CHAPTER

2
Analytic Functions
with IMP questions

chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complex Variable
2.3 Basic Definitions
2.4 Limits
2.5 Continuity
2.6 Differentiability
2.7 Analytic Functions
2.8 Cauchy–Riemann Equations in Polar Form
2.9 Harmonic Functions
2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions
2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne–Thomson Method

2.1 IntroductIon
The theory of functions of a complex variable plays a very important role in solving
a large number of problems in the field of engineering and science. The functions of
a complex variable are particularly concerned with the analytic function of a complex
variable. Because the separate real and imaginary parts of any analytic function must
satisfy Laplace’s equation, complex analysis is widely applicable to two-dimensional
problems in Physics.

2.2 complex VarIable

Any variable of the form z = x + iy is known as a complex variable, where x and y are
real and i = -1.
Functions of a complex Variable
If z = x + iy be a complex variable then w = f (z) = u + iv is known as a function of the
complex variable z and is denoted by w = f (z).
2.2 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

2.3 basIc deFInItIons

Distance: z - z0 represents the distance between two points z and z0.

Circle: z - z0 = r represents a circle with centre at the point z0 and radius r.
Interior of a circle: z - z0 < r represents the interior of the circle.
Exterior of a circle: z - z0 > r represents the exterior of the circle.
Annulus: The region between two concentric circles of radii r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) and
centre at z0 is known as the annulus region and is represented as
|
r1 < z – z0 < r2|
Neighbourhood: The set of all points for which z - z0 < r is known as the neigh-
bourhood of z0.
Boundary point: A point which does not lie in the interior or exterior of a region is
known as a boundary point.
Open set: A set that does not contain its boundary points is known as an open set.
Closed set: A set that contains all its boundary points is known as a closed set.
Connected set: If any two points of the set can be joined by a polygonal line such that
all the points of the line also belong to the set then the set is known as a connected set.
Domain: A set which is open and connected is known as a domain.
Bounded region: A region which can be enclosed in a circle of finite radius is known
as a bounded region.
Compact region: A region that is closed and bounded is known as a compact region.

example 1
Classify and sketch the following regions:
(i) |z – 4| > 3 (ii) 1 < |2z – 6| < 2 (iii) |z – 1| + |z + 1| £ 2
(iv) –p < Re z < p (v) |z| < 1 and |z| > 2
(vi) Re(iz + 2) > 0 y

Solution
z-4 >3
(i)
( x - 4) + iy > 3
2
( x - 4) + iy > 9 x
O (4,0)
( x - 4) + y > 9
2 2

which represents the exterior of the circle

with its centre at (4, 0) and a radius of 3
(Fig. 2.1).
Hence, the region is open and unbounded.
Fig. 2.1
 2.3  Basic Definitions        2.3

y
(ii) 1 < 2 z - 6 < 2
1
< z-3 <1
2
1
< ( x - 3) + iy < 1
2
1 2 (3.5,0)
< ( x - 3) + iy < 1 (3,0) (4,0)
x
4 O
1
< ( x - 3)2 + y 2 < 1
4
which represents the
annular region between
two concentric circles Fig. 2.2
1
with its centre at (3, 0) and radii of
and 1 (Fig. 2.2).
2
Hence, the region is open and bounded.
iq
(iii) Let z - 1 = r1 e 1 , z + 1 = r2 eiq2

i.e., ( x - 1) + iy = r1 eiq1 , ( x + 1) + iy = r2 eiq2

where r1 = ( x - 1)2 + y 2 , r2 = ( x + 1)2 + y 2

|z – 1| + |z + 1| £ 2 ...(1)
r1 + r2 £ 2
r1 £ 2 - r2
r12 £ 4 + r22 - 4r2
( x - 1)2 + y 2 £ 4 + ( x + 1)2 + y 2 - 4r2
x 2 - 2 x + 1 + y 2 £ 4 + x 2 + 2 x + 1 + y 2 - 4r2 y
4r2 £ 4 x + 4
r2 £ x + 1
r22 £ ( x + 1)2 O
x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
( x + 1) + y £ ( x + 1)
2 2 2

y2 £ 0
ÈÎ∵ y 2 <| 0 ˘˚ Fig. 2.3
y=0
2.4 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∵ z1 + z2 £ z1 + z2
( z - 1) + ( z + 1) £ z - 1 + z + 1 £ 2 [From Eq. (1)]
2z £ 2
z £1
x £1 [∵ y = 0]
-1 £ x £ 1 and y = 0 y

which represents the closed interval [–1, 1] (Fig. 2.3).

Hence, the region is closed and bounded.
(iv) –p < Re (z) < p
–p < x < p x
(–p, 0) O (p, 0)
which represents a vertical strip between
x = –p to x = p (Fig. 2.4).
Hence, the region is closed and unbounded.
Fig. 2.4
y
||
(v) z < 1 and z > 2||
2
||
z < 1 and |z|2 > 4
x2 + y2 < 1 and x2 + y2 > 4
which represents the interior of the circle x
(0,0) (1,0) (4,0)
with its centre at (0, 0) and a radius of 1, and
the exterior of the circle with its centre at (0,
0) and a radius of 2 (Fig. 2.5). Hence, the
region is not connected.

(vi) Re (iz + 2) > 0 Fig. 2.5

Re (ix - y + 2) > 0 y

(2 - y) > 0 y=2

2>y
y<2 x
(0,0)
which represents the half-plane below the
line y = 2 (Fig. 2.6). Hence, the region is
open and unbounded.

Fig. 2.6
 2.3  Basic Definitions        2.5

example 2
Sketch the following sets and determine which are domains?
(i) Im z > 1
p
(ii) 0 £ arg z £ [Winter 2014]
4
Solution
Let z = x + iy
(i) Im z > 1
y >1
Yes, it is a domain (Fig. 2.7).

p Fig. 2.7
(ii) 0 £ arg z £
4
Ê y ˆ p
0 £ tan -1 Á ˜ £
Ë x¯ 4
y p
tan 0 £ £ tan
x 4
y
0 £ £1
x
Yes, it is a domain (Fig. 2.8). Fig. 2.8

example 3
Sketch the set S = (z: –1 < Im (z) < 2}. Is it connected?
Solution
Let z = x + iy
-1 < Im( z ) < 2
-1 < y < 2
Since the lines y = 2 and y = –1 bounding
the points of the set are not included in the
set, the set is open (Fig. 2.9). Also, each pair
of points within the set can be joined by a
Fig. 2.9
polygonal line.
Hence, the set S is connected.
2.6 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 4
Sketch the region |z| £ 1. Is it a domain? [Summer 2013]
Solution
Let z = x + iy
z £1
x + iy £ 1
2
x + iy £ 1
x 2 + y2 £ 1
which represents the interior of the circle with its
centre at (0, 0) and a radius of 1 (Fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.10
Since, the region z £ 1 represents the boundary and
||
the interior of the circle, it is closed.
Hence, the given region is not a domain.

example 5
Sketch the region |z – 2 + i| £ 1. Is it a domain? [Winter 2013]
Solution
Let z = x + iy
z-2+i £1
( x + iy) - 2 + i £ 1
( x - 2) + i( y + 1) £ 1
2
( x - 2) + i( y + 1) £ 1
( x - 2)2 + ( y + 1)2 £ 1
which represents the interior of the circle
with its centre at (2, –1) and a radius of 1 Fig. 2.11
(Fig. 2.11).
Since the region z – 2 + i £ 1 represents the boundary and the interior of the circle, it
| |
is closed. Hence, the given region is not a domain.

example 6
Is the set |z – 1 + 2i| £ 2 a domain? [Summer 2014]
Solution
Let z = x + iy
 2.3  Basic Definitions        2.7

z - 1 + 2i £ 2
x + iy - 1 + 2i £ 2
( x - 1) + i( y + 2) £ 2
2
( x - 1) + i( y + 2) £ 4
( x - 1)2 + ( y + 2)2 £ 4

which represents a circle with its center

at (1, –2) and a radius of 2 (Fig. 2.12).
Since the set z – 1 + 2i £ 2 represents
| |
the boundary and the interior of the
circle, it is closed.
Hence, the given region is not a domain.
Fig. 2.12

exercIse 2.1
I. classify and sketch the following regions:
1. Re z ≥ 4
ÎÈans.: Closed, unbounded˚˘
2. 0 < 2z – 1 £ 2
| |
ÎÈans.: Bounded, neither open nor closed˚˘
3. z £ z + 1
|| | |
ÎÈans.: Closed, unbounded˚˘
4. z – 1 + 3i £ 1
| |
ÈÎans.: Closed, unbounded˘˚

II. sketch the following sets and determine which are domains:
1. z – 4 ≥ z
| | ÈÎans.: No ˘˚

|
2. 2z + 3 > 4 | ÈÎans.: Yes˘˚

3. z – 2 + i £ 1
| | ÈÎans.: No ˘˚

4. Im z = 1
ÎÈans.: No ˚˘
2.8 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

2.4 lImIts

Let w = f (z) be a single-valued function. The limit of f (z) is w0 = f (z0) as z approaches

z0 if for each positive number Πthere exists a positive number d such that
f ( z ) - w0 < Πwhenever z - z0 < d

Symbolically, it is represented as
lim f ( z ) = w0
z Æ z0

example 1
Using the definition of limit, show that if f (z) = iz in the open disk z < 1 ||
then
lim f ( z ) = i
z Æ1 [Winter 2014]

Solution
f(z) = iz, z0 = 1, w0 = i
Let f ( z ) - w0 < Œ, where Œ> 0
iz - i < Œ
i z -1 < Œ
z -1 < Œ ÎÈ∵ i = 1˚˘
||
This condition is satisfied by the points in the open disk z < 1.
Assuming Π= d, the following conclusion can be made:
For every Π> 0, there exists d > 0 such that f (z) Рi < Πwhenever z Р1 < d
| | | |
Hence, lim f ( z ) = i.
z Æ1

example 2
iz i
Using the definition of limit, show that lim = .
z Æ1 3 3
Solution
iz i
f (z) = , z0 = 1, w0 =
3 3
Let f ( z ) - w0 < Œ, where Œ> 0
iz i
- <Œ
3 3
 2.4 Limits 2.9

i z -1
<Œ
3
z -1 < 3Œ ÈÎ∵ i = 1˘˚
z -1 < 3 Œ ÈÎ∵ z - 1 = ( x - 1) - iy = ( x - 1) + iy = z - 1 ˘˚

Assuming 3Π= d, it is concluded that for every Π> 0, there exists d > 0 such that
iz i
- <Πwhenever z -1 < d
3 3
iz i
Hence, lim = .
z Æ1 3 3

example 3
Use the Œ–d definition of limit to show that
lim (3 x + iy 2 ) = 9i, where z = x + iy.
z Æ 3i

Solution
f ( z ) = 3 x + iy 2 , z0 = 3i, w0 = 9i
z - z0 = x + iy - 3i
= x + i ( y - 3)
£ x + y-3
Assuming d1 > 0, d2 > 0 such that
x < d1 , y - 3 < d 2
z - z0 < d1 + d 2 = d
\ z - 3i < d , where d = d1 + d 2

Now, f ( z ) = 3 x + iy 2
= 3 x + i [( y - 3) + 3]
2

= 3 x + i ÈÎ( y - 3)2 + 9 + 6 ( y - 3)˘˚

f ( z ) - w0 = ÈÎ3 x + i( y - 3)2 + 9i + 6i( y - 3)˘˚ - 9i

= 3 x + i ( y - 3)2 + 6i ( y - 3)
2
£ 3x + y - 3 + 6 y - 3
< 3 d1 + d 22 + 6d 2
2.10 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Assuming 3d1 + d 22 + 6d 2 = Œ,

f ( z ) - w0 < Œ
f ( z ) - 9i < Œ
Thus, for every Π> 0, there exists d > 0 such that
f ( z ) - 9i < Πwhenever z - 3i < d

Hence, lim f ( z ) = 9i
z Æ 3i

or lim (3 x + i y 2 ) = 9 i
z Æ 3i

example 4
Show that the limit of the function does not exist.
f (z) = z 2 for z π i
=0 for z = i
Solution
lim f ( z ) = lim z 2
z Æi z Æi

= i2
= -1
Given f (i) = 0
Since lim f ( z ) π f (i ), the limit does not exist.
z Æi

example 5
z
Show that lim does not exist.
zÆ0 z
Solution
z
Let f (z) =
z
z
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 zÆ0 z

x + iy
= lim
z Æ 0 x - iy
 2.4 Limits 2.11

The necessary condition for lim f ( z ) to exist is that f (z) should approach the same
zÆ0
value along all the paths leading to z = 0.
Let the path be y = mx.
x + iy x + imx
lim = lim
zÆ0 x - iy x Æ 0 x - imx
1 + im
= lim
x Æ 0 1 - im
1 + im
=
1 - im
Since the limit value depends on m, it takes different values along different paths.
Hence, the limit does not exist.

example 6 IMP
3 x 2 + y2
Show that lim does not exist.
zÆ0 ( x + y )2
Solution
The necessary condition for lim f ( z ) to exist is that f (z) should approach the same
zÆ0
value along all the paths leading to z = 0.
Let the path be y = mx.
3 x 2 + y2 3x 2 + m2 x 2
lim = lim
zÆ0 ( x + y )2 x Æ0 ( x + mx )2
3 + m2
= lim
x Æ0 (1 + m)2
3 + m2
=
(1 + m)2
Since the limit value depends on m, it takes different values along different paths.
Hence, the limit does not exist.
2.12 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

2.5 contInuIty

f (z) is said to be continuous at z = z0 if lim f ( z ) exists.

z Æ z0

example 1
Determine whether the function f (z) is continuous at the origin.
( x + y )2
f (z) = , zπ0
x 2 + y2
=0 , z=0
Solution
( x + y )2
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 zÆ0 x 2 + y2
Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.
( x + mx )2
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 x Æ0 x 2 + m2 x 2
(1 + m)2
= lim
x Æ0 1 + m2
2
(1 + m)
=
1 + m2
Since the limit depends on m, it takes different values along different paths. Thus, the
limit does not exist. Hence, f (z) is not continuous at the origin.

example 2 IMP
Discuss the continuity of f (z) at the origin.
z
f (z) = , z π 0
z
= 0, z = 0
Solution
z
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 zÆ0 z
x - iy
= lim
z Æ 0 x + iy
 2.5 Continuity 2.13

Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.

x - i mx
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 x Æ 0 x + i mx

1- i m
= lim
x Æ01+ i m
1- i m
=
1+ i m
Since the limit depends on m, it takes different values along different paths. Thus, the
limit does not exist. Hence, f (z) is not continuous at the origin.

example 3 IMP
Show that
Re ( z 2 )
f (z) = , zπ0
z
= 0, z=0
is continuous at z = 0.
Solution
Re( z 2 )
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 zÆ0 z
Re ÈÎ( x + iy)2 ˘˚
= lim
zÆ0 x + iy
Re ÈÎ( x 2 - y 2 ) + i 2 xy ˘˚
= lim
zÆ0
x 2 + y2
x 2 - y2
= lim
zÆ0
x 2 + y2
Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.
x 2 - m2 x 2
lim f ( z ) = lim
zÆ0 x Æ0
x 2 + m2 x 2
x 2 (1 - m 2 )
= lim
x Æ0
x 1 + m2
x(1 - m 2 )
= lim
x Æ0
1 + m2
=0
Since, the limit does not depend on m, it is independent of path.
2.14 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Hence, the limit exists.

Also, lim f ( z ) = f (0) = 0
zÆ0
Hence, f (z) is continuous at z = 0.

example 4
Determine whether f(z) is continuous at z = i. Redefine if necessary to
make it continuous.
f ( z ) = z 2 + iz + 2, zπi
= i, z=i
Solution
lim f ( z ) = lim ( z 2 + iz + 2 )
z Æi z Æi

= i2 + i2 + 2
= 2i 2 + 2
=0
But f (i) = i [Given]
\ lim f ( z ) π f (i )
z Æi
Hence, f (z) is not continuous at z = i.
To make it continuous, it can be redefined as
f ( z ) = z 2 + iz + 2, zπi
= 0, z=i

example 5
Determine whether the function f (z) is continuous at z = –i.
z 2 + 3iz - 2
f (z) = , z π -i
z+i
=5 , z = -i
Can the function be redefined to make it continuous at z = –i?
Solution
z 2 + 3iz - 2 È0 ˘
lim f ( z ) = lim Í form ˙
z Æ- i z Æ- i z+i Î0 ˚
2 z + 3i
= lim [Using L’ Hospital’s rule]
z Æ- i 1
= -2i + 3i
=i
 2.6 Differentiability 2.15

But f (–i) = 5 [Given]

\ lim f ( z ) π f (-i )
z Æ- i
Hence, f (z) is not continuous at z = –i.
To make it continuous, it can be redefined as
z 2 + 3iz - 2
f (z) = , z π -i
z+i
=i , z = -i

2.6 dIFFerentIabIlIty
A single-valued function f (z) is said to be differentiable at a point z0 if
f ( z0 + Dz ) - f ( z0 )
f ′( z0 ) = lim exists.
Dz Æ 0 Dz
note Derivative of f(z) at a point z0 can also be written as
f ( z ) - f ( z0 )
f ′( z0 ) = lim
z Æ z0 z - z0

example 1
1+ z
Find the derivative of f ( z ) = by using the definition at z = 2.
1- z
Solution
1+ z
f (z) =
1- z
For any z,
f ( z + Dz ) - f ( z )
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
At z = 2,
f (2 + Dz ) - f (2)
f ¢(2) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
1 + (2 + Dz ) 1 + 2
-
1 - (2 + Dz ) 1 - 2
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
3 + Dz
+3
= lim -1 - Dz
Dz Æ 0 Dz
3 + Dz - 3 - 3Dz
= lim
Dz Æ 0 -(1 + Dz ) Dz
2.16 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

-2 Dz
= lim
Dz Æ 0 -(1 + Dz ) Dz
2
= lim
Dz Æ 0 1 + Dz

=2

example 2
Show that f (z) = i z3 is differentiable for all z.
Solution
f (z) = iz3
For any z,
f ( z + Dz ) - f ( z )
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
i( z + Dz )3 - iz 3
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
i ÈÎ z 3 + ( Dz )3 + 3z 2 Dz + 3z( Dz )2 ˘˚ - iz 3
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
= lim i ÈÎ( Dz ) + 3z + 3z Dz ˘˚
2 2
Dz Æ 0

= 3i z 2
f¢(z) exists for all values of z.
Hence, f (z) is differentiable.

example 3
Show that f (z)= z Im (z) is differentiable only at z = 0 and f¢(0) = 0.
Solution
f ( z ) = z Im ( z )
= ( x + iy) Im ( x + iy)
= ( x + iy) y
For any z,
f ( z + Dz ) - f ( z )
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
( z + Dz ) Im ( z + Dz ) - z Im ( z )
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
( x + iy + Dx + i Dy)( y + Dy) - ( x + iy) y
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
( x + iy) y + ( x + iy) Dy + ( Dx + i Dy)( y + Dy) - ( x + iy) y
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
 2.6 Differentiability 2.17

( x + iy)Dy + ( Dx + i Dy)( y + Dy)

= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
For f¢(z) to exist, Dz may approach zero along any path.
(i) Let the path be parallel to the x-axis, i.e., Dy = 0,
y Dx
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=y
(ii) Let the path be parallel to the y-axis, i.e., Dx = 0,
( x + iy) Dy + i Dy ( y + Dy)
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dy Æ 0 i Dy
x + iy + i( y + Dy)
= lim
Dy Æ 0 i
x + 2iy
=
i
= -ix + 2 y
Since f ¢(z) is different along different paths, f (z) is not differentiable.
At z = 0, x = 0, y = 0
\ f ¢(z) = 0 at z = 0 along all paths.
Hence, f (z) is differentiable only at z = 0.

example 4
Show that f (z) = |z|2 is continuous but not differentiable, at each point
in the plane. [Winter 2014]
Solution
Let z = x + iy
f (z) = z 2 = x2 + y2
||
2
||
z , being a polynomial function, is continuous everywhere in the z-plane.
For any z,
f ( z + Dz ) - f ( z )
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
2 2
z + Dz - z
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
( x + Dx )2 + ( y + Dy)2 - ( x 2 + y 2 )
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
x 2 + ( Dx )2 + 2 x Dx + y 2 + ( Dy)2 + 2 y Dy - x 2 - y 2
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
( Dx )2 + 2 x Dx + ( Dy)2 + 2 y Dy
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dx + i Dy
2.18 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

For f¢(z) to exist, Dz may approach zero along any path.

(i) Let the path be parallel to the x-axis, i.e., Dy = 0,
( Dx )2 + 2 x Dx
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
= lim ( Dx + 2 x )
Dx Æ 0
= 2x
(ii) Let the path be parallel to the y-axis, i.e., Dx = 0,
( Dy)2 + 2 y Dy
f ¢( z ) = lim
Dy Æ 0 i Dy
Dy + 2 y
= lim
Dy Æ 0 i
2y
=
i
= -2iy
Since f¢(z) is different along different paths, f (z) is not differentiable.

exercIse 2.2
limits
1. Use the definition of limit to prove that
z2 z -i 1
(i) lim =0 (ii) lim =
zÆ0 z z Æi z + 1 2i
2

2. Show that the limit of the function f(z) as z tends to zero does not exist.
2
Ê zˆ
(i) f (z) = Á ˜ (ii) f (z) = (z )2 , zπ0
Ë z¯
= 0, z=0

Ê 1ˆ
3. Prove that lim Á z + ˜ = 0.
zÆi Ë z¯

continuity
1. Show that the function f(z) is continuous of z = i.
z2 + 1
f (z) = , zπi
z +i
= 0, z=i

2. Discuss the continuity of the function f(z) = (x + y2) + i xy in the complex

plane.
ÈÎans.: Continuous everwhere ˘˚
 2.7 Analytic Functions 2.19

3. Show that the function f(z) is not continuous at z = i.

f (z) = z 2 , zπi
= 0, z =i

4. Determine whether the function f(z) is continuous at the origin. If not

then redefine it to make it continuous.
z Re(z)
f (z) = , zπ0
|z|
= 2, z=0

ÈÎans.: Not continuous, define f (0) = 0 ˘˚

differentiability
1. Show that the functions —
z , Re(z) and Im(z) are not differentiable in the
complex plane.
2z - i
2. Find the derivative of f (z) = at z = —i using definition.
z + zi
È 1+ i ˘
Í ans.: 2 ˙
Î ˚
3. Show that the function f(z) = z2 —
z is not differentiable in the complex
plane.
4. Determine whether the function f(z) is differentiable at the origin.
x 3 y(y - ix)
f (z) = , zπ0
x6 + y 2
= 0, z=0
ÎÈans.: No ˚˘

2.7 analytIc FunctIons

A function f(z) is said to be an analytic function if it is defined and differentiable at

each point of a region R. This function is also known as a regular or holomorphic
function.
entire Function A function f(z) is said to be an entire function if it is analytic
everywhere in the finite plane (complex plane).
An entire function is not analytic at z = •, e.g., cos z, sin z, ez and polynomial functions,
etc.
2.20 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

2.7.1 necessary conditions for f(z) to be analytic

(cauchy—riemann equations)
The necessary conditions for a function f (z) = u + iv to be an analytic function at all
the points in a region R are
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
(i) = (ii) =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Proof Let f (z) = u + iv be an analytic function and Du, Dv be the increments in u and
v corresponding to increments Dx, Dy in x and y respectively.
f ( z + Dz ) - f ( z )
f ′( z ) = lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
[(u + Du) - i(v + Dv)] - (u + iv)
= lim
Dz Æ 0 Dz
Du + i Dv
= lim … (2.1)
Dz Æ 0 Dz
Since f (z) is differentiable at each point of the region R, Dz may approach zero along
any path. Consider two paths as follows:
(i) parallel to x-axis Dy = 0
Dz = Dx + i Dy
= Dx
Substituting in Eq. (2.1),
Du + i Dv
f ′( z ) = lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
Du Dv
= lim + i lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx Dx Æ 0 Dx
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i …(2.2)
∂x ∂x

(ii) parallel to y-axis Dx = 0

Dz = Dx + i Dy
= i Dy

Substituting in Eq. (2.1),

Du + i Dv
f ′( z ) = lim
Dy Æ 0 i Dy
Du Dv
= lim + lim
Dy Æ 0i Dy DyÆ0 Dy
∂u ∂v
f ′ ( z ) = -i + …(2.3)
∂y ∂y
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.21

Since f (z) is differentiable, f ¢(z) must be unique.

Equating Eqs (2.2) and (2.3),
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = -i
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
These equations are known as Cauchy–Riemann (C–R) equations.

2.7.2  Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic

∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
For a function f (z) = u + iv, if the partial derivatives , , and are continuous
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
in the region R and = , =- then the function of f (z) is analytic.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

2.8 cauchy—rIemann equatIons In polar Form

If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function where u and v are functions of r ,q and z = reiq

then
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , = -r
∂r r ∂q ∂q ∂r

Proof f ( z ) = u + iv, z = reiq

u + iv = f (reiq ) ...(2.4)
Differentiating Eq. (2.4) partially w.r.t. r,
∂u ∂v
+i = f ¢(reiq ) ◊ eiq
∂r ∂r
= f ¢( z ) ◊ eiq
1 Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
f ¢( z ) = iq Á
+i ˜ ...(2.5)
e Ë ∂ r ∂r ¯
Differentiating Eq. (2.4) partially w.r.t. q,
∂u ∂v
+i = f ¢(reiq ) ◊ ireiq
∂q ∂q
= f ¢( z ) ◊ ireiq
1 Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
f ¢( z ) = iq Á
+i ˜ ...(2.6)
ire Ë ∂ q ∂ q¯
Since f (z) is differentiable, f ¢(z) must be unique.
2.22 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Equating Eqs (2.5) and (2.6),

1 Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ 1 Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
iq Á
+ i ˜ = iq Á +i ˜
e Ë ∂ r ∂ r ¯ ire Ë ∂ q ∂ q¯
∂u ∂v i ∂uu 1 ∂v
+i =- +
∂r ∂r r ∂q r ∂q
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =-
∂r r ∂q ∂r r ∂q
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , = -r
∂r r ∂q ∂q ∂r

example 1
Find the real and imaginary part of f (z) = z2 + 3z. [Summer 2013]
Solution
f ( z ) = z 2 + 3z
= ( x + iy)2 + 3( x + iy)
= ( x 2 + i 2 y 2 + 2ixy) + 3( x + iy)
= ( x 2 - y 2 + 3xx ) + i(2 xy + 3 y)
Real part = x2 – y2 + 3x
Imaginary part = 2xy + 3y

example 2 IMP
Find the real and imaginary parts of f ( z ) = 2 z 3 - 3z.
Solution
f ( z ) = 2 z 3 - 3z
= 2( x + iy)3 - 3( x + iy)
= 2[ x 3 + i 3 y3 + 3 x 2 ◊ iy + 3 x(iy)2 ] - 3( x + iy)
= 2[ x 3 - iy3 + i ◊ 3 x 2 y - 3 xy 2 ] - 3( x + iy)
= (2 x 3 - 6 xy 2 - 3 x ) + i(6 x 2 y - 2 y3 - 3 y)
Real part = 2 x 3 - 6 xy 2 - 3 x

Imaginary part = 6 x 2 y - 2 y3 - 3 y
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.23

example 3
1
Write the function f ( z ) = z + in f (z) = u(r, q) + iv (r, q) form.
z
[Winter 2013]
Solution
1
f (z) = z +
z
Let z = reiq
1
f ( z ) = reiq +
reiq
1
= reiq + e - iq
r
1
= r (cos q + i sin q ) + (cos q - i sin q )
r
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= Á r + ˜ cos q + i Á r - ˜ sin q
Ë r ¯ Ë r¯

example 4
Determine whether the function 2 xy + i( x 2 - y 2 ) is analytic or not.
Solution
Let f ( z ) = 2 xy + i( x 2 - y 2 )
u + iv = 2 xy + i( x 2 - y 2 )
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = 2 xy, v = x 2 - y2
∂u ∂v
= 2 y, = 2x
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= 2 x, = -2 y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ π , π-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are not satisfied.
Hence, f (z) is not analytic.
2.24 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 5 IMP
Show that f (z) = z3 is analytic everywhere. [Summer 2014]
Solution
f (z) = z3
u + iv = ( x + iy)3
= x 3 + (iy)3 + 3 x 2 iy + 3 x (iy)2
= x 3 - 3 xy 2 + i(3 x 2 y - y3 )
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 , v = 3 x 2 y - y3
∂u ∂v
= 3 x 2 - 3 y2 , = 6 xy
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= -6 xy, = 3 x 2 - 3 y2
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are satisfied.
Hence, z3 is analytic everywhere.

example 6
Test the analyticity of the function w = sin z.
Solution
w = sin z
u + iv = sin( x + iy)
= sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sin
nh y
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = sin x cosh y, v = cos x sinh y
∂u ∂v
= cos x cosh y, = - sin x sinh y
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= sin x sinh y, = cos x cosh y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are satisfied.
Hence, sin z is analytic.
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.25

example 7
Are |z|, Re (z), Im(z) analytic? Give reasons.
Solution
Let z = x + iy
z = x 2 + y2
Re( z ) = x
Im( z ) = y
Since all the above functions are real, v = 0.
∂v ∂v
\ = 0, = 0 for all functions.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
But and are not zero. Thus, C–R equations are not satisfied for all the
∂x ∂y
functions.
||
Hence, z , Re(z), Im(z) are not analytic.

example 8
State the basic difference between the limit of a function of a real variable
and that of a complex variable.
Solution
In real calculus, x approaches x0 only along the line called real line; whereas in case of
the complex variable z, z approaches z0 from any direction in the z-plane.

example 9
Show that the function f ( z ) = z is nowhere differentiable.
[Summer 2014]
Solution
f (z) = z
u + iv = x - iy
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x, v = -y
∂u ∂v
= 1, =0
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= 0, = -1
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
\ π
∂y ∂y
2.26 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

C–R equations are not satisfied.

Hence, f (z) is nowhere differentiable.

example 10
Discuss the differentiability of f (z) = x2 + iy2. [Summer 2015]
Solution
f ( z ) = x 2 + iy 2
u + iv = x 2 + iy 2
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x2 , v = y2
∂u ∂v
= 2 x, =0
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= 0, = 2y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
π except at the origin, i.e., at x = 0, y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Since C–R equations are satisfied only at the origin, f (z) is differentiable only at
z = 0.

example 11
Show that f (z) = z|z| is not analytic anywhere.
Solution
f (z) = z | z |
u + iv = ( x + iy) x 2 + y 2

= x x 2 + y 2 + iy x 2 + y 2
Comparing real and imaginary parts,

u = x x 2 + y2 , v = y x 2 + y2
∂u 1 ∂v 1
= x 2 + y2 + x ◊ ◊ 2 x, = y◊ ◊ 2x
∂x 2 x + y2
2 ∂x 2 x + y2
2

2 x 2 + y2 xy
= =
x +y
2 2
x + y2
2
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.27

∂u 1 ∂v 1
= x◊ ◊ 2 y, = x 2 + y2 + y ◊ ◊ 2y
∂y 2 x + y2
2 ∂y 2 x + y2
2

xy x 2 + 2 y2
= =
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ π , π-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are not satisfied.
Hence, f (z) is not analytic anywhere.

example 12 IMP
Find the analytic region of f ( z ) = ( x - y)2 + 2i( x + y).
Solution

f ( z ) = ( x - y ) 2 + 2i ( x + y )
u + iv = ( x - y)2 + 2i( x + y)
Comparing real and imaginary parts,

u = ( x - y )2 , v = 2( x + y )
∂u ∂v
= 2( x - y), =2
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= -2( x - y), =2
∂y ∂y
All the partial derivatives are continuous.
For f(z) to be analytic, u and v should satisfy C–R equations.

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2( x - y) = 2, - 2( x - y) = -2
x - y = 1, x- y =1
f (z) is analytic at all points satisfying x – y = 1.
Hence, the analytic region is the line x – y = 1.
2.28 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 13
Examine the analyticity of sinh z. [Winter 2014]
Solution
Let w = sinh z
u + iv = -i sin i z
= -i sin i ( x + iy)
= -i sin (ix - y)
= -i(sin ix cos y - cos ix sin y)
= -i (i sinh x cos y - cosh x sin y)
= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = sinh x cos y, v = cosh x sin y
∂u ∂v
= cosh x cos y, = sinh x sin y
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= - sinh x sin y, = cosh x cos y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are satisfied.
Hence, sinh z is analytic.

example 14
Show that w = ez is analytic everywhere in the complex plane. Hence,
dw
find .
dz
Solution
w = ez
u + iv = e x + iy
= e x eiy
= e x (cos y + i sin y)
= e x cos y + ie x sin y
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.29

Comparing real and imaginary parts,

u = e x cos y, v = e x sin y
∂u ∂v
= e x cos y, = e x sin y
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= -e x sin y, = e x cos y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are satisfied. Also ex, cos y and sin y are continuous for all values of
x and y.
Hence, ez is analytic everywhere in the complex plane.
Since w = u + iv is analytic everywhere,
dw ∂ u ∂v
= +i
dz ∂ x ∂x
= e x cos y + ie x sin y
= e x (cos y + i sin y)
= e x eiy
= e x + iy
= ez

example 15
Prove that cosh z is an analytic function and, hence, find its derivative.
Solution
f ( z ) = cosh z
= cos iz
u + iv = cos i( x + iy)
= cos(ix - y)
= cos ix cos y + sin ix sin y
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = cosh x cos y, v = sinh x sin y
∂u ∂v
= sinh x cos y, = cosh x sin y
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= - cosh x sin y, = sinh x cos y
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2.30 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

C–R equations are satisfied.

Hence, cosh z is an analytic function.
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
= -i sin ix cos y + i cos ix sin y
= -i(sin ix cos y - cos ix sin y)
= -i sin(ix - y)
= -i sin(ix + i 2 y)
= -i sin i( x + iy)
= -i 2 sinh( x + iy)
= sinh z

example 16
Find the constants a, b, c if f ( z ) = x + ay + i(bx + cy) is analytic.
Solution
f ( z ) = ( x + ay) + i(bx + cy)
u + iv = ( x + ay) + i(bx + cy)
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x + ay, v = bx + cy
∂u ∂v
= 1, =b
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= a, =c
∂y ∂y
Since f (z) is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
1 = c, a = -b
c =1

example 17
Find the constants a, b, c, d so that the function
f ( z ) = x 2 + axy + by 2 + i(cx 2 + dxy + y 2 ) is analytic.
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.31

Solution
f ( z ) = x 2 + axy + by 2 + i(cx 2 + dxy + y 2 )
u + iv = x 2 + axy + by 2 + i(cx 2 + dxy + y 2 )
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x 2 + axy + by 2 , v = cx 2 + dxy + y 2
∂u ∂v
= 2 x + ay, = 2cx + dy
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= ax + 2by, = dx + 2 y
∂y ∂y
Since f(z) is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2 x + ay = dx + 2 y … (1), ax + 2by = -(2cx + dy) … (2)
Comparing coefficients of x and y in Eqs (1) and (2),
d = 2, a=2
a = -2c, 2b = - d
c = -1, b = -1

example 18
Find the values of a and b such that the function
f ( z ) = x 2 + ay 2 - 2 xy + i(bx 2 - y 2 + 2 xy) is analytic. Also, find f¢(z).
Solution
f ( z ) = ( x 2 + ay 2 - 2 xy) + i(bx 2 - y 2 + 2 xy)
u + iv = ( x 2 + ay 2 - 2 xy) + i(bx 2 - y 2 + 2 xy)
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = x 2 + ay 2 - 2 xy, v = bx 2 - y 2 + 2 xy
∂u ∂v
= 2 x - 2 y, = 2bx + 2 y
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= 2 ay - 2 x, = -2 y + 2 x
∂y ∂y
Since f(z) is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2 x - 2 y = -2 y + 2 x … (1), 2 ay - 2 x = -2bx - 2 y … (2)
2.32 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Comparing coefficients of x and y in Eqs (1) and (2),

2 a = -2, - 2 = -2b
a = -1, b =1
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= (2 x - 2 y) + i(2bx + 2 y)
= (2 x - 2 y ) + i (2 x + 2 y ) [∵ b = 1]
= 2( x + i y + ix + iy)
2
[∵ i 2 = -1]
= 2[ x(1 + i ) + iy(1 + i )]
= 2(1 + i )( x + iy)
= 2(1 + i )z

example 19
If u + iv is analytic, show that v – iu and –v + iu are also analytic.
Solution
Since u + iv is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u ∂v
= … (1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=- … (2 )
∂y ∂x

(i) C–R equations for v – iu are

∂v ∂(-u) ∂u ∂v ∂(-u) ∂u
= =- , =- =
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x
Equations (1) and (2) are satisfied.
Hence, v – iu is analytic.
(ii) C–R equations for –v + iu are
∂(- v) ∂u ∂(- v) ∂u
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
- = , =
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Equations (1) and (2) are satisfied.
Hence, –v + iu is also analytic.
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.33

example 20 IMP
Show that an analytic function with constant imaginary part is constant.
Solution
f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Imaginary part is constant.
v=c
∂v ∂v
= 0, =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
But = =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
Now, f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= 0 + i ◊0
=0
Hence, f (z) = constant

example 21
If f ( z ) and f ( z ) are both analytic then show that f (z) is constant.
Solution
Let f ( z ) = u + iv
f ( z ) = u - iv
f (z) is analytic.
∂u ∂v
= … (1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=- … (2 )
∂y ∂x
f ( z ) is analytic.
∂u ∂(- v)
=
∂x ∂y
∂v
=- … (3)
∂y
∂u ∂(- v)
=-
∂y ∂x
∂v
= … ( 4)
∂x
2.34 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Adding Eqs (1) and (3),

∂u
2 =0
∂x
∂u
=0
∂x
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (4),
∂v
0=2
∂x
∂v
=0
∂x
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= 0 + i ◊0
=0
Hence, f (z) = constant

example 22
If f(z) is an analytic function with constant modulus, prove that f(z) is
constant.
Solution
f ( z ) = constant

u2 + v 2 = constant
u2 + v 2 = constant … (1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) partially w.r.t x,
∂u ∂v
2u + 2v =0
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
u +v =0 …(2)
∂x ∂x
Differentiating Eq. (1) partially w.r.t y,
∂u ∂v
2u + 2v =0
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
u +v =0 …(3)
∂y ∂y
Since f (z) = u + iv is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.35

Substituting in Eq. (3),

Ê ∂v ˆ ∂u
uÁ- ˜ + v =0
Ë ∂x ¯ ∂x
∂u ∂v
v -u =0 …(4)
∂x ∂x
Multiplying Eq. (2) by u and Eq. (4) by v and adding,
∂u
(u2 + v 2 )=0
∂x
∂u
=0
∂x
Multiplying Eq. (2) by v and Eq. (4) by u and subtracting,
∂v
(v 2 + u2 ) =0
∂x
∂v
=0
∂x
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= 0 + i ◊0
=0
Hence, f (z) = constant

example 23
Show that every analytic function w = u + iv can be expressed as a
function of z alone, not as a function of z–.
Solution
z = x + iy, z = x - iy
u v
1 1
x = ( z + z ), y = (z - z )
2 2i
y x y
\ u and v can be considered as functions of z and z–
x
–
(Fig. 2.13). Hence, w also depends on z and z .
z z
w = u + iv
∂w ∂u ∂v Fig. 2.13
= +i
∂z ∂z ∂z
Ê ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ˆ Ê ∂v ∂x ∂ v ∂ y ˆ
=Á ◊ + ◊ +i ◊ + ◊
Ë ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ˜¯ ÁË ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ˜¯
È ∂u 1 ∂u Ê 1 ˆ ˘ È ∂v 1 ∂v Ê 1 ˆ ˘
= Í ◊ + Á- ˜˙ +iÍ ◊ + Á- ˜˙
Î ∂x 2 ∂y Ë 2i ¯ ˚ Î ∂x 2 ∂y Ë 2i ¯ ˚
2.36 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

1 ∂u i ∂u i ∂v 1 ∂v
= + + -
2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y
È 1 ∂u i ∂u i ∂u 1 ∂u ˘
=Í + - - ˙ [ Using C- R equations ]
Î 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂y 2 ∂x ˚
=0
\ w does not depend on z–.
–
Hence, w can be expressed as a function of z alone, not as a function of z .

example 24
dw ∂w ∂w
If w = f (z) is analytic, prove that = = -i , where z = x + iy.
dz ∂x ∂y
Solution
Let w = u + iv
Since w is an analytic function,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
w = f ( z ) = u + iv
dw ∂u ∂v
= f ′( z ) = +i
dz ∂x ∂x
∂v Ê ∂u ˆ
= +i - [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ÁË ∂y ˜¯
Ê 1 ∂v ∂u ˆ
= iÁ -
Ë i ∂y ∂y ˜¯
Ê ∂v ∂ u ˆ
= i Á -i - ˜
Ë ∂y ∂y ¯
Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
= -i Á +i ˜
Ë ∂y ∂y ¯
∂
= -i (u + iv)
∂y
∂w
= -i ... (1)
∂y
Again, dw ∂u ∂v
= f ¢( z ) = +i
dz ∂x ∂x
∂
= (u + iv)
∂x
∂w
= ... (2)
∂x
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.37

From Eqs (1) and (2),

dw ∂w ∂w
= = -i
dz ∂x ∂y

example 25 IMP
Show that f ( z ) = xy is not differentiable at origin although C–R
equations are satisfied. [Summer 2015]

Solution
f ( z) = xy

u + iv = xy

Comparing real and imaginary parts,

u= xy , v=0
∂u u( x + Dx, y) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
∂u u( Dx, 0) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
0-0
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=0
∂u u( x, y + Dy) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
∂u u(0, Dy) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
0-0
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy

=0
∵ v=0
∂v ∂v
= 0, =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence, C–R equations are satisfied at the origin.
2.38 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

f ( z ) - f (0 )
Now, f ′(0) = lim
zÆ0 z-0
xy - 0
= lim
z Æ 0 x + iy

Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.

x.mx
f ′(0) = lim
x Æ0 x + imx
x m
= lim
x Æ0 x(1 + im)
m
= lim
x Æ0 1 + im
Since limit depends on m (i.e., on the path), it is not unique. Therefore, f¢(0) does not
exist.
Hence, f (z) is not analytic at the origin.

example 26
For what values of z does the function w defined by z = e (cos u + i sin u )
-v

cease to be analytic?
Solution
z = e - v (cos u + i sin u)
= e - v eiu
2
= ei v eiu
=e( )
i iv + u

= eiw
log z = log eiw
= iw
1
w = log z
i
= -i log z
dw i
=-
dz z
dw dw
w ceases to be analytic, where does not exist. i.e., Æ •.
dz dz
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.39

dw
At z = 0 Æ •.
dz
Hence, w is not analytic at z = 0.

example 27 IMP
x 3 (1 + i ) - y3 (1 - i )
Prove that f ( z ) = , zπ0
x 2 + y2
= 0, z=0
satisfy C–R equations at the origin but f¢(0) does not exist.
Solution
x 3 (1 + i ) - y3 (1 - i )
f (z) = , zπ0
x 2 + y2
and f (0 ) = 0
Ê x 3 - y3 ˆ Ê x 3 + y3 ˆ
u + iv = Á 2 ˜ +iÁ ˜
Ë x + y2 ¯ Ë x 2 + y2 ¯
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
x 3 - y3 x 3 + y3
u= , v=
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
∂u u( x + Dx, y) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
∂u u( Dx, 0) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
Dx - 0
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=1
∂u u( x, y + Dy) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
∂u u(0, Dy) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
-( Dy) - 0
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy
= -1
∂v v( x + Dx, y) - v( x, y)
= lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
2.40 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂v v( Dx, 0) - v(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
Dx - 0
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=1
∂v v( x, y + Dy) - v( x, y)
= lim
∂y D y Æ 0 Dy
∂v v(0, Dy) - v(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
Dy
= lim
x Æ 0 Dy

=1

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence, C–R equations are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z ) - f (0 )
Now, f ′(0) = lim
zÆ0 z-0
( x - y 3 ) + i( x 3 + y 3 )
3
-0
( x 2 + y2 )
= lim
zÆ0 x + iy
Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.
( x 3 - m 3 x 3 ) + i( x 3 + m 3 x 3 )
f ′(0) = lim
zÆ0 ( x 2 + m 2 x 2 )( x + imx )
(1 - m3 ) + i(1 + m3 )
= lim
x Æ0 (1 + m 2 )(1 + im)
Since limit depends on m (i.e., on the path), it is not unique.
Therefore, f¢(0) does not exist.
Hence, f (z) is not analytic at the origin.

example 28 IMP
z2
Show that the function f ( z ) = , zπ0
z
= 0, z=0
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.41

satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations at the origin, but f¢(0) fails to

exist. [Winter 2012]
Solution
z2
f (z) = , zπ0
z
( x - iy)2 ( x - iy)
u + iv = ¥
( x + iy) ( x - iy)

( x 2 - y 2 - 2ixy)( x - iy)
=
x 2 + y2

( x 3 - xy 2 - 2 xy 2 ) - i( x 2 y - y3 + 2 x 2 y)
=
x 2 + y2
( x 3 - 3 xy 2 ) Ê y3 - 3 x 2 y ˆ
= + i Á 2 ˜
( x 2 + y2 ) Ë x + y2 ¯
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
x 3 - 3 xy 2 y3 - 3 x 2 y
u= , v=
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
Also, f (z) = 0 when z = 0, i.e., u = 0, v = 0 at the origin.
∂u u( x + Dx, y) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
∂u u( Dx, 0) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
Dx - 0
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=1
∂u u( x, y + Dy) - u( x, y)
= lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
∂u u(0, Dy) - u(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
0-0
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy

=0
∂v v( x + Dx, y) - v( x, y)
= lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
2.42 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂v v( Dx, 0) - v(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂x Dx Æ0 Dx
0-0
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
=0
∂v v( x, y + Dy) - v( x, y)
= lim
∂y DyÆ0 Dy
∂v v(0, Dy) - v(0, 0)
At the origin, = lim
∂y Dy Æ 0 Dy
Dy - 0
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy
=1
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = = 1, =- =0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence, C–R equations are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z ) - f (0 )
Now, f ¢(0) = lim
zÆ0 z-0
( x 3 - 3 xy 2 ) + i( y3 - 3 x 2 y)
x 2 + y2
= lim
zÆ0 x + iy
Let z Æ 0 along the line y = mx.
( x 3 - 3m 2 x 3 ) + i(m3 x 3 - 3mx 3 )
f ¢(0) = lim
x Æ0 ( x 2 + m 2 x 2 )( x + imx )
(1 - 3m 2 ) + i(m3 - 3m)
= lim
x Æ0 (1 + m 2 )(1 + im)
(1 - 3m 2 ) + i(m3 - 3m)
=
(1 + m 2 )(1 + im)
Since the limit depends on m (i.e., on the path), it is not unique.
Hence, f¢(0) does not exist.

example 29
Find p such that the function f ( z ) = r 2 cos 2q + ir 2 sin pq is analytic.
Solution
f ( z ) = r 2 cos 2q + ir 2 sin pq
u + iv = r 2 cos 2q + ir 2 sin pq
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.43

Comparing real and imaginary parts,

u = r 2 cos 2q , v = r 2 sin pq
Since f (z) is analytic, C–R equations are satisfied.
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , = -r
∂r r ∂q ∂q ∂r
From the second equation,
r 2 (-2 sin 2q ) = -r (2r sin pq )
sin 2q = sin pq
On comparing,
p=2

example 30 IMP
1
Show that f ( z ) = is analytic everywhere except at z = 0 and find
z
f¢(z).
Solution
Let z = reiq
1
f (z) =
z
1
u + iv = iq
re
1
= e - iq
r
1
= (cos q - i sin q )
r
1 1
u = cos q , v = - sin q
r r
∂u 1 ∂v 1
= - 2 cos q , = sin q
∂r r ∂r r 2
∂u 1 ∂v 1
= - sin q , = - cos q
∂q r ∂q r
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , = -r
∂r r ∂q ∂q ∂r
C–R equations are satisfied.
All the derivatives are continuous everywhere except at r = 0 (i.e., z = 0).
Hence, f (z) is analytic everywhere except at z = 0.
Now, f (z) = u + iv
2.44 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Differentiating w.r.t. r,
∂z ∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) ◊ = +i
∂r ∂r ∂r
1 1
f ′( z ) ◊ eiq = - 2 cos q + i 2 sin q
r r
(cos q - i sin q )
=-
r2
-eiq
f ′( z ) =
r 2 eiq
1
= - 2 2iq
r e
1
= - iq 2
(re )
1
=- 2
z

example 31
Show that f (z) = log z is analytic everywhere except at the origin and
find its derivative.
Solution
Let z = reiq
f ( z ) = log z
u + iv = log(reiq )
= log r + log eiq
= log r + iq
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
u = log r , v =q
∂u 1 ∂v
= , =0
∂r r ∂r
∂u ∂v
= 0, =1
∂q ∂q
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
\ = , = -r
∂r r ∂q ∂q ∂r
C–R equations are satisfied.
 2.8 Cauchy—Riemann Equations in Polar Form 2.45

∂u 1
But = is not continuous at r = 0 (i.e., z = 0).
∂r r
Hence, log z is analytic everywhere except at the origin (z = 0).
Now, f (z) = u + iv
Differentiating w.r.t. r,
∂z ∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) ◊ = +i
∂r ∂r ∂r
1
f ′( z ) ◊ eiq = + i(0)
r
1
f ′( z ) =
reiq
1
=
z

exercIse 2.3
1. Show that an analytic function with a constant real part is constant.
2. Determine which of the following functions are analytic.
(i) xy + iy (ii) ex(cos y – i sin y) (iii) z2 + z (iv) z3 (v) z + 2z–
[ans.: (i) not analytic (ii) not analytic (iii) analytic
(iv) analytic (v) not analytic]

3. Find the constants a, b, c, d, and e if the function

f (z) = (ax 4 + bx 2 y 2 + cy 4 + dx 2 - 2y 2 ) + i(4 x 3 y - exy 3 + 4 xy ) is analytic.

[ans.: a = 1, b = -6, c = 1, d = 2, e = 4 ]
4. Determine p such that the function
1 Ê px ˆ
f (z) = log(x 2 + y 2 ) + tan-1 Á ˜ is analytic.
2 Ë y ¯
[ans.: p = –1]
5. For what values of z does the function cease to be analytic?
z2 - 4 z
(i) (ii) (iii) tan2 z
z2 + 1 z2 - 1
È (2n - 1)p ˘
Í ans. : (i) z = ±i (ii) z = ±1 (iii) z = , n = 1, 2, ...˙
Î 2 ˚
2.46 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

xy 2 (x + iy )
6. Show that f (z) = ,z π 0
x2 + y 4
= 0, z=0
is not analytic at the origin although C–R equations are satisfied at the
origin.

2.9 harmonIc FunctIons

A real function f of two variables x and y is said to be a harmonic function in a region R
if it has continuous second-order partial derivatives and satisfies the Laplace equation

∂2f ∂2f
+ =0
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂2 ∂2
—2f = 0, where — 2 = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2

2.10 propertIes oF analytIc FunctIons

(1) If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function, u and v are harmonic functions.
Proof
f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function.
∂u ∂v
=  (2.7)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=-  (2.8)
∂y ∂x
Differentiating Eq. (2.7) w.r.t. x and Eq. (2.8) w.r.t. y,
∂2 u ∂2 v
=  (2.9)
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 v
=-  (2.10)
∂y 2 ∂y ∂x
Adding Eqs (2.9) and (2.10),
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
+ = -
∂x 2
∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
È ∂2 v ∂2 v ˘
=0 Í∵ = ˙
ÍÎ ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ˙˚
Hence, u is a harmonic function.
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.47

Differentiating Eq. (2.7) w.r.t. y and Eq. (2.8) w.r.t. x,

∂2 u ∂2 v
=  (2.11)
∂y ∂x ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 v
=- 2  (2.12)
∂x ∂y ∂x
Subtracting Eq. (2.12) from Eq. (2.11),
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
- = + 2
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x
∂2 v ∂2 v È ∂2 u ∂2 u ˘
+ =0 Í∵ = ˙
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ÍÎ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ˙˚
Hence, v is a harmonic function.
note u and v of an analytic function u + iv are called conjugate harmonic functions
of each other.
(2) If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function then the family of curves u(x, y) = c1 and
the family of curves v(x, y) = c2 cut orthogonally.
Proof
f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function.
∂u ∂v
=  (2.13)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
and =-  (2.14)
∂y ∂x
u(x, y) = c1 (Fig. 2.14) u
∂u dx ∂u dy
◊ + ◊ =0
∂x dx ∂y dx x y
∂ u ∂ u dy
+ ◊ =0
∂x ∂ y dx x

Ê ∂u ˆ Fig. 2.14
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=- = m1 , say
dx Ê ∂u ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯

which represents the slope of the family of curves u(x, y) = c1

v(x, y) = c2
∂v dx ∂v dy
◊ + ◊ =0
∂x dx ∂y dx
2.48 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂ v ∂ v dy
+ ◊ =0
∂x ∂y dx
Ê ∂v ˆ
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=- = m2 , say
dx Ê ∂v ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯
which represents slope of family of curves v(x, y) = c2
È Ê ∂u ˆ ˘ È Ê ∂v ˆ ˘
Í Á ˜ ˙Í Á ˜ ˙
Ë ∂x ¯ ˙ Í Ë ∂x ¯ ˙
m1m2 = Í- -
Í Ê ∂u ˆ ˙ Í Ê ∂v ˆ ˙
Í Á ˜ ˙Í Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎ Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚
È Ê ∂u ˆ ˘ È Ê ∂u ˆ ˘
ÍÁ ˜ ˙ Í -Á ˜ ˙
Ë ∂x ¯ ˙ Í Ë ∂y ¯ ˙
=Í [ Using Eqs (2.7) and (2.8)]
Í Ê ∂u ˆ ˙ Í Ê ∂u ˆ ˙
ÍÁ ˜ ˙ Í Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎ Ë ∂x ¯ ˙˚
= -1
Hence, both the families of curves cut orthogonally.
note In polar form, the condition of orthogonality for the families of curves u(r, q)
= c1 and v(r, q) = c2 is
Ê dq ˆ Ê dq ˆ
ÁË r dr ˜¯ ◊Ár ˜ = -1
u=c
Ë dr ¯ v = c
1 2

example 1 IMP
Show that u = 2x – x3 + 3xy2 is harmonic.
Solution
u = 2 x - x 3 + 3 xy 2
∂u ∂u
= 2 - 3 x 2 + 3 y2 , = 6 xy
∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 u
= -6 x = 6x
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = -6 x + 6 x
∂x 2
∂y 2
=0
Hence, u is harmonic.
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.49

example 2
Verify whether the function u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 + 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 1 is harmonic.
Solution
u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 + 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 1
∂u ∂u
= 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 6 x, = -6 xy - 6 y
∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 u
= 6 x + 6, = -6 x - 6
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = (6 x + 6) + (-6 x - 6)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
Hence, u is harmonic.

example 3
If f (z) = ez then show that u and v are harmonic functions.
Solution
f (z) = ez
u + iv = e x + iy
= e x eiy
= e x (cos y + i sin y)
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
=

u = e x cos y, v = e x sin y
∂u ∂v
= e x cos y, = e x sin y
∂x ∂x
∂2 u ∂2 v
= e x cos y, = e x sin y
∂x 2
∂x 2

∂u ∂v
= -e x sin y, = e x cos y
∂y ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 v
= - e x cos y, = -e x sin y
∂y 2
∂y 2

∂ u
2
∂ u
2
+ = e x cos y + (- e x cos y)
∂x 2
∂y 2

=0
2.50 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂2 v ∂2 v
+ = e x sin y + (-e x sin y)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
Hence, u and v are harmonic functions.

example 4
Prove that u = e- y cos x and v = e - x sin y the satisfy the Laplace equation,
but u + iv is not an analytic function of z.
Solution
u = e - y cos x , v = e - x sin y
∂u ∂v
= -e - y sin x, = -e - x sin y
∂x ∂x
∂2 u ∂2 v
= -e- y cos x, = e - x sin y
∂x 2 ∂x 2
∂u ∂v
= -e - y cos x, = e - x cos y
∂y ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 v
= e - y cos x, = -e - x sin y
∂y 2 ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = -e - y cos x + e - y cos x
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
∂ v
2
∂ v
2
+ = e - x sin y - e - x sin y
∂x 2
∂y 2
=0
Hence, u and v satisfy the Laplace equation.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
π , π-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C–R equations are not satisfied.
Hence, u + iv is not an analytic function.

example 5 IMP
y
Prove that u = x 2 - y 2 and v = - are harmonic but u + iv is not
x + y2
2

regular.
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.51

Solution
y
u = x 2 - y2 , v=-
x + y2
2

∂u ∂v y 2 xy
= 2 x, = (2 x ) = 2
∂x ∂ x ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x + y 2 )2
∂2 u ∂2 v È ( x 2 + y 2 )2 - x ◊ 2( x 2 + y 2 )2 ◊ 2 x ˘
= 2, = 2 y Í ˙
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ÍÎ ( x 2 + y 2 )4 ˙˚
∂u 2 y( y - 3 x )
2 2
= -2 y =
∂y ( x 2 + y 2 )3
∂2 u ∂v È ( x 2 + y 2 ) - y (2 y ) ˘
= -2 = -Í ˙
∂y 2 ∂y ÎÍ ( x + y )
2 2 2
˙˚

x 2 - y2
=-
( x 2 + y 2 )2
y2 - x 2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
∂2 v 2 y( x 2 + y 2 )2 - ( y 2 - x 2 ) ◊ 2( x 2 + y 2 ) ◊ 2 y
=
∂y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )4
2 y( x 2 + y 2 - 2 y 2 + 2 x 2 )
=
( x 2 + y 2 )3
2 y(3 x 2 - y 2 )
=
( x 2 + y 2 )3
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = 2-2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
∂2 v ∂2 v 2 y( y 2 - 3 x 2 ) 2 y(3 x 2 - y 2 )
- = +
∂x 2
∂y 2
(x + y )
2 2 3
( x 2 + y 2 )3
=0
Hence, u and v are harmonic.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
π , π-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

C–R equations are not satisfied.

Hence, u + iv is not regular.
2.52 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 6
If u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic functions in a region R, prove that the
Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
function Á - ˜ + i Á + ˜ is an analytic function of z = x + iy.
Ë ∂y ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
Solution
Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ Ê ∂u ∂ v ˆ
Let U + iV = Á - ˜ + i Á +
Ë ∂y ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ˜¯
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
U= - , V= +
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂U ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂V ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 v
= - , = +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x 2 ∂ x ∂ x 2 ∂x ∂y
∂U ∂ 2 u ∂2 v ∂V ∂2 u ∂2 v
= - , = + 2
∂y ∂y 2 ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 u ∂2 v
= - , = + 2
∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y

Since u and v are harmonic functions,

∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
+ = 0, + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
=- , =-
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂U ∂2 u ∂2 v
\ =- 2 -
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂V ∂2 u ∂2 v
and = -
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x 2
∂U ∂V ∂U ∂V
= , =-
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Hence, U + iV, i.e., the given function, is analytic.

example 7
Verify that the families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally
when u + iv = z3.
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.53

Solution
u + iv = z 3
= ( x + iy)3
= x 3 + i 3 y3 + 3 x 2 ◊ iy + 3 x ◊ i 2 y 2
= ( x 3 - 3 xy 2 ) + i(3 x 2 y - y3 )
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
=

u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 , v = 3 x 2 y - y3
Slope of families of curves u = c1 is

Ê ∂u ˆ
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=-
dx Ê ∂u ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯

3 x 2 - 3 y2
=-
-6 xy
x 2 - y2
= = m1 , say
2 xy

Slope of families of curves v = c2 is

Ê ∂v ˆ
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=-
dx Ê ∂v ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯
6 xy
=-
3 x - 3 y2
2

2 xy
=- 2 = m2 , say
x - y2
Ê x 2 - y2 ˆ Ê 2 xy ˆ
m1m2 = Á ˜ Á - 2 ˜
Ë 2 xy ¯ Ë x - y 2 ¯
= -1
Hence, families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally.

example 8
Verify that the families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally,
2
when w = ez .
2.54 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Solution
2
w = ez
2
u + iv = e( x + iy )
2
- y2 + 2 ixy
= ex
2
- y2 i 2 xy
= ex e
2 2
-y
= ex (cos 2 xy + i sin 2xy)

Comparing real and imaginary parts,

2
- y2 2
- y2
u = ex cos 2 xy, v = ex sin 2 xy
Slope of families of curves u = c1 is
Ê ∂u ˆ
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=-
dx Ê ∂u ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯
2
- y2 2
- y2
ex ◊ 2 x cos 2 xy + e x (-2 y sin 2 xy)
=- 2 2 2 2
-y -y
ex (-2 y) cos 2 xy + e x (-2 x sin 2 xy)
x cos 2 xy - y sin 2 xy
=
y cos 2 xy + x sin 2 xy
= m1 , say
Slope of families of curves v = c2 is
Ê ∂v ˆ
dy ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=-
dx Ê ∂v ˆ
ÁË ∂y ˜¯
2
- y2 2
- y2
ex ◊ 2 x sin 2 xy + e x (2 y cos 2 xy)
=-
x 2 - y2 x 2 - y2
e (-2 y)sin 2 xy + e (2 x cos 2 xy)
x sin 2 xy + y cos 2 xy
=-
- y sin 2 xy + x cos 2 xy
= m2 , say
Ê x cos 2 xy - y sin 2 xy ˆ Ê x sin 2 xy + y cos 2 xy ˆ
m1 m2 = Á -
Ë x sin 2 xy + y cos 2 xy ˜¯ ÁË x cos 2 xy - y sin 2 xy ˜¯
= -1
Hence, families of curves u = c1 and v = c2 cut orthogonally.
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.55

example 9
Show that the families of the curves r n = a sec nq and r n = b cosec nq
cut orthogonally.
Solution
Let u = r n - a sec nq = 0  (1)
and v = r - b cosec nq = 0
n
 (2 )
Differentiating Eq. (1) w.r.t. r,
dq
nr n -1 - a(sec nq tan nq ) ◊ n =0
dr
dq r n -1
=
dr a sec nq tan nq
dq rn
r =
dr a sec nq tan nq
a sec nq
=
a sec nq tan nq
= cot nq
= m1 , say
Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. r,
dq
nr n -1 - b(-cosec nq cot nq )n =0
dr
dq -r n -1
=
dr b cosec nq cot nq
dq rn
r =-
dr b cosec nq cot nq
rn
=-
r n cot nq
1
=-
cot nq
= m2 , say
Ê 1 ˆ
m1 m2 = cot nq Á -
Ë cot nq ˜¯
= -1
Hence, families of the given curves cut orthogonally.
2.56 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 10 IMP

∂2 ∂2∂2
Show that 2 + 2 = 4 .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂ z
Solution
Let f (z) be a function of x and y (Fig. 2.15).
where z = x + iy f
z = x - iy
1 x y
\ x = (z + z )
2
1 z
y = (z - z )
2i Fig. 2.15
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= ◊ + ◊
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z
∂f Ê 1 ˆ ∂f Ê 1 ˆ
= +
∂x ÁË 2 ˜¯ ∂y ÁË 2i ˜¯
1 Ê ∂f 1 ∂f ˆ
= +
2 ÁË ∂x i ∂y ˜¯
∂ ∂ 1 ∂
2 = + (1)
∂z ∂x i ∂y
∂f ∂ f ∂ x ∂ f ∂y
= ◊ + ◊
∂ z ∂x ∂ z ∂y ∂ z
∂f Ê 1 ˆ ∂f Ê 1 ˆ
= + -
∂x ÁË 2 ˜¯ ∂y ÁË 2i ˜¯
1 Ê ∂f 1 ∂f ˆ
= -
2 ÁË ∂x i ∂y ˜¯
∂ ∂ 1 ∂
2 = - (2)
∂ z ∂x i ∂y

From Eqs (1) and (2),

∂ Ê ∂ ˆ Ê ∂ 1 ∂ ˆÊ ∂ 1 ∂ ˆ
2 2 = + -
∂z ÁË ∂z ˜¯ ÁË ∂x i ∂y ˜¯ ÁË ∂x i ∂y ˜¯
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
4 = 2 + 2
∂z ∂ z ∂x ∂y

This is also known as the complex form of the Laplace equation.

 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.57

example 11
If f (z) = u + iv is analytic in the domain D then prove that
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 2
Á 2 + 2˜
Re f ( z ) = 2 f ¢( z ) . [Summer 2015]
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯

Solution
Let f (z) = u + iv
Since f (z) is analytic, u and v are harmonic functions.
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ =0 ...(1)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ =0 ...(2)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂u ∂v
f ¢( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
2 2
Ê ∂u ˆ Ê ∂v ˆ
f ¢( z ) = Á ˜ + Á ˜
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2
Á 2 + 2 ˜ Re f ( z ) = Á 2 + 2 ˜ u
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
∂2 ∂2
= u2 + u2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ Ê ∂u ˆ ∂ Ê ∂u ˆ
= Á 2u ˜ + 2u
∂x Ë ∂x ¯ ∂y ÁË ∂yy ˜¯
È ∂ 2 u Ê ∂u ˆ 2 ∂ 2 u Ê ∂u ˆ ˘
2
= 2 Íu 2 + Á ˜ + u 2 + Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ ∂x Ë ∂x ¯ ∂y Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚
È Ê ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ˆ Ê ∂u ˆ 2 Ê ∂u ˆ 2 ˘
= 2 Íu Á 2 + 2 ˜ + Á ˜ + Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚
ÈÊ ∂u ˆ 2 Ê ∂u ˆ 2 ˘
= 2 ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ [ Using Eq. (1)]
ÍÎË ∂x ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ ˙˚
2
= 2 f ¢( z )
2.58 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 12
If f (z) is an analytic function of z, prove that
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 2
Á 2 + 2 ˜ f ( z ) = 4 f ′( z ) .
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
Solution
Let f (z) = u + iv
Since f (z) is analytic, u and v are harmonic functions.
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ =0  (1)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ =0  (2 )
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
2 2
Ê ∂u ˆ Ê ∂v ˆ
f ′( z ) = Á ˜ + Á ˜
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯
2 2
2 Ê ∂u ˆ Ê ∂v ˆ
f ′( z ) = Á ˜ + Á ˜  (3)
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2
Á 2 + 2 ˜ f ( z ) = Á 2 + 2 ˜ (u + v )
2
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ¯

=
∂2
∂x 2
(u2 + v 2 ) +
∂2
∂y 2
(u 2
+ v2 )
∂ Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ ∂ Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ
= Á 2u + 2 v ˜ + Á 2u + 2v ˜
∂x Ë ∂x ∂x ¯ ∂y Ë ∂y ∂y ¯
ÈÏ 2
Ô ∂ u Ê ∂u ˆ ¸Ô ÏÔ ∂ v Ê ∂v ˆ ¸Ô ÏÔ ∂ u Ê ∂u ˆ ¸Ô
2 2 2 2 2
= 2 ÍÌu 2 + Á ˜ ˝ + Ìv 2 + Á ˜ ˝ + Ìu 2 + Á ˜ ˝
Í Ô ∂x Ë ∂x ¯ Ô Ô ∂x Ë ∂x ¯ Ô Ô ∂y Ë ∂y ¯ Ô
ÎÓ ˛ Ó ˛ Ó ˛
ÏÔ ∂2 v Ê ∂v ˆ 2 ¸Ô˘
+ Ì v 2 + Á ˜ ˝˙
ÔÓ ∂y Ë ∂y ¯ Ô˛˙˚
È Ê ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ˆ Ê ∂u ˆ 2 Ê ∂v ˆ 2 Ê ∂u ˆ Ê ∂v ˆ 2 2
= 2 Íu Á 2 + 2 ˜ + Á ˜ + Á ˜ + Á ˜ + Á ˜
Í Ë ∂x
Î ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ Ë ∂y ¯

Ê ∂2 v ∂2 v ˆ ˘
+v Á 2 + 2 ˜ ˙
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ ˙˚
 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.59

ÈÊ ∂u ˆ 2 Ê ∂v ˆ 2 Ê ∂v ˆ 2 Ê ∂u ˆ 2 ˘ È Using equations (1) and (2 ) ˘

= 2 ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ + Á - ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ Í ˙
ÍÎË ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎand C- R equations ˙˚
ÈÊ ∂u ˆ 2 Ê ∂v ˆ 2 ˘
= ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙
4
ÍÎË ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ¯ ˙˚
2
= 4 f ′( z )

Aliter
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ ∂2 È
f ( z ) ◊ f ( z )˘˚
2
Á 2 + ˜ f ( z ) = 4
Ë ∂x ∂y 2 ¯ ∂z ∂ z Î
∂2
=4
∂z ∂ z
[ f (z) ◊ f (zz )]
∂ È∂ ˘
=4 Í
∂z Î ∂ z
{ f ( z ) ◊ f ( z )}˙
˚
∂ È ∂ ˘
=4 f ( z) f ( z )˙ ÈÎ∵ f ( z ) iss a function of z alone ˘˚
∂z ÍÎ ∂z ˚
∂
=4
∂z
[ f ( z ) ◊ f ′( z )]
∂
= 4 f ′( z )
∂z
f ( z) [∵ f ′( z ) isa function of z alone ]
= 4 f ′( z ) f ′( z )
= 4 f ′( z ) f ′( z )
2
= 4 f ′( z )

example 13
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ
If f (z) is an analytic function of z, prove that Á 2 + 2 ˜ log f ( z ) = 0.
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
Solution
Let f ( z ) = u + iv
f ( z ) = u2 + v 2
2
f ( z ) = u2 + v 2
2.60 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Since f (z) is an analytic function, u and v are harmonic functions.

∂2 u ∂2 u
+ =0  (1)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ =0  (2 )
∂x 2 ∂y 2
1

log f ( z ) = log f ( z )( 2 2
)
1 2
=
log f ( z )
2
1
= log(u2 + v 2 )
2
Ê ∂ 2
∂ ˆ
2 Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ È 1 ˘
Á 2 + 2˜
log f ( z ) = Á 2 + 2 ˜ Í2
log(u2 + v 2 )˙
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Î ˚
1 È ∂2 ∂2 ˘
= Í 2 log(u + v ) + 2 log(u + v )˙
2 2 2 2
2 ÍÎ ∂x ∂y ˙˚
∂2 ∂ È 1 Ê ∂u ∂v ˆ ˘
log(u2 + v 2 ) = Í ÁË 2u ∂x + 2 v ∂x ˜¯ ˙
∂x 2 ∂x Î u 2 + v 2 ˚
∂ È u ux + v v x ˘
=2
∂x ÍÎ u2 + v 2 ˙˚
ÈÏ ∂ ¸ 2 ∂ 2 2 ˘
Í Ì x (u ux + v v x )˝ (u + v ) - (u ux + v v x ) ∂x (u + v ) ˙
2
∂
= 2ÍÓ ˛ ˙
Í (u2 + v 2 )2 ˙
Í ˙
Î ˚
2 È(uuxx + vv xx + ux2 + v x2 )(u2 + v 2 )
= 2 2 2 Î
(u + v )
-(u ux + v vx )(2u ux + 2 v vx )˘˚
2
È(u3uxx + u2 v v xx + u2 ux2 + u2 v x2 + uv 2 uxx + v3 vxx
=
(u + v ) Î
2 2 2

+ v 2 ux2 + v 2 v x2 ) - (2u2 ux2 + 2uvux v x + 2uvux v x + 2v 2 v x 2 )˘˚

2
Èu3uxx + v3 v xx + uv 2 uxx + u2 v v xx - u2 ux2 + u2 v x2
=
(u + v ) Î
2 2 2

+ v 2 ux2 - v 2 vx2 - 4uvux v x ˚˘ (3)

 2.10 Properties of Analytic Functions 2.61

Similarly,
∂2 2 Èu3uyy + v3 v yy + uv 2 uyy + u2 vv yy - u2 uy2 + u2 v y2
log(u2 + v 2 ) = 2 2 2 Î
∂y 2
(u + v )
+ v 2 uy2 - v 2 v y2 - 4 uvuy v y ˘˚ (4)
Adding Eqs (3) and (4),
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2
Á 2 + ˜ log(u + v ) = 2
2 2 Èu3 (uxx + uyy ) + v3 (v xx + v yy ) + uv 2 (uxx + uyy )
Ë ∂x ∂y 2 ¯ (u + v 2 )2 Î
+ u2 v(v xx + v yy ) - u2 (ux2 + uy2 ) + u2 (v x2 + v y2 )

+ v 2 (ux2 + uy2 ) - v 2 (v x2 + v y2 ) - 4uv(ux v x + uy v y )˘˚

2 Èu3 (0) + v3 (0) + uv 2 (0) + u2 v(0) - u2 (ux2 + uy2 )

=
(u + v 2 )2 Î
2

+ u2 (uy2 + ux2 ) + v 2 (ux2 + uy2 )

- v 2 (ux2 + uy2 ) - 4uv(-ux uy + uy vx )˘˚

È Using equationns (1) ˘
Í ˙
Îand (2) and C- R equations˚
=0

Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ
Hence, Á 2 + 2 ˜ log f ( z ) = 0
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯

Aliter
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ ∂2 È 1 2˘
Á 2 + 2 ˜ log f ( z ) = 4 ∂z ∂z Í 2 log f ( z ) ˙
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ Î ˚

=2
∂2 È
∂z ∂ z Î
log {
g f (z) ◊ f (z) ˘
˚ }
∂2
=2 Èlog f ( z ) + log f ( z )˘˚
∂z ∂ z Î
∂ È ∂ ∂ ˘
=2 Í log f ( z ) + log f ( z )˙
∂z Î ∂ z ∂z ˚
∂ È 1 ˘
=2 Í0 +
∂z Î
f ′( z )˙ [∵log f (z) isa function of z alone ]
f (z ) ˚
=0 [∵ f ( z ) and f ′( z ) are functionsof z alone ]
2.62 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 14
If f (z) is an analytic function of z in any domain, prove that
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ p 2 p-2
Á 2 + 2 ˜ f ( z ) = p f ′( z ) f ( z )
2
.
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯

Solution
p
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ ∂2 È
f ( z ) ˘˙ 2
p 2
Á 2 + 2˜
f ( z ) = 4 Í
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯ ∂z ∂ z Î ˚
p
∂2 È
=4 f ( z ) ◊ f (zz )˘˚ 2
∂z ∂ z Î
∂ È ∂ p˘
=4 Í
∂z Î ∂ z
{ f ( z ) ◊ f ( z )} 2 ˙ È∵ f ( z ) = f ( z )˘
Î ˚
˚
∂ È p
p p ˘
Í{ f ( z )} 2 ◊ { f ( z )} 2 f ′( z )˙ [∵ f ( z ) isa function of z alone ]
-1
=4
∂z Î 2 ˚
p p
∂ p
= 4◊
2
[ f ( z )] 2 f ′( z ) ◊ [ f ( z )] 2
-1
∂z
[∵ f ( z ) isa function of z alone ]
p p
p p
= 4◊
2
[ f ( z )] 2 f ′ ( z ) ◊ [ f ( z )] 2 f ′( z )
-1
2
-1

p
= p 2 [ f ( z ) ◊ f ( z )] 2 [ f ′(( z ) ◊ f ′(z)]
-1

p-2
= p2 ÈÎ f ( z ) ◊ ˘
f (z) 2
˚ ◊ È f ′ ( z ) ◊ f ′( z )˘
Î ˚
p-2

= p2 ÈÍ f ( z ) ˘˙ È f ′( z ) 2 ˘
2 2
Î ˚ ÍÎ ˙˚
2 p-2
= p 2 f ′( z ) f (z)

exercIse 2.4
-1 Ê y ˆ
1. Prove that tan ÁË x ˜¯ is harmonic.

2. Prove that log x 2 + y 2 is harmonic.

 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.63

3. If f(z) is analytic, prove that

Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 2
(i) Á 2 + 2 ˜ Re f (z) = 2 f ¢(z)
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
Ê ∂2 ∂2 ˆ 2 2
(ii) Á 2 + 2 ˜ Im f (z) = 2 f ¢(z)
Ë ∂x ∂y ¯
2 2
Ï∂ ¸ Ï∂ ¸ 2
(iii) Ì f (z) ˝ + Ì f (z) ˝ = f ¢(z)
Ó ∂x ˛ Ó ∂y ˛

{
4. Prove that log (x - 1)2 + (y - 2)2 } is harmonic in every region which does
not include the point (1, 2).

2.11 constructIon oF analytIc FunctIons:

mIlne—thomson method

case (i) If the real part u of f (z) is given

∂u ∂u
Step 1: Find and .
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
Step 2: Find f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
Step 3: Put x = z and y = 0 in f ¢(z).
Step 4: Integrate f ¢(z) to obtain f (z).
case (ii) If the imaginary part v of f (z) is given
∂v ∂v
Step 1: Find and .
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
Step 2: Find f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
= +i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ∂x
Step 3: Put x = z and y = 0 in f ′( z ).
Step 4: Integrate f¢(z) to obtain f(z).

example 1
Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv if u = x3 – 3xy.
[Summer 2014]
2.64 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Solution
u = x 3 - 3 xy
∂u ∂u
= 3 x 2 - 3 y, = -3 x
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
f ¢( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (3 x 2 - 3 y) - i(-3 x )
= 3 x 2 - 3 y + 3ix
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f¢(z) = 3z2 + 3iz
Integrating w.r.t. z,

f ( z ) = Ú (3z 2 + 3iz ) dz

3z 2
= z3 + i +c
2

example 2 IMP
Construct the analytic function whose real part is
u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 + 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 1.
Solution
u = x 3 - 3 xy 2 + 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 +1
∂u ∂u
= 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 6 x, = -6 xy - 6 y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (3 x 2 - 3 y 2 + 6 x ) - i(-6 xy - 6y)
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.65

Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = (3z 2 + 6 z ) + i(0)
Integrating w.r.t. z,
f ( z ) = Ú (3z 2 + 6 z )dz
Ê z3 ˆ Ê z2 ˆ
= 3Á ˜ + 6 Á ˜ + c
Ë 3¯ Ë 2¯
= z 3 + 3z 2 + c

example 3
Find the analytic function w = u + iv whose imaginary part is given by
v = ex (x sin y + y cos y).
Solution
v = e x ( x sin y + y cos y)
∂v
= e x ( x sin y + y cos y) + e x (sin y)
∂x
∂v
= e x ( x cos y + cos y - y sin y)
∂y
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
= +i [ Using C- R equatio
ons]
∂y ∂x
= e x ( x cos y + cos y - y sin y) + i e x ( x sin y + y cos y + sin y)

Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = e z ( z cos 0 + cos 0 - 0) + i e z ( z sin 0 + 0 + sin 0)
= e z ( z + 1)

Integrating w.r.t. z,

f ( z ) = Ú ( z + 1)e z dz

= ( z + 1) e z - (1) e z + c
= ze z + c
2.66 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 4
x
Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, whose real part u is .
x + y2
2

Solution
x
u=
x + y2
2

∂u (1)( x 2 + y 2 ) - x(2 x ) y2 - x 2
= =
∂x ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
∂u x 2 xy
=- 2 ◊ 2y = - 2
∂y ( x + y 2 )2 ( x + y 2 )2
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
=
∂x
-i
∂y
[ Using C-- R equations ]
y2 - x 2 È 2 xy ˘
= - i Í- 2 2 2˙
(x + y )
2
ÍÎ ( x + y ) ˙˚
2 2

Putting x = z, y = 0,
- z2
f ′( z ) = + i (0 )
z4
1
=- 2
z
Integrating w.r.t. z,
1
f ( z) = Ú - dz
z2
Ê z -1 ˆ
= -Á ˜ +c
Ë -1 ¯
1
= +c
z
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.67

example 5
sin 2 x
Determine the analytic function whose real part is .
cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
Solution
sin 2 x
u=
cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
∂u 2 cos 2 x(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x ) - sin 2 x(2 sin 2 x )
=
∂x (cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 2 cos2 2 x - 2 sin 2 2 x
=
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 2
=
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
∂u È 1 ˘
= sin 2 x Í- ◊ (2 sinh 2 y)˙
∂y ÍÎ (cosh 2 y - cos 2 x))
2
˙˚
2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
=-
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 2 2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
= +i
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x ) 2
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
Putting x = z, y = 0,
2 cos 2 z - 2
f ′( z ) = [∵ cosh 0 = 1,sinh 0 = 0]
(1 - cos 2 z )2
2
=-
1 - cos 2 z
2
=-
2 sin 2 z
= -cosec 2 z
Integrating w.r.t. z,

f ( z ) = Ú -cosec 2 z dz
= cot z + c
2.68 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 6
2 sin x sinh y
Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv, where v = .
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
Solution
2 sin x sinh y
v=
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
∂v È cos x(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y) - sin x(-2 sin 2 x ) ˘
= 2 sinh y Í ˙
∂x ÍÎ (cos 2 x + cosh 2 y)2 ˙˚
∂v È cosh y(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y) - sinh y(2 sinh 2 y) ˘
= 2 sin x Í ˙
∂y ÍÎ (cos 2 x + cosh 2 y)2 ˙˚
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
= +i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ∂x
È cosh y(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y) - 2 sinh y sinh 2 y ˘
= 2 sin x Í ˙
ÍÎ (cos 2 x + cosh 2 y)2 ˙˚
È cos x(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y) + 2 sin x sin 2 x ˘
+ i 2 sinh y Í ˙
ÍÎ (cos 2 x + cosh 2 y)2 ˙˚
Putting x = z, y = 0,
È cosh 0(cos 2 z + cosh 0) - 0 ˘
f ′( z ) = 2 sin z Í ˙ + i (0 ) [∵ sinh 0 = 0]
Î (cos 2 z + cosh 0)2 ˚
2 sin z(cos 2 z + 1)
=
(cos 2 z + 1)2
2 sin z
=
cos 2 z + 1
2 sin z
=
2 cos2 z
= tan z sec z
Integrating w.r.t. z,
f ( z ) = Ú tan z sec z dz + c
= sec z + c
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.69

example 7
Find the analytic function u + iv, if u = ( x - y)( x 2 + 4 xy + y 2 ) . Also, find
the conjugate harmonic function v.
Solution
u = ( x - y)( x 2 + 4 xy + y 2 )
= x 3 + 4 x 2 y + xy 2 - x 2 y - 4 xy 2 - y3
= x 3 + 3 x 2 y - 3 xy 2 - y3
∂u
= 3 x 2 + 6 xy - 3 y 2
∂x
∂u
= 3 x 2 - 6 xy - 3 y 2
∂y
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (3 x 2 + 6 xy - 3 y 2 ) - i(3 x 2 - 6 xy - 3 y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = 3z 2 - i(3z 2 )
= 3(1 - i )z 2
Integrating w.r.t. z,
f ( z ) = Ú 3(1 - i )z 2 dz

= (1 - i )z 3 + c
u + iv = (1 - i )( x + iy)3 + c
= (1 - i ) ÈÎ x 3 + i 3 y3 + 3 x 2 (iy) + 3 x(iy)2 ˘˚ + c

= (1 - i ) ÈÎ x 3 - iy3 + 3ix 2 y - 3 xy 2 ˘˚ + c

= x 3 - iy3 + 3ix 2 y - 3 xy 2 - ix 3 + i 2 y3 - 3i 2 x 2 y + 3ixy 2 + c

= ( x 3 - y3 + 3 x 2 y - 3 xy 2 ) + i(-
- y3 + 3 x 2 y - x 3 + 3 xy 2 ) + c
Comparing imaginary parts,

v = - x 3 - y3 + 3 x 2 y + 3 xy 2 + c
2.70 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

example 8
1
Show that u = log( x 2 + y 2 ) is harmonic. Determine its analytic
2
function. Find also its conjugate.
Solution
1
u= log( x 2 + y 2 )
2
∂u 1 1 x
= ◊ 2x = 2
∂x 2 x + y
2 2
x + y2
∂u 1 1 y
= ◊ 2y = 2
∂y 2 ( x + y )
2 2
x + y2
∂2 u 1 ◊ ( x 2 + y2 ) - x ◊ 2 x y2 - x 2
= =
∂x 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
∂2 u 1 ◊ (xx 2 + y 2 ) - y ◊ 2 y x 2 - y2
= =
∂y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
∂2 u ∂2 u y2 - x 2 x 2 - y2
+ = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
=0
Hence, u is a harmonic function.
∂u ∂v
Now, f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
x y
= 2 -i 2
x +y 2
x + y2
Putting x = z, y = 0,
z
f ′( z ) = - i (0 )
z2
1
=
z
Integrating w.r.t. z,
1
f ( z ) = Ú dz
z
= log z + c
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.71

u + iv = log( x + iy) + c
1 y
= log( x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan -1 + c
2 x
Comparing imaginary parts,
y
v = i tan -1 +c
x

example 9
x
If w = u + iv is an analytic function and v = x 2 - y 2 + , find u.
x + y2
2

Solution
x
v = x 2 - y2 +
x 2 + y2
∂v (1)( x 2 + y 2 ) - x(2 x ) y2 - x 2
= 2x + = 2x + 2
∂x (x + y )
2 2 2
( x + y 2 )2
∂v x 2 xy
= -2 y - 2 ◊ 2 y = -2 y - 2
∂y (x + y )
2 2
( x + y 2 )2
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
= +i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ∂x
È 2 xy ˘ È y2 - x 2 ˘
= - Í2 y + 2 2 2˙
+ i Í2 x + 2 ˙
ÍÎ ( x + y ) ˙˚ ÍÎ ( x + y 2 )2 ˙˚
Putting x = z, y = 0,
Ê 0 - z2 ˆ
f ′( z ) = 0 + i Á 2 z + 4 ˜
Ë z ¯
= i(2 z - z -2 )
Integrating w.r.t. z,

( )
f ( z ) = Ú i 2 z - z -2 dz
Ê z -1 ˆ
= i Á z2 - +c
Ë -1 ˜¯
Ê 1ˆ
= i Á z2 + ˜ + c
Ë z¯
2.72 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

È 1 ˘
u + iv = i Í( x + iy)2 + ˙+c
Î x + iy ˚
È x - iy ˘
= i Í x 2 + i 2 y 2 + 2ixy + 2 ˙+c
ÍÎ x + y 2 ˚˙
ix i2 y
= ix 2 - iy 2 + 2i 2 xy + - +c
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
Ê x ˆ y
= i Á x 2 - y2 + 2 2˜
- 2 xy + 2 +c
Ë x +y ¯ x + y2
Ê y ˆ Ê x ˆ
=Á 2 - 2 xy˜ + i Á x 2 - y 2 + 2 ˜ +c
Ëx +y 2
¯ Ë x + y2 ¯
Comparing real parts,
y
u= - 2 xy + c
x + y2
2

example 10
Find the analytic function w = u + iv when v = e-2 y ( y cos 2 x + x sin 2 x )
and find u.
Solution
v = e -2 y ( y cos 2 x + x sin 2 x )
∂v
= e -2 y (-2 y sin 2 x + sin 2 x + 2 x cos 2 x )
∂x
∂v
= -2e -2 y ( y cos 2 x + x sin 2 x ) + e -2 y (cos 2 x )
∂y
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
=
∂y
+i
∂x
[ Using C-R equations ]
= -2e -2 y ( y cos 2 x + x sin 2 x ) + e -2 y cos 2 x
+ ie -2 y (-2 y sin 2 x + sin 2 x + 2 x cos 2 x )
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = -2e0 (0 + z sin 2 z ) + e0 cos 2 z + ie0 (-0 + sin 2 z + 2 z cos 2 z )
= -2 z sin 2 z + cos 2 z + i(sin 2 z + 2 z cos 2 z )
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.73

Integrating w.r.t z,
f ( z ) = Ú (cos 2 z - 2 z sin 2 z )dz + i Ú (sin 2 z + 2 z cos 2 z )dz
sin 2 z È Ê cos 2 z ˆ Ê sin 2 z ˆ ˘
= - 2 Íz Á - ˜ - (1) Á - ˙
2 Î Ë 2 ¯ Ë 4 ˜¯ ˚
È cos 2 z Ï sin 2 z Ê cos 2 z ˆ ¸˘
+ i Í- +2 Ì z - (1) Á - ˝˙ + c
Î 2 Ó 2 Ë 4 ˜¯ ˛˙˚
sin 2 z sin 2 z È cos 2 z cos 2 z ˘
= + z cos 2 z - + i Í- + z si n 2 z + +c
2 2 Î 2 2 ˙˚
= z cos 2 z + iz sin 2 z + c
= z(cos 2 z + i sin 2 z ) + c
= zei 2 z + c
u + iv = ( x + iy)ei 2( x + iy ) + c
= ( x + iy)e2ix - 2 y + c
= ( x + iy)e -2 y e2ix + c
= e -2 y ( x + iy)(cos 2 x + i sin 2 x ) + c
= e -2 y [( x cos 2 x - y sin 2 x ) + i( y cos 2 x + x sin 2 x )] + c
Comparing real parts,
u = e -2 y ( x cos 2 x - y sin 2 x )

example 11
Show that u(x, y)= x2 – y2 is harmonic. Find the corresponding analytic
function f (z) = u + iv. [Summer 2013]
Solution
(i) u(x, y) = x2 – y2
∂u ∂u
= 2 x, = -2 y
∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 u
= 2, = -2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = 2-2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
Hence, u is harmonic.
2.74 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

(ii) f ( z ) = u + iv
∂u ∂v
f ¢( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= 2 x - i(-2 y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f¢(z) = 2z
Integrating w.r.t. z

Ú f ¢(z) dz = Ú 2 z dz
f (z) = z2 + c

example 12 IMP
Show that u(x, y) = x2 – y2 + x is harmonic. Find the corresponding
analytic function f (z) = u + iv. [Winter 2013]
Solution
(i) u(x, y) = x2 – y2 + x
∂u ∂u
= 2 x + 1, = -2 y
∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 u
= 2, = -2
∂x 2 ∂y 2

∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = 2-2
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
Hence, u is harmonic.
(ii) f ( z ) = u + iv
∂u ∂v
f ¢( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (2 x + 1) - i (-2 y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f¢(z) = 2z + 1
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.75

Integrating w.r.t. z,

Ú f ¢(z) dz = Ú (2 z + 1) dz
= z2 + z + c

example 13
Prove that u = ex (x cos y – y sin y) is harmonic and, hence, find the
analytic function f (z) = u + iv.
Solution
u = e x ( x cos y - y sin y)
∂u
= e x ( x cos y - y sin y) + e x (cos y)
∂x
∂2 u
= e x ( x cos y - y sin y + cos y) + e x (cos y)
∂x 2

= e x ( x cos y - y sin y + 2 cos y)

∂u
= e x (- x sin y - sin y - y cos y)
∂y
∂2 u
= e x (- x cos y - cos y - cos y + y sin y)
∂y 2

= e x (- x cos y - 2 cos y + y sin y)

∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = e x ( x cos y - y sin y + 2 cos y) + e x (- x coss y - 2 cos y + y sin y)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=0
Hence, u is a harmonic function.
∂u ∂v
Now, f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= e x ( x cos y - y sin y + cos y) - ie x (- x sin y - sin y - y cos y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = e z ( z cos 0 - 0 + cos 0) - ie z (0 - 0 - 0)
= e z ( z + 1)
2.76 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Integrating w.r.t. z,
f ( z ) = Ú ( z + 1) e z dz

= ( z + 1) e z - (1) e z + c
= ze z + c

example 14
Prove that x2 – y2 + e–2x cos 2 y is harmonic and find its harmonic
conjugate.
Solution
Let u = x 2 - y 2 + e -2 x cos 2 y
∂u ∂u
= 2 x - 2e-2 x cos 2 y, = -2 y - 2e -2 x sin 2 y
∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂2 u
= 2 + 4e -2 x cos 2 y, = -2 - 4e -2 x cos 2 y
∂x 2
∂y 2

∂ u
2
∂ u
2
+ = (2 + 4e -2 x cos 2 y) + (-2 - 4e -2 x cos 2 y)
∂x 2
∂y 2

=0
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (2 x - 2e-2 x cos 2 y) - i(-2 y - 2e -2 x sin 2 y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = 2( z - e -2 z cos 0) - i(0)
= 2( z - e -2 z )
Integrating w.r.t. z,
f ( z ) = Ú 2( z - e -2 z ) dz
Ê z 2 e -2 z ˆ
= 2Á - +c
Ë 2 -2 ˜¯
= z 2 + e -2 z + c
u + iv = ( x + iy)2 + e -2( x + iy ) + c
= x 2 + i 2 y 2 + 2ixy + e -2 x e -2iy + c
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.77

= x 2 - y 2 + 2ixy + e -2 x (cos 2 y - i sin 2 y) + c

= x 2 - y 2 + e -2 x cos 2 y + i(2 xy - e -2 x sin 2 y) + c
Comparing imaginary parts,
v = 2 xy - e -2 x sin 2 y + c

example 15
Find the analytic function u + iv, if u – v = (x – y) (x2 + 4xy + y2).
[Winter 2012]
Solution
f (z) = u + iv ...(1)
i f (z) = iu + i2v
= iu – v ...(2)
Adding Eqs (1) and (2),
f ( z ) + i f ( z ) = (u + iv) + (iu - v)
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (u - v) + i (u + v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
where F(z) = (1 + i) f (z), U = u – v, V = u + v
Since, f (z) is analytic, F(z) is analytic.
U = u-v
= ( x - y)( x 2 + 4 xy + y 2 )
= x 3 + 4 x 2 y + xy 2 - x 2 y - 4 xy 2 - y3
= x 3 + 3 x 2 y - 3 xy 2 - y3
∂U
= 3 x 2 + 6 xy - 3 y 2
∂x
∂U
= 3 x 2 - 6 xy - 3 y 2
∂y
∂U ∂V
F ¢( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂U ∂U
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= (3 x 2 + 6 xy - 3 y 2 ) - i(3 x 2 - 6 xy - 3 y 2 )
Putting x = z, y = 0,
F ¢( z ) = 3z 2 - i3z 2
= 3(1 - i ) z 2
2.78 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Integrating w.r.t. z,
F ( z ) = Ú 3(1 - i )z 2 dz

z3
= 3 (1 - i ) +c
3
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (1 - i )z 3 + c [ Resubstitutting F ( z )]
(1 - i ) 3 c
f (z) = z +
1+ i 1+ i
(1 - i )2 c
= z3 +
(1 + i )(1 - i ) 1+ i
1 + i 2 - 2i 3 c
= z +
2 1+ i
c
= -i z +
3
1+ i
= -i z 3 + c ¢
c
where c¢ =
1+ i

example 16
Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv such that
u – v = ex(cos y – sin y). [Summer 2015]
Solution
f ( z ) = u + iv  (1)
i f ( z ) = iu + i 2 v
= iu - v  (2 )
Adding Eqs (1) and (2),
f ( z ) + i f ( z ) = (u + iv) + (iu - v)
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (u - v) + i(u + v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
where F ( z ) = (1 + i ) f ( z ), U = u - v, V = u + v
Since f (z) is analytic, F(z) is also analytic.
U = u - v = e x (cos y - sin y)
∂U ∂U
= e x (cos y - sin y), = e x (- sin y - cos y)
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂V
F ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂U ∂U
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= e x (cos y - sin y) - ie x (- sin y - cos y)
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.79

Putting x = z, y = 0,
F ′( z ) = e z (cos 0 - sin 0) + ie z (sin 0 + cos 0)
= e z (1 + i )
Integrating w.r.t. z,
F ( z ) = Ú (1 + i ) e z dz

= (1 + i ) e z + c
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (1 + i )e z + c
c
f (z) = ez +
1+ i
= e z + c′
c
where c′ =
1+ i

example 17
2 sin 2 x
If u + v = , find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv.
e 2y
+ e -2 y - 2 cos 2 x
Solution
f (z) = u + v ...(1)
i f (z) = iu – v ...(2)
Adding Eqs (1) and (2),
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (u - v) + i(u + v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
where F ( z ) = (1 + i ) f ( z ), U = u - v, V = u + v
V = u+v
2 sin 2 x
= 2y
e + e -2 y - 2 cos 2 x
2 sin 2 x
=
2 cosh 2 y - 2 cos 2 x
sin 2 x
=
cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
∂V (2 cos 2 x )(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x ) - sin 2 x(2 sin 2 x )
=
∂x (cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 2
=
h 2 y - cos 2 x )2
(cosh
2.80 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂V sin 2 x
=- (2 sinh 2 y)
∂y (cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
∂U ∂V
F ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂V
= +i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ∂x
2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y 2(cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 1)
=- +i
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x ) 2
(cosh 2 y - cos 2 x )2
Putting x = z, y = 0,
2(cos 2 z ◊ cosh 0 - 1)
F ′( z ) = -0 + i
(cosh 0 - cos 2 z )2
2(cos 2 z - 1)
=i
(1 - cos 2 z )2
2
= -i
1 - cos 2 z
2
= -i
2 sin 2 z
= -cosec 2 z
Integrating w.r.t. z,

F ( z ) = Ú -cosec 2 z dz
= cot z + c
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = cot z + c
cot z c
f (z) = +
1+ i 1+ i
(1 - i )
= cot z + c′
2
c
where c′ =
1+ i

example 18
Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv if 3u + 2 v = y 2 - x 2 + 16 xy.
Solution
f (z) = u + iv ....(1)
i f (z) = iu – v ...(2)
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.81

Multiplying Eq. (1) by 2 and Eq. (2) by 3 and adding,

2 f ( z ) + 3i f ( z ) = 2(u + iv) + 3(iu - v)
(2 + 3i ) f ( z ) = (2u - 3v) + i(3u + 2 v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
where F ( z ) = (2 + 3i ) f ( z ), U = 2u - 3v, V = 3u + 2 v

Since f (z) is analytic, F(z) is also analytic.

V = 3u + 2 v = y 2 - x 2 + 16 xy
∂V ∂V
= -2 x + 16 y, = 2 y + 16 x
∂x ∂y
∂U ∂V
F ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂V
= +i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂y ∂x
= (2 y + 16 x ) + i(-2 x + 16 y)
Putting x = z, y = 0,
F ′( z ) = 16 z + i(-2 z )
= (16 - 2i ) z
Integrating, w.r.t. z,
F ( z ) = Ú (16 - 2i )z dz

z2
= (16 - 2i ) +c
2
= (8 - i )z 2 + c
(2 + 3i ) f ( z ) = (8 - i )z 2 + c
(8 - i ) 2 c
f (z) = z +
2 + 3i 2 + 3i
(8 - i )(2 - 3i ) 2 c
= z + c′, where c′ =
4+9 2 + 3i
13 - 26i 2
= z + c′
13
= (1 - 2i )z 2 + c′

example 19
x
Find the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv if u + v = and f (1) = 1.
x + y2
2
2.82 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

Solution
f ( z ) = u + iv  (1)
i f ( z ) = iu + i v 2

= iu - v  (2 )
Adding Eqs (1) and (2),
f ( z ) + i f ( z ) = (u + iv) + (iu - v)
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (u - v) + i(u + v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
where F ( z ) = (1 + i ) f ( z ), U = u - v, V = u + v
Since f (z) is analytic, F(z) is also analytic.
V = u+v
x
= 2
x + y2
∂V ( x 2 + y 2 )(1) - x(2 x )
=
∂x ( x 2 + y 2 )2
x 2 + y2 - 2 x 2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
y2 - x 2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
∂V x
=- 2 ◊ 2y
∂y ( x + y 2 )2
-2 xy
= 2
( x + y 2 )2
∂U ∂V
F ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂V
= +i
∂y ∂x
-2 xy y2 - x 2
= +i
( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
-2 xy + i( y 2 - x 2 )
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
Putting x = z, y = 0,
iz 2
F ′( z ) = -
z4
i
=-
z2
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.83

Integrating w.r.t. z,
i
F (z) = Ú - dz
z2
i
= +c
z
i
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = + c
z
Putting z = 1,

(1 + i )(1) = i + c [∵ f (1) = 1]
c =1
i
\ (1 + i ) f ( z ) = + 1
z
i 1
f ( z) = +
z(1 + i ) 1 + i
1+ i 1- i
= +
2z 2

example 20
Determine the analytic function f (z) = u + iv such that
e y - cos x + sin x Êp ˆ 3-i
u-v = where f Á ˜ = .
cosh y - cos x Ë 2¯ 2

Solution
f ( z ) = u + iv  (1)
i f ( z ) = iu + i v 2

= iu - v  (2 )
Adding Eqs (1) and (2),
f ( z ) + i f ( z ) = (u + iv) + (iu - v)
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (u - v) + i(u + v)
F ( z ) = U + iV
wherre F ( z ) = (1 + i ) f ( z ), U = u - v, V = u + v
Since f (z) is analytic, F(z) is also analytic.
U = u-v
e y - cos x + sin x
=
cosh y - cos x
2.84 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

∂U (sin x + cos x )(cosh y - cos x ) - (e y - cos x + sin x )(sin x )

=
∂x (cosh y - coss x )2
∂U e y (cosh y - cos x ) - (e y - cos x + sin x )sinh y
=
∂y (cosh y - cos x )2
∂U ∂V
F ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂U ∂U
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
(sin x + cos x )(cosh y - cos x ) - (e y - cos x + sin x )sin x
=
(cosh y - cos x )2
e y (cosh y - cos x ) - (e y - cos x + sin x )sinh y
-i
(cosh y - cos x )2
Putting x = z, y = 0,
(sin z + cos z )(1 - cos z ) - (1 - cos z + sin z )sin z
F ′( z ) =
(1 - cos z )2
(1 - cos z ) - (1 - cos z + sin z ) ⋅ 0
-i
(1 - cos z )2
sin z - sin z cos z + cos z - cos2 z - sin z + sin z cos z - sin 2 z - i(1 - cos z )
=
(1 - cos z )2
cos z - 1 - i(1 - cos z )
=
(1 - cos z )2
(-1 - i )(1 - cos z )
=
(1 - cos z )2
-(i + 1)
=
1 - cos z
-(i + 1)
=
z
2 sin 2
2
Integrating w.r.t. z,
-(i + 1)
F ( z) = Ú dz
2 z
2 sin
2
(i + 1) z
2 Ú
=- cosec 2 dz
2
(i + 1) Ê zˆ
=- -2 cot ˜ + c
2 ÁË 2¯
 2.11 Construction of Analytic Functions: Milne—Thomson Method 2.85

z
= (i + 1) cot +c
2
z
(1 + i ) f ( z ) = (i + 1) cot + c
2
p
Putting z = ,
2
3-i
(1 + i ) ÁÊË 2 ˆ˜¯ = (i + 1) cot 4 + c
p

c = 2 + i - i -1
=1
z 1
\ f ( z ) = cot +
2 i +1
z 1- i
= cot +
2 2

example 21
Show that 2x (1 – y) can be the imaginary part of an analytic function.
Solution
Since real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are harmonic functions, they
satisfy the Laplace equation.
Let v = 2x (1 – y).

∂v ∂v
= 2(1 - y), = -2 x
∂x ∂y
∂2 v ∂2 v
= 0, =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ =0
∂x 2
∂y 2
Hence, v can be the imaginary part of an analytic function.

example 22
Find the orthogonal trajectory of the family of the curves 3x2y – y3 = a.
Solution
Let u = 3x2y – y3 and f (z) = u + iv be an analytic function.
Then v = b will be the orthogonal trajectory to u = a.
2.86 Chapter 2 Analytic Functions

u = 3 x 2 y - y3
∂u ∂u
= 6 xy, = 3 x 2 - 3 y2
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= -i [ Using C- R equations ]
∂x ∂y
= 6 xy - i(3 x 2 - 3 y 2 )
Putting x = z, y = 0,
f ′( z ) = -i(3z 2 )
Integrating w.r.t. z, =
f ( z ) = -i Ú 3z 2 dz

= -i z 3 + c
u + iv = -i( x + iy)3 + c
= -i( x 3 + i 3 y3 + 3 x 2 iy + 3 xi 2 y 2 ) + c
= -ix 3 + i 2 y3 - 3 x 2 i 2 y + 3ixy 2 + c
= (- y3 + 3 x 2 y) + i(- x 3 + 3 xy 2 ) + c
Comparing imaginary parts,
v = 3xy2 – x2 + c
Hence, the orthogonal trajectory is
3 xy 2 - x 3 + c = b
3 xy 2 - x 3 = c′
where c¢ = b – c