating a Shell Script:
→ To write shell script we can use any of the Linux's text editor such as vi, vim, nano,
emacs etc., even you can use cat command.
→ It is preferable to use vi or vim editor as it is widely used and known by many Linux
admins.

Basics of Unix/Linux:
→ Before we can go to shell scripting, let’s review some important basics of Unix/Linux
administration.

Getting help in Unix/Linux:

To get help in Unix/Linux command line, we can make use of following commands after
command name.
→ help
→ man
→ info

File Types supported in Unix/Linux:

→ UNIX Supports variety of files among them the basic types of files are.

Character File Type

- Regular file.
l Symbolic Link
c Character Special
b Block Special
p Named Pipe
s Socket file.
d Directory

→ To determine the type of the file we can get it from ls –l command. The first
character defines the type.

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File Permissions:

Permissions are applied on three levels:

• Owner or User level
• Group level
• Others level

Access modes are of three types:

• r read only
• w write/edit/delete/append
• x execute/run a command

Access modes are different on file and directory:

Permissions Files Directory
R Open the file 'ls'/list the contents of directory
Write, edit, append, delete Add/Del/Rename contents of
W
file directory
To run a command/shell
X To enter into directory using 'cd'
script

Filetype+permission, links, owner, group name of owner, size in bytes, date of

modification, file name

→ To change the ownership permissions of file using chown command and this
command can only be executed by root user.
→ To change the file actions permissions of a file using chmod command and this can
be given by the owner of the file.

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Let’s Get Started:

Shebang:
The #! Syntax used in scripts to indicate an interpreter for execution under UNIX /
Linux operating systems. Most Linux shell and perl / python script starts with the following
line:
#!/bin/bash
OR
#!/usr/bin/perl
OR
#!/usr/bin/python
→ It is called a shebang or a "bang" line.
→ It is nothing but the absolute path to the Bash interpreter (shell).
→ It consists of a number sign and an exclamation point character (#!), followed by the
full path to the interpreter such as /bin/bash.
→ All scripts under Linux execute using the interpreter specified on a first line.
→ Almost all bash scripts often begin with #!/bin/bash (assuming that Bash has been
installed in /bin)
→ This ensures that Bash will be used to interpret the script, even if it is executed
under another shell.
→ The shebang was introduced by Dennis Ritchie between Version 7 Unix and 8 at Bell
Laboratories. It was then also added to the BSD line at Berkeley
→ If no shebang interpreter line is added, then it would consider /bin/sh as default. It is
recommended to give #!/bin/bash for best results.

Do you know?
→ In musical notation, a "#" is called a sharp and an exclamation point - "!" - is
sometimes referred to as a bang. Thus, shebang becomes a shortening of sharp-
bang. The term is mentioned in Elizabeth Castro's Perl and CGI for the World Wide
Web.

Comment:
→ You should be aware of the fact that you might not be the only person reading your
code. A lot of users and system administrators run scripts that were written by other
people. If they want to see how you did it, comments are useful to enlighten the
reader.

→ Comments also make your own life easier. Say that you had to read a lot of man
pages in order to achieve a particular result with some command that you used in
your script. You won't remember how it worked if you need to change your script
after a few weeks or months, unless you have commented what you did, how you
did it and/or why you did it.

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Executing a Shell Script:
→ The most simplest and the easiest way to run a script in Unix/Linux is as follows

Or

→ Another widely used method is;

→ Do you know that almost 90% of first time writers of shell script will get below error

This error is because every script needs execute permission which might be missing
So, let’s first apply the execute “x” permission on the file

ECHO COMMAND

The built-in echo command is an older form of printf command in Linux/Unix systems.
It used to display the text or variables on the output screen. The following the example
narrates the usage of echo command.

Output

Options:
→ -n: (No New Line) a line field is automatically added after the string is displayed, It
can be suppressed with the - n option.
→ -e : (enable escape sequence) If the - e option is enabled then echo command will
enable escape sequences
\n - New line escape sequence.
\t - New horizontal tap escape sequence.

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ECHO -n Option:
→ ECHO Command is used to print the text on the output screen and by default it
creates a new line feed automatically after the string is displayed.
→ We can suppress ·t using -n option and the following commands will show the
difference in using -n option.

Without –n Option:

With –n Option:

In the above example you can see the command prompt is in the same line instead of new
line if we are using -n option.

Echo –e option:
→ Option -e stands for enabling escape sequence in echo command. In some cases you
may require to print multiple lines of output using echo command. Usually we have
to use multiple echo commands to do so, but we can do the same in echo command
by enabling -e option in it.

→ The following are the most used option in echo escape sequence.
\n - New line escape sequence.
\t - New horizontal tab escape sequence.

Without –e Option:

In this output to get two lines we have to use two echo commands separated by a “;”
semicolon.

With –e Option:
With \n

With \t

If the escape sequence like \n \t is used without –e it won’t be treated as special characters.

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Lab Exercises:

Output:

Output:

Output:

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Colorizing the Output:
Shell scripts commonly used ANSI escape codes for color output. Following table shows
Numbers representing colors in Escape Sequences.

Color Foreground Background

Black 30 40
Red 31 41
Green 32 42
Yellow 33 43
Blue 34 44
Magenta 35 45
Cyan 36 46
White 37 47

The following is the syntax for getting colored text

#echo –e “\033[COLOR(CODE)m TEXT”

The "\033[" begins the escape sequence. You can also use "\e[" instead of "\033[", COLOR
specifies a foreground color, according to table above. The "m" terminates escape
sequence, and text begins immediately after that.

To print Magenta colored text:

Or

The problem with above statement is that the magenta color that starts with the 35 color
code is never switched back to the regular color, so any text you type after the prompt and
even prompt also is still in the Magenta color.

To return to the plain, normal mode, we have to use another sequence.

Now you won't see anything new on the screen, as this echo statement was not passed any
string to display. But it has done its job, which was to restore the normal viewing mode.

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 → Escape sequence also allow you to control the manner in which characters are
displayed on the screen.
→ The following table summarizes numbers representing text attributes in Escape
Sequences.

ANSI CODE Meaning

0 Normal Characters
1 Bold Characters
4 Underlined Characters
5 Blinking Characters
7 Reverse video Characters

Combining all these Escape Sequences, you can get more fancy effect. Use the following
template for writing colored text on a colored background.
echo -e "\033[COLOR1;COLOR2m sample text\033[0m"

Example for yellow color text on blue background

Bold Yellow Text on Blue background

Bold Yellow Underlined text on Blue Background

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Output:

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 MISCELLANEOUS COMMANDS

There are few commands which can be used only in scripting and which may make our job
easy in certain situations.

EVAL Command:
The eval command line, performs all shell substitutions, and then executes the
command line and returns the exit status of the executed command.

The following example narrates the usage of eval command.

Situation of executing the commands without eval command.

In the above example if we are expecting a value of 10 as the output but we are not getting
the exact value why because the value is in single quote which is making our variable to
treat-a normal character. In such situation if we need to exactly substitute the values and
then the command is to be executed we have to use eval command.

The same example if you see using the eval command.

Colon Command (:):

The colon command is a shell initialized command and it will have only single
command that exit with a status zero. That is nothing but if you execute colon command it
simply returns a status zero and does nothing other than that.

The colon command is usually used in if statements which requires at least one statement.

Type Command:
The type shell built-in command will make you know whether the command you are
executing is an alias, function, shell built-in or the command installed on the server. The
syntax of type command is as follows
type <Command>

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The following examples describe the usage of type command

Sleep Command:
The sleep command pauses for a given number of seconds. The basic syntax is
sleep n
Where n is the number of seconds to sleep or pause. Some types of UNIX enable
other time units to be specified. It is usually recommended that n not exceed 65,534.
Sleep can be used to give a user time to read an output message before clearing the screen

Trap Command:
The trap command is used to catch a signal that is sent to a process created due to
execution of script. An action is taken based on the signal by using the action which is define
in the trap command instead of taking the default effect on the process. The basic syntax is
as follows.
trap ' ' <Signal Number>
In the single quotes we can give the commands when appropriate signal is given trap
command will execute those commands. We can get all the signals available in Linux using
Kill -l command.

Among all these signals we usually trap SIGINT, SIGKILL signals.

Note: In single quotes if we don't give any commands then trap command will not allow the
shell to pass those signals to that particular process.

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Lab Exercises:

Output

Output:

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Output:

Output:

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Output:

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 QUOTES

Wild Cards:
Wildcards are a shell feature that makes the command line much more powerful
than any GUI file managers. If you want to select a big group of files in a graphical file
manager, you usually have to select them with your mouse. This may seem simple, but in
some cases it can be very frustrating. For, example, you have a directory with a huge
amount of all kinds of files and subdirectories, and you have decided to move all the LOG
files, which have the word "Linux" somewhere in the middle of their names, from that big
directory into another directory. What's a simple way to do this? If the directory contains a
huge amount of differently named LOG files, your task is everything but simple!

In the Linux CLI that task is just as simple to perform as moving only one LOG file, and it's so
easy because of the shell wildcards. Wildcards are special characters that allow you to select
filenames that match certain patterns of characters. This helps you to select even a big
group of files with typing just a few characters, and in most cases it’s easier than selecting
the files with a mouse.

Here's a list of the most commonly used wildcards in bash:

Wild Card Description Example
* Zero or More Characters Is *.sh, Is log*.log
? Exactly only one character Is file? .txt
- Range of Characters Is fil e[1·3].txt
[] Enclose a set of characters Is fil e[1,2,3].txt
~ Denotes user home path cd ~/Desktop
{} exactly one entire word in the options given Is {file* .txt,log*.log)

In wild cards we looked at shell substitution, which occurs automatically whenever you
enter a command containing a wildcard character or a $ parameter. The way the shell
interprets these and other special characters is generally useful, but sometimes it is
necessary to turn off shell substitution and let each character stand for itself. Usually we use
echo command to quote the text and to turn off the special meaning of a character is called
quoting, and it can be done in three ways:
→ Using Backslash
→ Using Single Quotes
→ Using Double Quotes

Meta Characters:
Here is a list of most of the shell special characters also called Meta characters.

* ? [ ] ' " \ $ ; & ( ) I ^ < > new-line space tab

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Using Backslash:
By using, backslash we can quote or nullify the specialty of only one character at a
time. We can prevent the echo command or shell from interpreting a character by placing a
backslash ("\") in front of a special character.

In the above example to nullify the specialty of the semicolon (;) character we used
backslash.

In the above example we expected the output as $1500 which shown as 500 because of
having dollar ($1) special character initialized by shell as a variable. So after quoting it using
backslash the output is as expected.

Using Single Quotes:

In single quotes all the characters including the special characters are treated as
normal characters. So characters within single quotes are quoted just as if a backslash is in
front of each character.

Using Double Quotes:

The double quote ( “ “ ) protects everything enclosed between two double quote
marks except $, `, " and \. Use the double quotes when you want only variables and
command substitution.

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The comparisons table for all the three quotes is as follows.
S.No Parameter Backlash Single Double
Quote Quote
1. Variable Use Backslash to change the No Yes
2. Wild Card meaning of the characters to escape No No
3. Command Substitute special characters. No Yes

Quoting Rules and Situations:

Following are the additional options that help in quoting for various scenario.
S.No Situation Example
1. Quoting Ignores Word Boundaries echo Hello “;” World
2. Combining Quoting in Commands echo "$USER" owe me '$10'
3. Quoting Newlines to Continue on the Next Line echo 'Line1 echo Line1 \
>Line2’ >Line2
4. Embedding Spaces in a Single Argument Echo ‘Hi Bye’
5. Quoting to Access Filenames Containing Special rmdir New\ Folder
Characters
6. Quoting the Backslash to Enable echo Escape echo -e "Linel\nline2"
Sequences

Lab Exercises:

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Output:

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Output:

Output:

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Output:

INPUT/ OUTPUT:
Redirectors:
→ The shell and many UNIX commands take their input from standard input (STDIN),
write output to standard output (STDOUT), and write error output to standard error
(STDERR). By default, standard input is connected to the terminal keyboard and
standard output and error to the terminal screen.
→ Redirection of I/O to a file, is accomplished by specifying the destination on the
command line using a redirection Meta characters followed by the desired
destination.
→ The BASH uses a format for redirection which includes numbers. The numbers refers
to the file descriptor numbers (0 standard input, 1 standard output, 2 standard
error).
Characters Actions
> Redirect standard output
2> Redirect standard error
2>&1 Redirect standard error to standard output
< Redirect standard input
| Pipe standard output to another command
>> Appends to standard output
2>&1| Pipe standard output and standard error to another command

Example Details
$ls >list.out Redirects the output of ls command to a file list.out
Note: If there is a file list.out this particular command removes the old
data and add the out of the latest command.
$lss 2>list.err Redirects the STDERR to list.err file. Whereas the normal output will be
printed on the screen.
$ls 2>&1 >list.out Redirects both STDOUT and STDERR > to list.out file
$ls >>list.out Appends output of ls command to list.out file. It will append the latest
data to the file and wont erases the earlier data.
mail -s TEST This command will Send an email to the user but whereas the body
myuser@vpts.com message will be taken from a file list.out instead of STDIN from
<list.out keyboard.

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Pipes:
A pipe is used to connect output of one program or command to the input of other
command/program. It is symbolized by “|”

Filters:
Shell scripts are often called on to manipulate and reformat the output from
commands that they execute. Sometimes this task is as simple as displaying only part of the
output by filtering out certain lines. In most instances, the processing required is much more
sophisticated. Now we see few basic text filtering commands with example.

Head:
head is a program on UNIX and Unix-like systems used to display the first few lines of
a text file or piped data. By default it will show the first 10 lines of a file.
Syntax: head [-number I -n number] filename
$ head list .out
$ head -n 20 list. out
$ head -20 list.out

Tail:
Tail is a program on UNIX and Unix-like systems used to display the last few lines of a
text file or piped data. By default it will show the last 10 lines of a file.
Syntax: tail [options] filename
$ tail –n 5 /etc/passwd ### Prints the last five lines of the file
$ tail –f /var/log/messages ### To see the continuous output of appended lines

Grep:
The word grep stands for globally regular expression print. The grep command
allows you to search one file or multiple files for lines that contain a pattern.

Syntax: grep [options] pattern [files]

The most regular options we use in grep command are as follows

Option Description

-b Display the block number at the beginning of each line.

-c Display the number of matched lines.
-h Display the matched lines, but do not display the filenames.
-i Ignore case sensitivity.
-l Display the filenames, but do not display the matched lines.
-n Display the matched lines and their line numbers.
-s Silent mode.
-v Display all lines that do NOT match.
-w Match whole word.

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The following are the examples for grep command with different options.
To search for a word root in /etc/passwd file

To find the block number of search result pattern, it will list the lines of pattern found along
with the block number of the line.

To count the number of lines pattern was found in search result

While searching for the multiple files for the same pattern it will display the lines along with
the file names. For example we are searching for a pattern root from files /etc/passwd &
/etc/shadow.
# grep root /etc/passwd /etc/shadow

Same thing without displaying file names.

Displaying only filenames without the search strings.

Displaying all the lines except a particular word/string in the files.

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Highlighting the words searched by displaying in colors in the output

Grep can be combined with other commands by taking input from them.
#cat /etc/passwd |grep root
#lvdisplay |grep mylv

Cut Command:
The cut command in UNIX (or Linux) is used to select sections of text from each line
of files. You can use the cut command to select fields or columns from a line by specifying a
delimiter or you can select a portion of the text by specifying the range or characters.
Basically the cut command slices a line and extracts the text.

The most commonly used options in cut command are as follows.

Option Description
-c Cuts the input file using list of characters specified by this option
-f Cuts the input file using list of field. The default field to be used TAB.
-d Specifies a delimiter to use as a field. As mentioned previously default field is TAB
and this option overwrites this default behavior.

In the following examples we would be using following file

Example for using –c option

Example to use -d option

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Example for –f option with –d

Exit Status:
Any program completes execution under the UNIX or Linux system, it returns a
status back to the system. This status is a number that usually indicates whether the
program successfully ran or not, and hence called as exit status. By convention, an exit
status of zero indicates that a program succeeded, and non-zero (1-255) indicates that it
failed. Failures can be caused by invalid arguments passed to the program, or by an error
condition detected by the program.

The shell variable $? is automatically set by the shell to the exit status of the last command
executed. Naturally, you can use echo to display its value at the terminal.

Note that the numeric result of a "failure" for some commands can vary from one UNIX
version to the next, but success is always signified by a zero exit status.

The following are the few exit status which will be generated regularly while executing the
scripts or commands.

Exit Code Description

1 General Input Error
2 Misuse of Command and very rare
126 Cannot invoke the requested command, For example executing a script which
doesn’t have execute command
127 Command not found error
128 + n Fatal error signal "n" (for example-;'kill -9 = 137).
130 Script terminated by Ctrl-C

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In shell scripting we can make our scripts generic using the exit codes. We can exit our script
using exit command followed by a number.
Following examples narrates Exit States:

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 AWK COMMAND

Awk is a powerful language to manipulate and process text files. It is especially helpful when
the lines in a text files are in a record format, i.e., when each line (record) contains multiple
fields separated by a delimiter.

Even when the input file is not in a record format, you can still use awk to do some basic file
and data processing. You can also write programming logic using awk even when there are
no input files that needs to be processed. In short, AWK is a powerful language that can
come in handy to do daily routine Job.

The employee.txt sample file:

The employee.txt is a comma delimited file that contains 5 employee records in the
following format

employee-number, employee-name, employee-title

We will be using the following file in below examples.

Basic Awk Syntax:

awk -Fs '/pattern/ {action}' input-file

(or)
awk -Fs '{action}' intput-file

In the above syntax:

→ -Fis the field separator. If you don't specify it will use an empty space as field
delimiter.
→ The /pattern/ and the {action} should be enclosed inside single quotes.
→ /pattern/ is optional. If you don't provide it, awk will process all the records from the
input-file. If you specify a pattern, it will process only those records from the input-
file that match the given pattern.
→ {action} - These are the awk programming commands, which can be one or multiple
awk commands. The whole action block (includiflg all the awk commands together)
should be closed between {and}
→ Input-file - The input file that needs to be processed.

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Awk program structure (BEGIN, body, END block).

1. BEGIN Block
Syntax for BEGIN block:
BEGIN { awk commands }
The begin Block gets executed only once at the beginning, before awk starts executing the
body block for all the lines in the input file.
→ The begin block is a good place to print report headers, and initialize variables.
→ You can have one or more awk commands in the begin block.
→ The keyword BEGIN should be specified in upper case.
→ Begin block is optional.

2. Body Block
Syntax for body block:
/pattern/ {action}
The body block gets executed once for every line in the input file.
→ If the input file has 10 records, the commands in the body block will be executed 10
times (once for each record in the input file).
→ There is no keyword for the body block. We discussed pattern and action previously.

3. END Block
Syntax of end block:
END { awk-commands }
The end block gets executed only once at the end, after awk completes executing the body
block for all the lines in the input-file.
• The end block is a good place to print report footer and do any clean-up activities.
• You can have one or more awk commands in the end block.
• The keyword END should be specified in upper case.

Examples of Awk Command.

1. To filter the columns in the employee.txt file using a delimiter.

Note: By default the delimiter taken by awk is either tab space or a single space, To specify
custom delimiter we have to use –F option.

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2. To filter the columns along with enabling search as well.

In the above example along with the filtering column we are also filtering based on text

3. To use the BEGIN Command to print the headers.

4. To use END Command to print the footers.

5. To use BEGIN and END blocks in a single awk command.

6. To print or read a file using awk.

7. To see the usage of AWK Built-In Filed Separator (FS).

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8. To see the usage of Output Field Separator (OFS).

OFS is for input field separator. OFS is for output field separator. OFS is printed
between consecutive fields in the output. By default, awk prints the output fields with space
between the fields.

9. To see the Record Separator (RS) usage.

10. Combining all IFS, OFS, RS usage.

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11. To check the number of records
→ NR is very helpful. When used inside the loop, this gives the line number. When used
in the END block, this gives the total number of records in the file.
→ Even though NR stands for "Number of Records", it might be appropriate to call this
as "Number of the Record", as it actually gives you the line number of the current
record.

12. To see the Auto-Increment and Auto-Decrement using Unary Operators.

13. To print the last column of a file or last second column.

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 SED COMMAND

SED stands for Stream Editor. It is very powerful tool to manipulate, filter, and transform
text. Sed can take input from a file, or from a pipe. You might even have several sed one line
commands in your bash startup file that you use for various scenarios without exactly
understanding the sed scripts. For beginners, sed script might look cryptic. Once you
understand the sed commands in detail, you'll be able to solve a lot of complex text
manipulation problems by writing a quick sed script.

SED Command Syntax:

The following is the basic SED command syntax.
sed (options] {sed-commands} {input-file}

→ Sed reads one line at a time from the {input-file} and executes the {sed-commands}
on that particular line.
→ It reads the 1st line from the {input-file} and executes the {sed-commands} on the
1st line. Then it reads the 2nd line from the {input-file} and executes the {sed-
commands} on the 2nd line. Sed repeats this process until it reaches the end of the
{input-file}.
→ There are also a few optional command line options that can be assed to sed as
indicated by [options].

For all sed examples, we will be using the following employee.txt file. Please create this text
file to try out the commands given in this book.

The above employee database contains the following fields for every record:
→ Employee Id
→ Employee Name
→ Title

Let’s see the different ways of editing the file using SED editor with different options.

SED Print Command (p):

The syntax for printing lines in sed command is as follows.
sed 'p' file

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7. To print a file we use 'p' command in sed.

In the above you can see the double lines of output. That is due to the sed work behavior
the first entry is due to the backup of the line and whereas the other line is the exact
output.

8. To print a file without any duplicate lines we use -n option in print command of sed.

9. To search a particular string in the file. Ex., jane in employee.txt file

10. To search multiple expressions and print the matched lines we have to use -e option in
sed command.

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11. To execute multiple commands from a file we have to use - f option.

In the above example we are passing multiple commands which are listed in mycomm.sed
file. Usually we use this option in such an environment where we need commonly used
options each and every time, then we can go with creating a file with all the option and use
that particular file in the sed command.

12. To print only 2nd line of a file.

In the above example we are specifying before print that to print only the 2nd line

13. To print from line 1 through line 4.

14. To print from line 3 through the last line.

15. To print only odd numbered lines

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16. To print lines starting from the 1st match of "Jason" until the 4th line.

17. To print lines starting from the 1st match of "Raj" until the last line.

18. To print lines starting from the line matching "Raj" until the line matching "Jane”

19. To print the line matching "Jason" and 2 lines immediately after that.

SED Delete Command (d):

The syntax for deleting lines in sed command is as follows.
sed 'd' file

The following are the different ways of using the delete (d) command.
1. To delete only the 2nd line from a file.

2. To delete from line 1 to 4

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3. To delete from line 2 through last line.

4. To delete only odd numbered lines.

5. To delete lines matching the pattern Manager.

6. To delete lines starting from the 1st match of Jason until the 4th line.

7. To delete lines starting from the 1st match of "Raj" until the last line.

8. To delete lines starting from the line matching "Raj" until the line matching.

9. To delete lines starting from the line matching "Jason" and 2 lines immediately after
that.

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10. To delete all empty lines in a file

Write Command (W):

1. To Write the content of employee.txt file to file output.txt

In the above example you can observe that the content on employee.txt file is copied to a
new file output.txt and also you can see the duplicate lines while writing to other file. We
can use - n option to not print the original lines on the screen. Usually in general people use
Print command to print the content and use redirectors to write in a new file.

2. To Write the content of sed.txt file to output.txt-file without displaying the output
# sed -n w output .txt sed .txt

3. To write only the 2nd line to output.txt file

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4. To write lines from 1 to 4

5. To write lines from 2 till the last line

6. To Write only odd numbered lines.

7. Write lines matching the pattern "Jane"

8. To write lines starting from the 1st match of "Jason" until the 4th line.

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9. To write the line matching “Jason” and the next 2 lines immediately after that.

Substitute Command (s):

The following is the sed substitute command syntax.
sed '[address-range|pattern] s/originalstring/replacement-string/(substitute-flags]'
inputfile

In the above sed substitute command syntax:

→ Address-rang or pattern -range is optional. If you don't specify one, sed will execute
the substitute command on all lines.
→ s -tells sed to execute the substitute command
→ Original-string - this is the string to be searched for in the input file. The original-
string can also be a regular expression.
→ Replacement-string- Sed will replace original-string with this string.
→ Substitute-flags are optional. More on this in the next section.

1. To replace all occurrences of Manager with Director

2. To Replace Manager with Director only on lines that contains the keyword “Sales”

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3. To Replace the 1st occurrence of lower case a with upper case A.

4. To Replace the 2nd occurrence of lower case a to upper case A.

5. To write only the line that was changed by the substitute command to output.txt.

6. To replace John with Johnny using i command to enable case insensitivity.

Append line after (a command} :

You can insert a new line after specific locations by using the sed append command
(a). The following is the syntax.
sed '[address] a the -line-to-append ' input-file

7. To add a new record to the employee.txt file after line number

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8. To add a new record to the end of the employee.txt file.

Insert Line Before (i) Command:

The sed insert command (i) works just like the append command except that it
inserts a line before a specific location instead of after the location. The following is the
syntax.
sed ' [address] i the-line-to-insert' input-file

1. To insert a new record before line number 2 of the employee.txt file.

2. To insert a new record before the last line of the employee.txt file.

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3. To insert two lines before the line that matches 'Jason'.

Change Command (c):

The sed change command (c) lets you replace an existing line with new text. The
syntax for change command is as follows.
sed '[address] c the-line-to-insert' input-file

1. To delete the record at line number 2 and replace it with a new record

2. To delete the line that matches 'Raj' and replaces it with two new lines.

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You can also combine the “a, i, and c” commands. The following sed example does all these
three things:
→ a - Append 'Rock Johnson' after 'Jason'
→ i - Insert 'Mark Wahlberg' before 'Jason'
→ c - Change 'Jason' to 'Joe Mason'

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 VARIABLE

A variable in a shell script is a means of referencing a numeric or character value. And unlike
formal programming languages, a shell script doesn't require you to declare a type for your
variables. Thus, you could assign a number to the variable stuff and then use it again in the
same script to hold a string of characters. To access the value (contents) of a variable, prefix
it with a dollar ($) sign. Usually the variables are used to store the path of the files & output
of commands.

Setting a Variable:
The shell enables us to set and unset a variable
Syntax: name=value Ex: NAME=Musab
→ Here 'name' is the name of the variable and 'value' is the data that variable name
hold.
→ In the above example, NAME is the variable and Musab is the data named to the
variable.
→ Variables of this type are called scalar variables, which mean it can hold only one
value at a time.

Accessing the Variable:

To access a variable, prefix its name with the dollar sign.
Ex: echo $NAME

In order to store multiple words or multiple lines in a variable you need to use either single
quote or double quote.

Rules to define a Variable:

There are certain limitation for defining the name of the variable.
→ The name of the variable can contain letters (a to z & A to Z)
→ It can have numbers ( 0 to9 )
→ No special characters can be used in the name of a variable other than underscore
character “_”.
→ A variable name can either start with letter or underscore and it cannot be started
with a number.
→ Variable names starting with numbers are used for shell which will be discussed in
coming topics.

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Command Substitution:
The Bourne shell can redirect a command's standard output back to the shell's own
command line. That is, you can use a command’s output as an argument to another
command, or you can store the command output in a shell variable. We can do this by
enclosing a command in back quotes (') or in braces (()).

Syntax: VAR=`COMMAND` OR VAR=$(COMMAND)

Arithmetic Substitution:
In ksh and bash, the shell enables integer arithmetic to be performed. This avoids having to
run an extra program such as expr or be to do math in a shell script. This feature is not
available in sh.
Syntax: VAR=$((expression))

The following are the operators could be used in the arithmetic substitution.
OPERATOR DESCRIPTION

+ Addition operator, Add two Numbers

- Subtraction Operator, Subtract two Numbers

* Multiplication Operator, Multiply two Numbers

/ Division Operator, Division

() The parentheses clarify which expressions should be evaluated before others.

Note: Arithmetic Substitution usually won't give the value in decimals, to get the values in
decimal way we have to go with other command “bc”.

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Lab Exercises:

Output:

ARRAY VARIABLES

The variable in Bash is a scalar. From Bash 2.0 it can support a type of variable called Array
Variable which can handle multiple values at a same time. All the naming rules discussed for
Shell Variables would be applicable while naming arrays. Shell does not create a bunch of
blank array items to fill the space between indexes. It will keep track of an array index that
contains values. In KSH numerical indices for arrays must be between 0 and 1023. In bash
there is no limitation. The index supports only integers and we cannot use floating and
decimal values. If an array variable with the same name as scalar variable is defined, the
value of scalar variable becomes the value of the element of the array at index 0.

Syntax:

ArrayName[index]=Value Ex: VAR[x]=value

Here, VAR is the variable name

[x] Refer the index value
Value is the data that the array variable would be holding.

Example:

Fruits[0]="Apple"
Fruits[1]="Mango"
Fruits[2]="Orange"
Fruits[3]="Banana"

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Another way with which you can initialize the Array variables are as follows:
Syntax:
ArrayName=(Value1 Value2 Value3 .. ValueN)

Example:
Fruits=(Apple Mango Orange Banana)

The Following examples shows us how to use array:

Output

Unset Variable:
The shell built -in unset command is used for unsetting the data that an initialized variable is
holding.
Syntax: unset <Variable> Ex: unset name
The above example will unset the data for the variable name is holding.

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Read-only Variables:
The Shell allows us to make or mark a variable as read-only; once the value is marked
as read-only it cannot be changed or manipulated.
Syntax: readonly <Variable Name> Ex: readonly name
The above example will set the variable "name" as readonly.

Note: Once the variable is marked as “readonly”, it can’t be reversed or undone.

Environment Variables:
Generally when you create a variable it is only valid on your shell, it is not available
for others on different terminal/shell. Environmental variables are such variables which are
available globally for everyone who are using the shell, although they may be connected to
different session of terminal.

→ Some programs need environment variables in order to function correctly.

→ Usually a shell script defines only those environment variables that are needed by
the programs that it runs.

Normally all our variables are local. Local variable can be used in same shell, if you load
another copy of shell (by typing the /bin/bash at the $ prompt) then new shell will ignore all
old shell's variable.

An empty line is printed

To set an environment variable we have to use the export command to use across the
environment.

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Syntax: export <Variable Name> export name

In Bash Shell, with the set command we can check whether the variable is set to some value
or not. If we want to check only the variables which are exported then export -p is the
command.

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

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Output:

Output:

Output:

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 READ COMMAND

To get input from the keyboard, you use the read command. The read command takes input
from the keyboard and assigns it to a variable. It is mainly used at the time taking
confirmation from the user to do the jobs that seems to be little dangerous.
Syntax: read <Variable Name> Ex: read a
It reads the input from the user and stores in a variable. In the above example it will store in
variable named "a''.

Read - p Option:
If you would like to print the output while reading a variable then you have use - p
option. This is helpful to reduce one echo command to display the output.
Syntax: read -p "Message to be printed" variable
Ex: read -p "Enter You Name" name

Read -s Option:
If you would like to go with silent read we have to go with - s option in read
command. Usually for reading passwords you have to mention the - s option; read -s option
disables the feature of showing the text that you enter on the screen.

Syntax: read -p -s "Message to be displayed” variable

Ex: read -p -s "Enter your password" pass

The following is the script narrates the usage of Read Command.

Output:

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Lab Exercises:

Output:

Output:

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 CONDITIONS

The order in which commands execute in a shell script is called the flow of the script. In the
scripts that you have looked at so far, the flow is always the same because the same set of
commands executes every time.

In most scripts, you need to change the commands that execute depending on some
condition provided by the user or detected by the script itself. When you change the
commands that execute based on a condition, you change the flow of the script

Two powerful flow control mechanics are available in the shell:

→ The case statement
→ The if statement

The case statement is the other major form of flow control available in the shell. Let’s see a
syntax to use it.
case WORD in
pattern1)
list1
;;
pattern2)
list2
;;
esac
The case statement can execute commands based on a pattern matching decision. The
word <WORD> is matched against every pattern <PATTERN n> and on a match, the
associated list <LIST n> is executed. Every command list is terminated by ;;, this rule is
optional for the very last command list (i.e. you can omit the ;; before the esac). In the place
of PATTERN if we give "*" then if the WORD is not matched with any of the PATTERN then
the LIST will be executed.

Basic Example of case statement:

Output:

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Same thing with multiple patterns, each pattern must be delimit using pipe symbol
case <word> in
<Pattern1>|<Pattern2>)
List1
;;
<Pattern3>)
List2
;;
esac

An example for multiple pattern

Output

Lab Exercises:

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Output:

Test Command:
test command or [ expr ] is used to see if an expression is true, and if it is true it
return zero(O), otherwise returns nonzero for false.
Syntax:
test expression
Here expression is constructed using one of the special options to the test command. The
test command returns either 0 (true) or a 1 (false) after evaluating an expression.

Shorthand for the test command is placing the expression in [ ].

[ expression ]
Here expression is any valid expression that the test command understands. This shorthand
form is the most common form of test that you can encounter.

The types of expressions understood by test can be broken into three types:
→ File tests
→ String comparisons
→ Numerical comparisons

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File Tests:
File test expressions test whether a file fits some particular criteria. The general
syntax for a file test is
test option file or [ option file ]

The following are the options available in file tests.

Option Description

-b True if file exists and is a block special file.

-c True if file exists and is a character special file.
-d True if file exists and is a directory.
-e True if file exists.
-f True if file exists and is a regular file.
-g True if file exists and has its SGID bit set.
-h True if file exists and is a symbolic link.
-k True if file exists and has its "sticky" bit set.
-p True if file exists and is a named pipe.
-r True if file exists and is readable.
-s True if file exists and has a size greater than zero.
-u True if file exists and has its SUID bit set.
-w True if file exists and is writable.
-x True if file exists and is executable.
-O True if file exists and is owned by the effective user ID.

Example for file test

In the above example we are checking a file case2.sh as regular file or 0 using –f option and
it returned a value 0 (true) which means it is true that particular file is a regular file. Then we
are checking the same file whether it is block special file or not using -b option and it
returned a value 1 (false) which means that particular file is not a block special file. Likewise
we can check the files with all the options mentioned in the above table.

The test command also supports string comparisons. We can perform the following
operations in string comparisons.
→ Checking whether a string is empty or not.
→ Checking whether two strings are equal or not.

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The syntax for string comparison is
test option string or [ option string ]

The following are the available options in String Comparisons.

Option Description

-z string True if string has zero length.

-n string True if string has nonzero length.
It can also be defined as “!-z” string.
string1 = string2 True if the strings are equal.
string1 != string2 True if the strings are not equal.

Let’s see an example how to use a test string comparison options

For checking whether a field is empty or not

In the above-example we are defining a variable with an empty data and we are using -z
option to check the variable has zero length and it returned a zero value as the string is
empty. The same variable we checked with -n option and it returned a non-zero value as it
doesn’t have data.
Note: Make sure to use double quotes for strings while using the options.

For checking whether the strings are equal or not.

In the above example we initialized two variables with different data in it and we are
checking them whether those are equal or not. Where first returned 1 and other 0.

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Numerical Comparisons:
The test command enables us to compare two integers. The Syntax is as follows.
test integer1 option integer2 or [ integer1 operator integer2 ]

Option Description
int1 -eq int2 True if int1 is equals to int2.
int1 -ne int2 True if int1 is not equal to int2.
int1 -lt int2 True if int1 is less than int2.
int1 -le int2 True if int1 is less than or equal to int2.
int1 -gt int2 True if int1 is greater than int2.
int1 -ge int2 True if int1 is greater than or equal to int2.

The IF Conditions:
The “if” conditional statements perform different computations or actions
depending on whether a programmer-specified Boolean condition evaluates to true or
false. These statements are used to execute different parts of your shell program depending
on whether certain conditions are true. The ability to branch makes shell scripts powerful.

We have the following if conditional statements.

→ If..then..fi statement (Simple if)
→ If..then else..fi statement (If-Else)
→ If..elif..else..fi statement (Else if ladder)
→ If..then..else..if..then..fi..fi..(Nested if)

Simple if:
This statement is also called as simple if statement, the example is as follows.
If [ conditional expression ]
Then
Statement 1
Statement 2
...
fi

If the given conditional expression is true or returns zero, it enters and executes the
statements enclosed between the keywords "then" and "fi". If the given expression is false
or returns a non-zero, then consequent statement list is executed.

The following the example for Simple-If conditional statement.

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If Else:
If then else statement are usually called as if else statement and the syntax is as
follows.
if [ conditional expression ]
then
Statement1
Statement2
...
else
Statement3
Statement4
...
fi

If the conditional expression is true or returns a zero value, it executes the statement1 and
2. If the conditional expression is false or returns a nonzero, it jumps to else part, and
executes the statement3 and 4. After the execution of if/else part, execution resume with
the consequent statements.

Else If Ladder:
If..elif..else..fi statements are called as Else if ladder statements. The syntax is as
follows
if [ conditional expression1 ]
then
Statement1
Statement2
elif [ conditional expression2 ]
then
Statement3
Statement4
else
Statement5
fi
If you want to check more than one conditional expression then you have to use Else If
conditional statements. It checks expression 1, if it is true executes statement 1, 2. If
expression1 is false, it checks expression2, and if all the expression is false, then it enters
into else block and executes the statements in the else block.

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The following example narrates the usage of Else-If Statements.

Nested If:
lf..then..if..then..fi..fi Statements are called as Nested If Statements. The Syntax is as
follows.
if [ conditional expression1 ]
then
statement1
statement2
else
if [ conditional expression2 ]
then
statement3
fi
fi

An example for Nested if statements.

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Lab Exercises:

Output:

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Output:

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

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Output:

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Output:

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Compound Expressions
→ So far you have seen individual expressions, but many times you need to combine
expressions in order to satisfy a particular expression. When two or more
expressions are combined, the result is called a compound expression.
→ You can create compound expressions using the test command's built in operators,
or you can use the conditional execution operators, && and ||.
→ Also you can create a compound expression that is the negation of another
expression by using the! Operator.

The following are the available options.

Option Description

! expr True if expr is false.

expr1 -a expr2 True if both the expressions are true.
expr1 - o expr2 True if either of expression is true.

The following is the example that narrates the usage of compound expressions of
commands.

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An example for the usage of compound expressions of if statement

Output:

Output:

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Output:

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Output

Output:

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Output:

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 LOOPS

Loops enable you to execute a series of commands multiple times. There are two basic
types of loops
→ The while loop
→ The for loop

While loop.
The while loop is a control flow statement that allows code or commands to be
executed repeatedly based on a given condition or expression is true or not. The following is
the syntax for basic while loop.
while [ condition ]
do
command1
command2
command3
done

If the given condition is true then the given commands will be executed continuously
one by one till the condition get fails. So it is all our responsibility to control the condition
otherwise the loop may get into infinite loop.
Note: The conditions can be either numerical or string or file check conditions.

The following is the example that narrates the usage of while loop.

Lab Exercises:

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Output:

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Output:

UNTIL Loop:
Until loop is very similar to the while loop, except that the loop executes until the
expression executes successfully. As long as the given condition fails, the loop continues.
The following is the basic syntax for until loop.
until [ condition ]
do
commandl
command2
command3
done
If the given condition is false then the given commands will be executed till the condition
get pass or true. Until loop is actually the reverse of the while loop and also in other words
these two loops are in vice versa in terms of logic in condition checking.

The following is the example narrates the usage of until loop.

Lab Exercises:

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Output:

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Output:

Output:

FOR Loop:
Unlike While and Until loop, FOR Loop operates on list of items given, for loop are typically
used when the number of operations is known before entering the bash loop. Bash supports
two kinds of for loop. The first form of bash for loop is:
for varname in list
do
commands ##Body of the loop
done
In the above syntax:
→ for, in, do and done are keywords
→ List is any list which has list of items
→ varname is any Bash variable name.

In this form, the for statement executes the command enclosed in a body, once for each
item in the list. The current item from the list will be stored in a variable "varname" each
time through the loop. This varname can be processed in the body of the loop. This list can
be a variable that contains several words separated by spaces. If list is missing in for
statement, then it takes the positional parameters that were passed into the shell.

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The following is the example narrating FOR Loop first form.

The second form of for loop is similar to for loop in 'C' programming language, which has
three expression (initialization, condition and updating).
for (( expr1; expr2; expr3 ))
do
commands
done
→ In the above bash for command syntax, before the first iteration, expr1 is evaluated.
This is usually used to initialize variables for the loop.
→ All the statements between do and done is executed repeatedly until the value of
expr2 is TRUE.
→ After each iteration of the loop, expr3 is evaluated. This is usually use to increment a
loop counter.
The following is the example narrating FOR Loop Second form:
#!/bin/bash

for (( i=0; i <= 5; i++ ))

do
echo $i
done

Lab Exercises:

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

Select Loop with PS3 statement:

The bash variable PS3 is exclusively used for select loop prompting message. If you would
like to use the custom prompt then set the PS3 variable with the message. The following
example shows using of PS3 in select loop.

Note: You can see the difference in output while executing the program.
Usually select loop includes the either case or Else-if Statements for better control on the
loops.

Lab Exercises:

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

Loop Control:
The break and continue are loop control commands in shell to have better control of
loops in some cases of infinite loop or even in regular loops. The break command terminates
the loop (breaks out of it), while continue causes a jump to the next iteration of the loop,
skipping all the remaining commands in that particular loop cycle.

Let’s see how to use the break command.

And now let’s see the continue option

Lab Exercises:
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Output:

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

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 FUNCTIONS

Bash shell functions are a way to group several UNIX I Linux commands for later execution
using a single name for the group. Bash shell function can be executed just like a regular
UNIX command. Shell functions are executed in the current shell context without creating
any new process to interpret them.

Both bash aliases and functions allow you to define shortcuts for longer or more
complicated commands. However, aliases don't allow control-flows, arguments, and other
trickery things which these functions allows.

Using Functions:
The syntax for creating a functions goes as follows.
name( )
{
list
}
In the above syntax name is the name of the function and list is the list of commands. The
list of commands, list, is referred to as the body of the function. And also the parenthesis i.e,
( { } ) are required followed by the name of function name. The job of a function is to bind
name to list, so that whenever name is specified, list is executed. When a function is
defined, list is not executed; the shell parses list to ensure that there are no syntax errors
and stores name in its list of commands.

Let’s see an example for the usage of functions:

Return Status in functions:

Instead of simply returning from the function we can return with some status like
the same we have in exit status. We can return only the value and a string cannot be
returned here in case of how the other programming languages do.
→ You can check the return status of a function using $? Variable only.
Let’s see an example for the same with status:

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Local Variables in functions:
By default all the variables in shell are global. Modifying such variables will change
the value in the whole script. So this may lead to have bugs while building a large scripts, we
can overcome this by defining a variables locally in the function using local command. The
scope these functions will be within the function and also global variables will temporarily
overwritten by local variables.

The following is the syntax to define a local variable in functions.

function name( ){
local var=$1
...
}

Let’s see the same with an example

Export a Function:
We can export a function using export command –f option. The following example
explains the function exporting.
fname( ) {
echo "Welcome to Scripting
}
export -f fname

Read-only Functions:
We can make a function as readonly using readonly command -f option. The
following example narrates readonly function.
fname( ) {
echo "Welcome to Scripting
}
readonly -f fname

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Lab Exercises:

#vim script50.sh

Output:

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Output:

Output:

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Output:

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OPTION PARSING

Special Variables:
The shell defines several special variables that are relevant to option parsing. In
addition to these, a few variables give the status of commands that the script executes. The
following table describes all of the special variables defined by the shell.
Variable Description

$0 The name of the command being executed. For shell scripts, this is the path
with which it was invoked.
$n These variables correspond to the arguments with which a script was invoked.
Here n is a positive decimal number corresponding to the position of an
argument (the first argument is $1, the second argument is $2, and so on).
$# The number of arguments supplied to a script.
$* All the arguments are double quoted. If a script receives two arguments, $* is
equivalent to $1 $2.
$@ All the arguments are individually double quoted. If a script receives two
arguments, $@ is equivalent to $1 $2.
$? The exit status of the last command executed.
$$ The process number of the current shell. For shell scripts, this is the process ID
under which they are executing.
$! The process number of the last background command.

Let’s see how to use a special variable

Usage Statements:
Another common use for $0 is in the usage statement for a script, which is a short
message informing the user how to invoke the script properly. All scripts used by more than
one user should include such a message.
In general, the usage statement is something like the following:
echo "Usage: $0 [options] [files]"

Using Basename
Currently, the message displays the entire path with which the shell script was invoked, but
what is really required is the name of the shell script. You can correct this by using the
basename command. The basename command takes an absolute or relative path and
returns the file or directory name. Its basic syntax is
basename file

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Let’s see it with an example

You can use the basename command in echo input giving it as command in command
quotes.
$ USAGE="Usage: `basename $0` Input"
$ echo $USAGE

Shift Command:
Using shift command, command line arguments can be accessed. This command
causes the positional parameters shift to the left. Shift [n] where n defaults to 1. It is useful
when several parameters need to be parsed to a script because the values are limited to
only 9.

For example in early $1=10, $2=20, $3=30. If we use the shift command the pointer will shift
a value and $1=20 and $2=30. If we give a number to shift command then it will shift that
many values at a time. A detailed example will be coming later in the manual.

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Lab Exercises:

#vim script55.sh

Output:

Output:

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Output:

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Output:

Output:

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Output:

GETOPTS
Getopts obtains options and their arguments from a list of parameters that follows the
standard POSIX.2 option syntax (that is, single letters proceeded by a - and possibly followed
by an argument value). Typically, shell scripts use getopts to parse arguments passed to
them. When you specify args on the getopts command line, getopts parses those
arguments instead of the script command line.

The process by which getopts parses the options given on the command line is

1. The getopts option examines all the command line arguments, looking for arguments
starting with the - character.
2. When an argument starting with the - character is found, it compares the characters
following the – to the characters given in the option-siring.

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 3. If a match is found, the specified variable is set to the option: otherwise, variable is
set to the? Character.
4. Steps 1 through 3 are repeated until all the options have been considered.

Getopts always includes with while Ioop in order to read all the options in a loop manner
and also most of the times getopts has to include in order to read the arguments and the
values parsed to arguments and to store in a constant variable.

OPTARG: Stores the value of the argument found by getopts.

OPTIND: Contains the index of the next argument to be processed.
After all the options considered were done then OPTIND is set to the number of last value.

Let’s understand it with an example

If any value is missing to the argument or any other unknown options were parsed then
getopts by default gives errors, In order to handle these errors we can either set OPTERR
value to 0 or we can start the options in getopts with colon.

OPTERR: (Values 0 or 1) Indicates if Bash should display error messages generated by the
getopts built-in. The value is initialized to 1 on every shell startup - so be sure to always set
it to 0 if you don’t want to see annoying messages!
The other way of managing the unwanted output is redirecting the error output to
/dev/null.
Using OPTERR:
OPTERR=0
while getopts a:b: var

Using Colon:
while getopts :a:b: var

Using redirection:
while getopts a:b: var >/dev/null 2>&1

Parsing values to functions:

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 The special variables we are talking about are different for each and every command
we execute, likewise different for each and individual script. Function will have its own
environment created and at the same time the special variables also will be in initialized for
a function too in shell.

The following example narrates the usage of functions with special variables.

In the above example you can see the values parsed to the function and we accessing those
values like the same as in normal script using the special variables.
Note: The scope of these special variables in a function is in the function itself, it cannot
affect the other functions as well in the main program.

Lab Exercises:

#vim script60.sh

Output:

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SAMPLE CLASSROOM SCRIPTS WITH OUTPUT

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• Creating a function to create script file and add shebang stmt.
• Adding shebang and comment line.
• Opening file in vim editor and at exit adding +x permission to file

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 SOME ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT STUFF AND SCRIPTS

Here Document or heredoc

A here document (or heredoc) is a way of getting text input into a script without
having to feed it in from a separate file. If you've got a small quantity of data you don't
expect to change often, it's a quick and tidy way of keeping script and data together. For
more complicated data or scripts, separating the two is still usually a better idea.

The basic version of this in bash looks like this:

#!/bin/bash
cat << EOF
several lines of
my data
listed here
EOF

Output
several lines of
my data
listed here

A heredoc can also be used to comment or inactive multiple lines instead of using “#”.
An example for commenting multiple lines with heredoc is as follows.

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 SOME USEFUL SCRIPTS

1. Script to download data from ftp server using here document

#!/bin/bash
#scrip to download multiple files from ftp
server=192.168.10.81 ##server address
user=ftp ##user name
pass=anything ##password
dir=pub/down
file=*
#Giving instructions to connect to ftp server and downloading data
ftp -n $server <<FTP ##Start of heredoc
quote USER $user
quote PASS $pass
bin
prompt
hash
cd $dir
mget $file
FTP ##End of heredoc

2. Script to take backup of a filesystem and storing in a directory

$vim backup.sh
#!/bin/bash
#Script to take backup of /etc filesystem
clear
echo "Backup of etc started"
sleep 2
tar -zcvf /opt/etc.tar.gz /etc
if [ $? -eq 0 ];then
clear
echo "Backup is Successful"
else
clear
echo "Backup failed"
fi

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3. Script to take backup of /etc and transfer it to other server
$vim bkp2.sh
#!/bin/bash
##SCRIPT TO TAKE BACKUP
src=/etc ##file to be backed up
dest=/opt ## destination to store backup
server=192.168.10.61 ##Sever to transfer backup
date=`date +%Y%m%d`
clear
echo "BACKUP OF /etc/ IS STARTING"
sleep 2
tar -czvf $dest/$src-$date.tgz $src
if [ $? -eq 0 ];then
clear
echo "BACKUP IS SUCCESFULL"

else
echo "BACKUP FAILED"
exit
fi
sleep 2
echo "COPYING THE FILE ON 61 SERVER"
scp $dest$src* $server:/opt
if [ $? -eq 0 ];then
echo "copying done successfully"
else
echo "Copying failed"
fi
Note: if there is a trusted relationship or password less login is configured the files will be
automatically transferred, else it will wait for manual entry of password.

4. Taking backup of the user given input file, storing on user defined destination and
transferring to other server.
#!/bin/bash
##SCRIPT TO TAKE BACKUP
server=192.168.10.61
date=`date +%Y%m%d`
clear
read -p 'Pl enter full path of the file to backup: ' file
read -p 'Pl enter the destination to store the backup: ' dest
if [ -z $file -o -z $dest ]; then
echo "Invalid Input"
exit
fi
echo "BACKUP IS STARTING"
sleep 2

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tar -czvf $dest/$file-$date.tgz $file
if [ $? -eq 0 ];then
clear
echo "BACKUP IS SUCCESFULL"

else
echo "BACKUP FAILED"
exit
fi
sleep 2
echo "COPYING THE FILE ON 61 SERVER"
scp $dest/$file* $server:/opt
if [ $? -eq 0 ];then
echo "copying done successfully"
else
echo "Copying failed"
fi
Note: if there is a trusted relationship or password less login is configured the files will be
automatically transferred, else it will wait for manual entry of password.

5. Script to monitor CPU usage and send mails as per critical and warning situation
$vim cpumon.sh

#!/bin/bash
##PurPose: Real time CPU Utilization Monitoring Shell Script
##Date: 13th Nov 2017
HOSTNAME=`hostname`
PATHS="/"
WARNING=90
CRIT=98
CAT=/bin/cat
MAILER=/bin/mail
CRITmailto="YOUREMAIL@DOMAIN.COM" ##replace your email for critical alerts
mailto="YOUREMAIL@DOMAIN.COM" ##replace your email for warning alerts
mkdir -p /var/log/cpuhistory
LOGFILE=/var/log/cpuhistory/hist-`date +%h%d%y`.log
touch $LOGFILE
for path in $PATHS
do
CPU_LOAD=`top -b -n 2 -d1 | grep "Cpu(s)" | tail -n1 | awk '{print $2}' |awk -F. '{print $1}'`
if [ -n "$WARNING" -a -n "$CRIT" ]; then
if [ "$CPU_LOAD" -ge "$WARNING" -a "$CPU_LOAD" -lt "$CRIT" ]; then
echo " `date "+%F %H:%M:%S"` WARNINGING - $CPU_LOAD on Host
$HOSTNAME" >> $LOGFILE
echo "CPU Load is Warning $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" | $MAILER -s
"CPU Load is Warning $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" $mailto
exit 1

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elif [ "$CPU_LOAD" -ge "$CRIT" ]; then
echo "`date "+%F %H:%M:%S"` CRITICAL - $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" >>
$LOGFILE
echo "CPU Load is Critical $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" | $MAILER -s "CPU Load is
Critical $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" $CRITmailto
exit 2
else
echo "`date "+%F %H:%M:%S"` OK - $CPU_LOAD on $HOSTNAME" >> $LOGFILE
exit 0
fi
fi
done

My dear students/aspirants, scripting is all about logic and creativity. There are many
situations in which you can use scripting for automation, monitoring and other important
activities. It’s all about your necessity and requirements which you can put in a script and
make your work easy. After all “Necessity is the mother of all inventions”. So, keep
inventing and exploring the power of scripting, you’ll never be bored of it and will always
be surprised and admire it. –Musabuddin Syed.

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