CS-2005 : Database System

Fall - 2022
What’s in this course?
● Introduction to Database Systems
● Database Languages
● Entity–Relationship Modeling
● The Relational Model
● SQL: Data Manipulation
○ Select
○ Insert
○ Update
○ Delete
● SQL: Data Definition
● Introduction to Data Warehouse
Lecture Plan
● Week 01 & Week 02
○ Introduction to Database
○ Data Model
○ Schema, Mapping & Instance
○ Integrity constraints
○ Terminologies
● Week 03 & Week 04
○ Integrity Constraints & Violations
○ Intro to DML
○ Lab 01 & Lab 02
● Week 05
○ Lab # 03 Complex queries
Lecture Plan
● Week 06 & Week 07
○ Introduction to Entity Relation
○ Design Database Schema
○ Lab # 04 & Lab # 05 Design Schema
● Week 08
○ Mid-term
● Week 09 & Week 10
○ Normalization
○ Project Discussion & Proposal Submission
● Week 11 & Week 12
○ Transaction Properties
○ Lab # 06 DML & DDL
Lecture Plan
● Week 13
○ Introduction to Data Warehouse
● Week 14
○ Introduction to Nosql Database
○ Project Presentations
● Week 15
○ Project Presentations
● Week 16
○ Final Exam
Marks Breakdown & Reference Material
Marks Breakdown
● 10% Assignments
● 25% Midterm
● 15% Final Project
● 50% Final Exam
Textbook:
● Thomas Connolly, Carolyn Begg, Database Systems: A practical approach to
design, implementation and Management, 6th Edition, 2015.
Why Database?
● Purchases using your credit card
● Booking a vacation with a travel agent
● Using the local library
● Taking out insurance
● Studying at College
Traditional File-Based Systems
● An organization might have physical files set up to hold all external and
internal correspondence relating to a project, product, task, client, or
employee.
● Typically, there are many such files, and for safety they are labeled and stored
in one or more folders - logically related.
● It even works even with large numbers of items when we only have to store
and retrieve them.
● File system breaks down when we have to cross-reference or process the
information in the files.
Limitations of the File-Based Approach
● Separation and isolation of data.
● Duplication of data.
● Data dependence.
○ program–data dependence
● Security or Integrity.
● Absence of robust recovery mechanism.
● No provision for shared access.
Database Approach
● A shared collection of logically related data and its description, designed
to meet the information needs of an organization.
● Single and possibly large repository of data that can be used simultaneously
by many departments and users.
● Instead of disconnected files with redundant data, all data items are
integrated with a minimum amount of duplication.
● The database holds not only the organization’s operational data, but also a
description of this data - Metadata.
Database Approach
● Data abstraction, is that we can change the internal definition of an object
without affecting the users of the object, provided that the external definition
remains the same.
● Another expression in the definition of a database that we should explain is
“logically related.” When we analyze the information needs of an organization,
we attempt to identify entities, attributes, and relationships.
● An entity is a distinct object (a person, place, thing, concept, or event) in the
organization that is to be represented in the database. An attribute is a
property that describes some aspect of the object that we wish to record, and
a relationship is an association between entities.
The Database Management System (DBMS)
● A software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and control
access to the database.
● It allows users to define the database, usually through a Data Definition
Language (DDL). The DDL allows users to specify the data types and
structures and the constraints on the data to be stored in the database.
● It allows users to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database,
usually through a Data Manipulation Language (DML).
● The most common query language is the Structured Query Language (SQL)
which is now both the formal and de facto standard language for relational
DBMSs.
Advantages of DBMS
It provides controlled access to the database. For example,

● Security system, which prevents unauthorized users accessing the database.

● Integrity system, which maintains the consistency of stored data.
● Concurrency control system, which allows shared access of the database;
● Recovery control system, which restores the database to a previous
consistent state following a hardware or software failure.
● User-accessible catalog, which contains descriptions of the data in the
database.
Roles in the Database Environment
● Data and Database Administrators
○ The Database Administrator (DBA) is responsible for the physical realization of the database,
including physical database design and implementation, security and integrity control,
maintenance of the operational system, and ensuring satisfactory performance of the
applications for users.
● Database Designers
○ The logical database designer is concerned with identifying the entities, attributes and
relationships, furthemore the constraints on the data that is to be stored in the database.
○ The physical database designer decides how the logical database design is to be physically
realized.
Roles in the Database Environment
● Application Developers
○ Write programs which contains statements that request the DBMS to perform some operation
on the database.
○ These operations includes retrieving data, inserting, updating, and deleting data.
● End-Users
○ Naïve users are typically unaware of the DBMS. They access the database through specially
written application programs that attempt to make the operations as simple as possible.
○ Sophisticated end-user is familiar with the structure of the database and the facilities offered
by the DBMS.
The Three-Level Architecture
● The levels form a three-level architecture comprising an external, a
conceptual, and an internal level.
● The way users perceive the data is called the external level.
● The way the DBMS perceive the data is the internal level.
● The conceptual level provides both the mapping and the desired
independence between the external and internal levels.
Reason of Level Of Abstraction
● Users should not have to deal directly with physical database storage details,
such as indexing or hashing. In other words, a user’s interaction with the
database should be independent of storage considerations.
● The internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to the
physical aspects of storage, such as the changeover to a new storage device.
● The DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database
without affecting all users.
Database Languages
● A data sublanguage consists of two parts:
○ Data Definition Language (DDL)
○ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
● Data Definition Language (DDL)
○ A language that allows the DBA or user to describe and name the entities, attributes, and
relationships required for the application, together with any associated integrity and security
constraints.
● Data Manipulation Language (DML)
○ A language that provides a set of operations to support the basic data manipulation operations
on the data held in the database.
Fourth-Generation Languages (4GLs)
● There is no consensus about what constitutes a fourth-generation language.
● Compared with a 3GL, which is procedural, a 4GL is nonprocedural: the user
defines what is to be done, not how.
● A 4GL is expected to rely largely on much higher-level components known as
fourth-generation tools.
● It is claimed that 4GLs can improve productivity by a factor of ten, at the cost
of limiting the types of problem that can be tackled.
● SQL is a examples of fourth generation language.
Schemas
● The overall description of the database is called the database schema.
● There are three different types of schema in the database and these are
defined according to the levels of abstraction of the three-level architecture.
● At the highest level, we have multiple external schemas (also called
subschemas) that correspond to different views of the data.
● At the conceptual level, we have the conceptual schema, which describes all
the entities, attributes, and relationships together with integrity constraints.
● At the lowest level of abstraction we have the internal schema, which is a
complete description of the internal model, containing the definitions of stored
records, the methods of representation, the data fields, and the indexes and
storage structures used.
Mappings & Instances
● The DBMS is responsible for mapping between these three types of schema.
It must also check the schemas for consistency.
● DBMS must confirm that each external schema is derivable from the
conceptual schema and the conceptual schema is related to the internal
schema through a conceptual/internal mapping.
● This mapping enables the DBMS to find the actual record or combination of
records in physical storage that constitute a logical record in the conceptual
schema, together with any constraints to be enforced on the operations for
that logical record.
● The data in the database at any particular point in time is called a database
instance.
Data Models and Conceptual Modeling
● An integrated collection of concepts for describing and manipulating data,
relationships between data, and constraints on the data in an organization.
● A data model should provide the basic concepts and notations that will allow
database designers and end-users to communicate unambiguously and
accurately their understanding of the organizational data.
● A data model can be thought of as comprising three components:
○ Structural part, consisting of a set of rules according to which databases can be constructed.
○ Manipulative part, defining the types of operation that are allowed on the data.
○ Set of integrity constraints, which ensures that the data is accurate.
Object-Based Data Models
● Object-based data models use concepts such as entities, attributes, and
relationships.
● An entity is a distinct object (a person, place, thing, concept, event) in the
organization that is to be represented in the database.
● An attribute is a property that describes some aspect of the object that we
wish to record.
● Relationship is an association between entities.
● Entity-Relationship (ER) is of one of the most common example of
object-based model.
Record-Based Data Models
● The relational data model is
based on the concept of
mathematical relations.
● Data and relationships are
represented as tables, each of
which has a number of columns
with a unique name.
● John White is a manager with a
salary of £30,000, who works at
branch (branchNo) B005, which,
from the first table, is at 22 Deer
Rd in London
Functions of a DBMS
● Data storage, retrieval, and update
● A user-accessible catalog
○ Names, types, and sizes of data items
○ Integrity constraints on the data
● Transaction support
○ Ensure either that all the updates corresponding to a given transaction are made or that none
of them is made.
○ If the transaction fails during execution, perhaps because of a computer crash, the database
will be in an inconsistent state: some changes will have been made and others will not.
● Concurrency control services
○ Ensure that the database is updated correctly when multiple users are updating the database
concurrently
The Lost Update Problem
Functions of a DBMS
● Recovery services
○ A mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the database is damaged in any
way.
● Authorization services
○ A mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the database.
● Support for data communication
● Integrity services
○ “Database integrity” refers to the correctness and consistency of stored data.
○ Although integrity is related to security, it has wider implications: integrity is concerned with the
quality of data itself.
○ Integrity is usually expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the
database is not permitted to violate.
RDBMS Terminology
● Relation
○ A table with columns and rows.
● Attributes
○ Named column of a relation
● Tuple
○ A row of a relation.
● Degree
○ Number of attributes a relation contains.
● Cardinality
○ Number of tuples a relation contains
● Relational database
○ A collection of normalized relations with distinct relation names.
Alternative terminology
Mathematical Relations
● The Cartesian product of these two sets, written D1 X D2, is the set of all
ordered pairs such that the first element is a member of D1 and the second
element is a member of D2
● D1 = {2, 4} and D2 = {1, 3, 5}
● D1 X D2 = {(2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (4, 5)}
● Any subset of this Cartesian product is a relation. For example, we could
produce a relation R such that R = {(2, 1), (4, 1)}
● Any set of n-tuples from this Cartesian product is a relation on the n sets.
Relational Keys
● Identify one or more attributes (called relational keys) that uniquely identifies
each tuple in a relation.
● Primary Key
○ The candidate key that is selected to identify tuples uniquely within the relation.
● Foreign Key
○ An attribute, or set of attributes, within one relation that matches the candidate key of some
(possibly the same) relation.
● Composite Key
○ When a key consists of more than one attribute.
● Super Key
○ An attribute, or set of attributes, that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation. However, a
superkey may contain additional attributes that are not necessary for unique identification,
Integrity Constraints
● Nulls
○ Represents a value for an attribute that is currently unknown or is not applicable for this tuple.
● Entity Integrity
○ In a base relation, no attribute of a primary key can be null.
● Referential Integrity
○ If a foreign key exists in a relation, either the foreign key value must match a candidate key
value of some tuple in its home relation or the foreign key value must be wholly null.
● General Constraints
○ Additional rules specified by the users or database administrators of a database that define or
constrain some aspect of the enterprise.
Views
● Base Relation
○ A named relation corresponding to an entity in the conceptual schema, whose tuples are
physically stored in the database.
● View
○ The dynamic result of one or more relational operations operating on the base relations to
produce another relation.
○ A view is a virtual relation that does not necessarily exist in the database but can be produced
upon request by a particular user, at the time of request.
○ Any operations on the view are automatically translated into operations on the relations from
which it is derived.
○ Views are dynamic, meaning that changes made to the base relations that affect the view are
immediately reflected in the view.
Purpose of Views
● It provides a powerful and flexible security mechanism by hiding parts of the
database from certain users. Users are not aware of the existence of any
attributes or tuples that are missing from the view.
● It permits users to access data in a way that is customized to their needs, so
that the same data can be seen by different users in different ways, at the
same time.
● It can simplify complex operations on the base relations. For example, if a
view is defined as a combination (join) of two relations, users may now
perform more simple operations on the view, which will be translated by the
DBMS into equivalent operations on the join.