Laoag City, Ilocos Norte

Module I: Introduction

Congratulations for entering the Civil Engineering profession. Soon you will be
called Engineers as the case may be. And engineering has a lot of work to do so
be ready with it.

You may perhaps explore the world of Structural Theory. Here is a link that
you can view on line.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9YVQM0gUug

1.1 Introduction to Structural Engineering

Structural engineering — a specialty within the field of civil engineering — focuses on
the framework of structures, and on designing those structures to withstand the stresses and
pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable and secure throughout their use.
Structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down and bridges don't collapse.
Structures must be able to deal with the conditions in which they are built. A house must
have a roof that can bear its own weight and must be able to withstand wind and earthquakes
forces. Structural engineers consider all of these factors and provide technical advice about the
project.

Structural engineers battle gravity, wind, and rain every day to provide the world with
outstanding structures. Structural engineers design roof framing (beams, rafters, joists, trusses),
floor framing (floor decks, joists, beams, trusses, girders), arches, columns, braces, frames,
foundations and walls. The materials they use include steel, concrete, wood, masonry, and
aluminum. Engineers design the structure to resist forces from gravity, earthquakes, high
winds, water, soil, collisions and blast explosions.

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Analysis and Design Process

The primary objective of structural analysis and design is to produce a structure capable
of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life. If improperly designed,
elements of a structure would fail causing serious consequences such as large expenses or
ultimately losses in lives which cannot be compared with any cost.

Once the architect/engineer sets the function and layout of the structure, the role of the
structural engineer begins which can be summarized in the following steps to develop a safe,
functional and economic structures.

STEP 1: CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

In this stage, initial design of the building elements (e.g. slabs, beams, columns …etc.)
is performed based on code recommendations.

It starts with selecting the appropriate columns’ locations and orientation in such a way
that they do not interfere with the drawings.

After that, the type of structural system is selected.

STEP 2: DETERMINING THE INTERNAL FORCES OF EACH ELEMENT

After finishing the initial design, the exact dimensions of each building element shall be
determined. First, an analysis model is created for the building with its initial dimensions as
determined from STEP 1.

All the loads that act on the structure have to defined in the model such as dead loads,
live loads, wind and earthquake loads.

From the model, the internal forces [Normal Force, Shear Force, Bending
Moments] on each element is calculated.

STEP 3: ITERATIVE DESIGN

Now you have the straining actions on the elements based on the initial sizing and
simply, you can use them to design according to the relevant code.

Next, the analysis model should be modified to the new dimensions obtained from the
previous design and the analysis is re-run. Internal forces are obtained and design is made again
based on the new forces.

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This iterative process is repeated until the element design be the same in two following
iterations.

STEP 4: FOUNDATION DESIGN

After the final dimensions of members are found, the foundation system type can be
selected taking in consideration, the bearing capacity of the soil and the loading coming from
the structure.

STEP 5: DRAFTING

In this step, the structural plans are created. These plans should be fully detailed such
that the construction process in the site can proceed smoothly and not delayed due to missing
data in the drawings.

Structural Forms
The structural system of a building is designed to deal with vertical gravity loads and
mainly the lateral loads caused by wind and seismic activity. The structural system consists of
only the members designed to carry the loads, all other members which does not participate in
carrying loads are referred as non-structural members.
Buildings are subjected to various types of loads during its service life time. It must be
so designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both permanent and transitory, that
will be called on to sustain during its construction and subsequent service life. Major loads of
which a building structures are subjected to are given below:
• Gravity loads – Dead loads, Live loads
• Lateral loads – Wind loads, Seismic loads
• Special loads – Impact loads, Blasts loads

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Nature of Loads:
Gravity Loads
Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can
be in tension or compression.

TABLE 1-2 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials

kN/m3

Aluminum 26.7

Concrete, plain cinder 17

Concrete, plain stone 22.6

Concrete, reinforced cinder 17.4

Concrete, reinforced stone 23.6

Clay, dry 9.9

Clay, damp 17.3

Sand and gravel, wet 18.9

Masonry, lightweight solid concrete 21.2

Masonry, normal weight 21.2

Plywood 5.7

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Steel, cold-drawn 77.3

Wood 4.5-5.8

Table 1-3 Minimum Design Dead Loads

Walls kN/m2

100 mm clay brick 1.87

200 mm clay brick 3.78

300 mm clay brick 5.51

Frame Partitions and Walls

Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 2.3

Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38

Wood studs 50 x 100 mm unplastered 0.19

Wood studs 50 x 100 mm plastered one side 0.57

Wood studs 50 x 100 mm plastered two side 0.96

Floor Fill

Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017

Lightweight concrete, plain per mm 0.015

Stone concrete, per mm 0.023

Ceilings

Acoustical fiberboard 0.05

Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24

Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster 0.48

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Asphalt shingles 0.10

Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.04

Live loads are usually variable or moving loads. Live loads, sometimes also referred to as
probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation
cycle not including construction or environmental loads.
Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and
materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people.

Table 1-4 Minimum Live Loads

Occupancy Load kPa

Assembly Areas and theaters

Fixed seats 2.90

Movable seats 4.80

Dance halls and ballrooms 4.80

Garage 2.40

Office buildings

Lobbies 4.80

Offices 2.40

Storage warehouse

Light 6.00

Heavy 12.00

Residential

Dwellings (one and two family) 1.92

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Hotels and multifamily houses 1.92

Private rooms and corridors 4.79

Schools

Classrooms 1.90

Corridors above first floor 3.80

For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, allow a reduction in the uniform
live load. It allows a reduction of live load on member having a influence area of 37.2 m2 or
more.
.
0.25 (SI units)

Where
L = reduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member
Lo = unreduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member (see
Table 1-4)
KLL = live load element factor. For interior column KLL = 4
AT = tributary area in square meter
The reduced live load is limited to not less than 50% of Lo for members supporting one floor,
or not less than 40% of Lo for members supporting more than one floor. No reduction is
allowed for loads exceeding 4.80 kPa.

Structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building

codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely
to face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are
specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and
materials of construction.
Lateral Loads:
Wind Load

When building a structure, it is important to calculate wind load to ensure that the
structure can withstand high winds, especially if the building is located in an area known
for inclement weather. The main wind force resisting system of a building is a vital
component. While wind load calculations can be difficult to figure out because the wind

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is unpredictable, some standard calculations can give you a good idea of what a building
can withstand. Wind loading analysis is an essential part of the building process. If wind
loading analysis is not done correctly the resulting effects could include collapsed
windows and doors, ripped off roofing.

According to NSCP, the equation of wind load is modified to account for the importance
of the structure, its height, and the terrain in which it is located. It is represented as

qz = 0.613K z Kzt Kd V2 I (N/m 2 )

where

V = the velocity in m/s of a 3-second wind pressure 10 m above the ground during a
50year recurrence period

I = importance factor

K z = the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, which is a function of height and

depends on the ground terrain.

K zt = a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills and escarpments. For
flat ground Kzt = 1

K d = a factor that accounts for the direction of the wind. It is used only when the
structure is subjected to combination of loads. For wind acting alone, Kd = 1.0

Table 1-5 Velocity Pressure Exposure

Coefficient for Main Wind Force Resisting System
Z(m) Kh and Kz
0-4.5 0.85
6.0 0.90
7.5 0.94
9.0 0.98

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12.0 1.04
15.0 1.09
18.0 1.13

Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid Building
Once the value of qz is obtained, the design pressure can be determined from a list of
relevant equation listed in NSCP.

p = qGC p – q h(GC pi )

Here

q = q z for the windward wall at height z above the ground and q = q h for the lee ward
walls, roof where z = h for the mean height of the roof.

G = wind gust factor, for which depends upon the exposure. For rigid structure G =
0.85

Cp = a wall or roof pressure coefficient determined from a table.

(GCpi) = the internal pressure coefficient which depends upon the type of wall
openings in the buildings. For enclosed buildings (GC pi ) = ± 0.18

Value of Cp

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Earthquake Load

Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The
total vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular
directions, usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions.
The movement in vertical direction do not cause forces in superstructure to any
significant extent. But the horizontal movement of the building at the time of earthquake is to
be considered while designing.

The response of the structure to the ground vibration is a function of the nature of
foundation soil, size and mode of construction and the duration and intensity of ground motion.

To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building
codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load
factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in
service. They are developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based
on probabilistic studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence,
distribution, and static or dynamic nature.

1.2 Type of supports, static indeterminacy of planar structures, conditions of instability,

stability of structures.
Structural support is a part of a building or structure providing the necessary stiffness
and strength in order to resist the internal forces (vertical forces of gravity and lateral forces
due to wind and earthquakes) and guide them safely to the ground. External loads (actions of
other bodies) that act on buildings cause internal forces (forces and couples by the rest of the
structure) in building support structures. Supports can be either at the end or at any intermediate
point along a structural member or a constituent part of a building and they are referred to as
connections, joints or restraints.

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Types of Supports

Static Indeterminacy of Planar Structure

In statics and structural mechanics, a structure is statically indeterminate when
the static equilibrium equations (force and moment equilibrium conditions) are insufficient for
determining the internal forces and reactions on that structure.
Based on Newton's laws of motion, the equilibrium equations available for a two-dimensional
body are:
∑F = 0: the vectorial sum of the forces acting on the body equals zero. This translates to:
∑H = 0: the sum of the horizontal components of the forces equals zero;
∑V = 0: the sum of the vertical components of forces equals zero;
∑M = 0: the sum of the moments (about an arbitrary point) of all forces equals zero.

Free body diagram of a statically indeterminate beam.

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In the beam construction on the right, the four unknown reactions are VA, VB, VC,
and HA. The equilibrium equations are:[2]
Σ V = 0:
VA − Fv + VB + VC = 0
Σ H = 0:
HA = 0
Σ MA = 0:
Fv ⋅ a − VB ⋅ (a + b) − VC ⋅ (a + b + c) = 0.
Since there are four unknown forces (or variables) (VA, VB, VC and HA) but only three
equilibrium equations, this system of simultaneous equations does not have a unique solution.
The structure is therefore classified as statically indeterminate.
To solve statically indeterminate systems (determine the various moment and force
reactions within it), one considers the material properties and compatibility in deformations.
Statically Determinate
If the support at B is removed, the reaction VB cannot occur, and the system
becomes statically determinate (or isostatic). Note that the system is completely
constrained here. The system becomes an exact constraint kinematic coupling.
If, in addition, the support at A is changed to a roller support, the number of reactions
are reduced to three (without HA), but the beam can now be moved horizontally. In this case,
the two unknowns VA and VC can be determined by resolving the vertical force equation and
the moment equation simultaneously. The solution yields the same results as previously
obtained.

Determinacy
r = 3n, statically determinate
r > 3n, statically indeterminate

where r = force and moment reactions

n = total number of parts

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STABILITY
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy
the equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or constrained by
their supports.

r < 3n unstable
r >= 3n unstable if member reactions are concurrent or parallel or some of the components
form a collapsible mechanism

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