GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH

1. PRONOUNS

PRONOUN CHART
POSSESSIV
POSSESSIV
SUBJECT OBJECT E REFLEXIVE
E
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS
S

1st PERSON I me* my mine myself

2 nd PERSON you* your yours yourself

(SINGULAR)

(MALE) he him* his himself

3 PERSON

(FEMALE) she her* her hers herself

(NEUTRA
L) they them* their theirs themselves
rd

(INAN) It** its itself

1 PERSON
st
we us* our ours ourselves
(PLURAL)

2 PERSON
nd
you your yours yourselves
3 rd PERSON
they them** their theirs themselves

IMPERSONAL one one´s oneselves

OBJECTIVE
CASE OF
PERSONAL
PRONOUNS
(*anImate
**inanimate)
 2. NOUN
PREFIXES
A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its
meaning.
A prefix goes at the beginning of a word.
prefix meaning examples

a- also an- not, without atheist, anaemic

a- to, towards aside, aback

in the process of, in a a-hunting, aglow

particular state

a- of anew

completely abashed

ab- also abs- away, from abdicate, abstract

ad- also a-, ac-, movement to, change into, advance, adulterate, adjunct, ascend,
af-, ag- al-, addition or increase affiliate, affirm, aggravate, alleviate,
an-, ap-, at- annotate, apprehend, arrive, assemble,
as-, at- attend

ante- before, preceding antecedent, ante-room

anti- also ant- opposing, against, the opposite anti-aircraft, antibiotic, anticlimax,

Antarctic

be- all over, all around bespatter, beset

completely bewitch, bemuse

having, covered with bejewelled

affect with (added to nouns) befog

cause to be (added to becalm

adjectives)

com- also co-, col-, with, jointly, completely combat, codriver, collude, confide,
con-, cor- corrode

contra- against, opposite contraceptive

counter- opposition, opposite direction counter-attack, counteract

de- down, away descend, despair, depend, deduct

completely denude, denigrate

removal, reversal de-ice, decamp

dia- also di- through, across diagonal

dis- also di- negation, removal, expulsion disadvantage, dismount, disbud, disbar

en- also em- put into or on engulf, enmesh

bring into the condition of enlighten, embitter

intensification entangle, enrage

ex- also e-, ef- out exit, exclude, expand

upward exalt, extol

completely excruciate, exasperate

previous ex-wife

extra- outside, beyond extracurricular

hemi- half hemisphere

Word Forms
prefix meaning examples prefix meaning examples

hyper- beyond, more than, more than hypersonic, hyperactive not enough underdeveloped
normal

hypo- under hypodermic, hypothermia SUFFIX

A suffix is a group of letters placed at the end of a word to make a new
in- also il-, im- not, without infertile, inappropriate, impossible word. A suffix can make a new word in one of two ways:

also il-, im-, in, into, towards, inside influence, influx, imbibe

inflectional (grammatical): for example, changing singular to plural
ir- (dog → dogs), or changing present tense to past tense (walk →
walked). In this case, the basic meaning of the word does not change.
infra- below infrared, infrastructure
derivational (the new word has a new meaning, "derived" from the
original word): for example, teach → teacher or care → careful
A suffix goes at the end of a word.
inter- between, among interact, interchange

Inflectional suffixes
intra- inside, within intramural, intravenous
Inflectional suffixes do not change the meaning of the original word.
non- absence, negation non-smoker, non-alcoholic So in "Every day I walk to school" and "Yesterday I walked to
school", the words walk and walked have the same basic meaning. In
ob- also oc-, of-, blocking, against, concealing obstruct, occult, offend, oppose
"I have one car" and "I have two cars", the basic meaning of the words
op- car and cars is exactly the same. In these cases, the suffix is added
simply for grammatical "correctness". Look at these examples:
out- surpassing, exceeding outperform
    example
suffi
external, away from outbuilding, outboard x grammatical change  original word suffixed word 
-s plural dog dogs
-en plural (irregular)  ox oxen
over- excessively, completely overconfident, overburdened, -s 3rd person singular present  like he likes
overjoyed -ed past tense work he worked
past participle  he has worked
-en past participle (irregular)  eat he has eaten
upper, outer, over, above overcoat, overcast -ing continuous/progressive sleep he is sleeping
-er comparative big bigger
-est superlative big the biggest
peri- round, about perimeter

post- after in time or order postpone

pre- before in time, place, order or pre-adolescent, prelude, precondition Derivational suffixes
importance
With derivational suffixes, the new word has a new meaning, and is
pro- favouring, in support of pro-African usually a different part of speech. But the new meaning is related to
the old meaning - it is "derived" from the old meaning.
We can add more than one suffix, as in this example:
acting for proconsul
derive (verb) + ation → derivation (noun) + al → derivational
(adjective)
motion forwards or away propulsion There are several hundred derivational suffixes. Here are some of the
more common ones:
before in time, place or order prologue
suffix making  Example original word Example suffixed word 
re- again repaint, reappraise, reawake
-ation nouns Explore Exploration
hesitate hesitation
semi- half, partly semicircle, semi-conscious

-sion Persuade Persuasion

sub- also suc-, suf-, at a lower position submarine, subsoil divide division
sug-, sup-,
sur-, sus-
lower in rank sub-lieutenant -er teach teacher

nearly, approximately sub-tropical -cian music musician

syn- also sym- in union, acting together synchronize, symmetry -ess god goddess

trans- across, beyond transnational, transatlantic -ness sad sadness

into a different state translate -al arrive arrival

ultra- beyond ultraviolet, ultrasonic -ary diction dictionary

extreme ultramicroscopic -ment treat treatment

un- not unacceptable, unreal, unhappy, -y Jealous Jealousy

unmanned victor victory

reversal or cancellation of unplug, unmask -al adjectives accident accidental

action or state

-ary imagine imaginary

under- beneath, below underarm, undercarriage

-able tax taxable

lower in rank undersecretary

-ly brother brotherly

suffix making  Example original word Example suffixed word  monotone (noun) a constant sound (usually words) with the same
single constant tone. monotonous (adjective):
-y ease easy repetitious and boring, with no interest or variety.
https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/mono-poly.htm
-ful Sorrow Sorrowful
forget forgetful Words beginning a definition
with poly-
polyandry (noun) polygamy in which a woman has more than one
-ly adverbs helpful helpfully
husband. polyandrous (adjective). [Compare with
polygyny.]
-ize verbs Terror Terrorize polychrome of an image—in several colours. polychrome
private privatize (adjective) (noun): an image in several colours. [Contrast
with monochrome.]
-ate hyphen hyphenate polyclinic (noun) a clinic or hospital that treats various types of
disease.
polyethnic (adjective) formed of various ethnic groups.
THE ELEMENTS MONO- AND POLY- ARE polygamy (noun) the practice of being married to more than one
wife or husband at the same time. [Contrast with
COMBINING FORMS TAKEN FROM GREEK. monogamy. See also polyandry, polygyny.]
polyglot (adjective) knowing or using several languages
mono- (combining form): one, alone, single polyglot (noun) a person who can use several languages.
poly- (combining form): more than one; much/many [Contrast with monoglot.]
polygon (noun) a flat shape with three or more (typically more
Combining forms are word elements that combine with other word than five) straight sides and angles. polygonal
elements to create a word. In this case, the two combining forms (adjective).
mono- and poly- at the start of a word have almost opposite meanings. polygraph (noun) a machine that can make multiple physiological
measurements in a person, usually used to detect
whether somebody is telling the truth or not; a lie
So almost all words that start with mono- basically mean detector; a lie-detector test.
approximately "one something"; and almost all words that start with polygyny (noun) polygamy in which a man has more than one
poly- basically mean approximately "more-than-one something" or wife. polygynous (adjective). [Compare with
"much/many something". polyandry.]
polyhedron (noun) a solid shape with many flat faces, typically more
For example: than six. polyhedral, polyhedric (adjective).
polymath (noun) a person of great knowledge or learning.
a monoglot can speak one language Polynesia (name) a region in the Pacific Ocean (roughly between
a polyglot can speak more than one language Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island)
containing many islands.
Polynesian (noun) a person from Polynesia.
By definition, mono- specifies the quantity (one); but poly- does not Polynesian (adjective) relating to Polynesia.
specify the quantity—it simply says "more than one" or "much/many". polysyllabic of a word—having more than one syllable.
Poly- could be two; it could be a million. (adjective) [Contrast with monosyllabic.]
polytheism (noun) the belief that there is more than one god.
Below are select alphabetical lists of the most common English words polytheistic (adjective). [Contrast with
that start with mono- and poly-. Each entry has: monotheism.]

People are sometimes surprised to see "mono" and "poly" in the same
word (monopoly) because they appear to contradict each other. But in
the case of monopoly, the mono- is a true combining form whereas the
CONTRACTIONS
We often "contract" or shorten words in English. For example, we
"poly" is from the Greek word for sell (hence the meaning "single sell"
may say "he's" instead of "he is". Note that we usually insert an
or "sale by single person").
apostrophe (') in place of the missing letter or letters in writing. Here
monorail (noun): a railway with a single rail.
are some example sentences:
Most monorail trains sit on top of the single rail but some hang from it
instead.
We do this especially when we speak. We do not contract words so
much in writing
Most common words a definition
that start whit mono
The following pages show the most common contracted forms.
monobloc (adjective) made from a single piece of material.
monochrome (adjective) of an image—in a single colour; in black and white.
monochrome (noun): an image in one colour; an POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
image in black and white. [Contrast with Be careful. Some contractions can have two or three meanings. For
polychrome.] example, he'd can be he had or he would. It depends on the rest of
monocle (noun) a single eyeglass, worn on one eye. [Contrast with the sentence. Look at these examples:
spectacles: a pair of glasses.]
monodrama (noun) a theatrical play or drama for one performer only.
monogamy (noun) the practice of being married to only one person at a He'd like to go. (He would like to go.)
time. [Contrast with polygamy.] He'd finished when I arrived. (He had finished when I arrived.)
monoglot (noun) a person who speaks only one language. monoglot The contraction 's (= is or has) is not used only with pronouns. It
(adjective). [Contrast with polyglot.] can also be used with nouns, names, question words and words like
monolingual (adjective) able to speak only one language.
monolith (noun) made from a single block of stone. monolithic
here and there, for example:
(adjective).
monologue (noun) a long speech by one actor in a movie or play; a The train's late. John's arrived. Where's the phone? Here's your
long, boring speech by one person in a conversation.
change. There's a policeman.
[Contrast with dialogue.]
contracted contracted short original long
monophthong (noun) a sound made with a single vowel; also called a pure short form original long form form form
vowel. [Contrast with diphthong: sound made with I'm I am she'll she will
two vowels in a single syllable.]
monopod (noun) a one-legged stand for a camera or fishing-rod. I've I have she'd she had/she
[Contrast with tripod: three-legged stand.] would
I'll I will/I shall it's it has/it is
monoplane (noun) an airplane with one pair of wings. [Contrast with
biplane: airplane with two pairs of wings.] I'd I would/I should/I it'll it will
monopoly (noun) total ownership or control of something by a single had
person or entity. Monopoly (name): popular board you're you are we're we are
game in which each player tries to get control of the
you've you have we've we have
whole board. monopolize (verb): have or take total
ownership or control of something. you'll you will we'll we will
monosyllabic of a word—consisting of only one syllable; of a
(adjective) person—speaking in monosyllables. monosyllable you'd you had/you would we'd we had/we
(noun): a word that consists of one syllable only. would
[Contrast with polysyllabic.] he's he has/he is they're they are
monotheism (noun) the belief that there is only one god. monotheist he'll he will they've they have
(noun/adjective). [Contrast with polytheism.]
he'd he had/he would they'll they will gotta = (have) got to I've gotta go now.
I gotta go now.
she's she has/she is they'd they had/they
would
We haven't gotta do that.
Have they gotta work?
kinda = kind of She's kinda cute.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS lemme = let me Lemme go!
Note that with the verb be, two negative forms are possible, for
example:
wanna = want to I wanna go home.
wanna = want a I wanna coffee.
we are not → we aren't and we're not whatcha = what are you Whatcha going to do?
In questions, am not is contracted to aren't, for example: whatcha = what have you Whatcha got there?
ya = you Who saw ya
I'm late, aren't I? https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/contractions.htm
contracted contracted short original long
short form original long form form form
aren't are not mayn't may not

can't cannot, can not mightn't might not WH QUESTIONS WORDS

couldn't could not mustn't must not
We use question words to ask certain types of questions (question
daren't dare not needn't need not
word questions).
didn't did not oughtn't ought not

doesn't does not shan't shall not

don't do not shouldn't should not

hasn't has not wasn't was not

haven't have not weren't were not

hadn't had not won't will not

isn't is not wouldn't would not

OTHER CONTRACTIONS
It is also possible, and quite common in speech, to contract three
words, for example: I'd've thought so = I would have thought so
contracted contracted short original long
short form original long form form form
here's here is what's what is?

there'll there will when's when is?

there's there is where's where is?

that's that is who's who is?

that'll that will who'd who would?

how's how is? who'll who will?

what'll what will?

INFORMAL CONTRACTIONS
Informal contractions are short forms of other words that people use when
speaking casually. They are not exactly slang, but they are a little like
slang.
We often refer to these words as WH words because they include the
For example, "gonna" is a short form of "going to". If you say going to very letters WH (for example WHy, HoW).
fast, without carefully pronouncing each word, it can sound like gonna.
question word function example sentence
Please remember that these are informal contractions. That means that we what asking for information What is your name?
do not use them in "correct" speech, and we almost never use them in about something
writing. (If you see them in writing, for example in a comic strip, that is asking for repetition or What? I can't hear
because the written words represent the spoken words or dialogue.) We confirmation you.
normally use them only when speaking fast and casually, for example with You did what?
friends. Some people never use them, even in informal speech. what...for asking for a reason, asking What did you do that
why for?
when asking about time When did he leave?
It is probably true to say that informal contractions are more common in
where asking in or at what place Where do they live?
American English.
or position
which asking about choice Which colour do you
Also note that, unlike normal contractions, we do not always use want?
apostrophes (') with informal contractions when written. who asking what or which Who opened the door?
person or people (subject)
Listed below are some common informal contractions, with example whom asking what or which Whom did you see?
sentences. Note that the example sentences may be a little artificial because person or people (object)
when we use a contraction we may also use other contractions in the same whose asking about ownership Whose are these keys?
sentence, or even drop some words completely. Whose turn is it?
ain't = am not/are not/is not I ain't sure. why asking for reason, asking Why do you say that?
You ain't my boss. what...for
ain't = has not/have not I ain't done it. why don't making a suggestion Why don't I help you?
She ain't finished yet. how asking about manner How does this work?
gimme = give me Gimme your money. asking about condition or How was your exam?
Don't gimme that rubbish. quality
Can you gimme a hand? how + adj/adv asking about extent or see examples below
gonna = going to Nothing's gonna change my love for degree
you. how far distance How far is Pattaya
I'm not gonna tell you.
from Bangkok?
What are you gonna do?
how long length (time or space) How long will it take?
how many quantity (countable) How many cars are
gotta = (have) got a I've gotta gun. there?
I gotta gun. how much quantity (uncountable) How much money do
She hasn't gotta penny. you have?
Have you gotta car?
 how old age How old are you? Where is Bombay?
how come asking for reason, asking How come I can't see How was she?
(informal) why her?
Choise questions
QUESTIONS Sometimes we give our listener a choice. We ask them to choose between two
possible answers. So their answer is (usually) already in the question. Look at
these examples:
A statement is a sentence that tells you something. A question is a
sentence that asks you something. A statement does not require an answer:
answer. A question requires an answer. auxiliar main in
y verb subject verb   or   question
I like EnglishClub. Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee,
statement: please.
question: Do you like EnglishClub? Yes Will we meet John or James? John.
Why do you like EnglishClub? Because...

A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ? Exception. Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple:
Question Structure
The basic structure of a question is: main
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb verb be subject   OR  
Is your car white or black?
Look at these example sentences. They all have the auxiliary verb before the Were they $15 or $50?
subject:

auxiliary
  verb subject main verb   TAG QUESTIONS
  Do you like Mary? You speak English, don't you?
  Are they playing football? A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by
  Will Anthony go to Tokyo? a mini-question. We use tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean
  Did he leave early? something like: "Is that right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in
Why did he leave early? English.
When will he return?   The basic structure of a tag question is:

positive statement negative tag

Exception! For the main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple, there is no Snow is white, isn't it?
auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences. They all have the main verb
before the subject: negative statement positive tag
  main verb be subject   You don't like me, do you?
  Am I wrong?
  Are they Thai? Notice that the tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the
  Was it hot outside? statement and changes it to negative or positive.
Why were you late? Positive Statement Tag Questions
Look at these examples with positive statements. You will see that most of the
Question Types time, the auxiliary verb from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and
There are three basic question types: changed to negative.
 Yes/No: the answer is "yes or no"
(+) positive statement (-) negative tag
 Question-word: the answer is "information" personal
 Choice: the answer is "in the question" subj auxilia main auxil no pronoun same as
We look at these in more detail below. ect ry verb   iary t subject
Yes/No questions You are coming   are n't you?
Sometimes the only answer that we need is yes or no. Look at these examples: ,
We have finishe   have n't we?
auxiliary main answer: d,
verb subject not verb   yes or no You do like coffee, do n't you?
Do you   want dinner? Yes, I do. You   like coffee, do n't you?
Can you   drive?   No, I can't. They will help,   wo n't they?
Has she not finished her Yes, she has. I can come,   can 't I?
work? We must go,   must n't we?
Did they   go home? No, they didn't. He should try harder, shoul n't he?
d
Exception! Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple: You   are English are n't you?
,
main verb be subject   John   was there, was n't he?
Is Anne French?
Was Ram at home? Notice:
 the use of do in the two coffee questions. Remember that in Present
Question-word questions Simple, do is optional in positive statements (You like coffee/You do
Sometimes we want more than yes or no for an answer. When asking for like coffee). But the do must appear in the tag. The same applies to
information, we usually place a question-word at the beginning of the sentence. Past Simple did.
The question-word indicates the information that we want, for
example: where (place), when(time), why (reason), who (person). Look at these  in last two questions, no auxiliary for main verb be in Present
examples: Simple and Past Simple. The tag repeats the main verb.
Negative Statement Tag Questions
answer: Look at these examples with negative statements. Notice that the negative
question auxiliar main informatio verb in the original statement is changed to positive in the tag.
word y verb not subject verb   n
Where do   you live?   In Paris.
(-) negative statement (+) positive tag
When will   we have lunch? At 1pm. perso
Why has n't Tara done it? Because she nal
prono
can't. un
Who(m) did   she meet?   She met same
Ram. as
Who* has     run out? Ati has run subje auxiliar main auxiliar subje
ct y   verb     y ct
out.
It is n't rainin     is it?
Who**       ran out? Ati ran out. g,
We have never seen   that, have we?
*When the question-word is who, it acts as the subject. You do n't like   coffee, do you?
**In Present Simple and Past Simple tenses, there is no auxilary verb with who. They will not help,     will they?
Exception. Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple: They wo n't repor   us, will they?
t
question word main verb be subject I can never do   it right, can I?
 We must n't tell   her, must we? Look at these positive-positive tag questions:
He should n't drive   so fast, should he?  So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!
You wo n't be   late, will you?
You     are n't English are you?  She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
,  So you think that's funny, do you? Think again.
John     was not there, was he? Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
 So you don't like my looks, don't you? (British English)
Notice:
 won't is the contracted form of will not Asking for information or help
 the tag repeats the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. Except, of Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting
course, for the verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple. with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a
Answering Tag Questions request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite),
may repeat the tag and reverse it (They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do). we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?"
Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an opposite Here are some more examples:
system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes  You don't know of any good jobs, do you?
answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!  You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer
reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.  You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and
the correct answers: Some more special cases
example notes
correct I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)
tag question answer notes You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...
Snow is white, isn't Yes (it Answer is same in But notice I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliary
it? is). both cases - change Nothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with nothing,
Snow isn't white, is Yes it is! because snow is of stress when nobody etc like negative statements
it? white! answerer does Let's go, shall we? let's = let us
Snow is black, isn't No it isn't Answer is same in not agree with He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)
it? ! both cases - questioner.
Snow isn't black, is No (it because snow is Mixed Examples of Tag Questions
it? isn't). not black! Here is a list of examples of tag questions in different contexts. Notice that
some are "normal" and others seem to break all the rules:
In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with  But you don't really love her, do you?
"Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in
 This'll work, won't it?
English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:  Oh you think so, do you?
 The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.  Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.  But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!  We'd never have known, would we?
 Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!  Oh you do, do you?
 Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!  The weather's bad, isn't it?
 Men don't have babies, do they? No.  You won't be late, will you?
 The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.  Nobody knows, do they?
Tag Question Special Cases  You never come on time, do you?
Negative adverbs  You couldn't help me, could you?
The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative
sense. Even though they may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the  You think you're clever, do you?
statement is negative. We treat statements with these words like negative  So you don't think I can do it, don't you? (British English)
statements, so the question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples:  Shut up, will you!
positive statement
treated as negative statement positive tag  She can hardly love him after all that, can she?
He never came again, did he?  Nothing will happen, will it?
She can rarely come these days, can she?
You hardly ever came late, did you? TAG QUESTIONS
I barely know you, do I? Las “questions tags” son pequeñas interrogaciones que se utilizan para confirmar
You would scarcely expect her to know would you? o profundizar un tema de interés para obtener más información de la persona con
that, la que te encontrás hablando. Estas tienen diferentes usos, como:
Uso 1. Obtener respuesta rápida sobre Por ejemplo:
Intonation un tema We are going to go on vacation this
Muchas veces sucede que queremos year, aren't we? → Vamos a ir de
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our
obtener una información de otra vacaciones este año, ¿verdad?
voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our persona, sin tener que establecer una You like coffee, don't you? → A ti te
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real conversación larga sobre dicho tema. gusta el café, ¿no es así?
answer: Entonces, si deseas obtener una
respuesta rápida sobre un tema, puedes Happy female friends talking and
  intonation usar estas preguntas. having fun outdoors-1
Uso 2. Reafirmar lo expresado Por ejemplo:
You don't know do you? / rising real question
previamente. A: Mary is a brilliant student, isn't
where my Si quieres reafirmar una opinión que she? → Maria es una estudiante
wallet is, tienes sobre algo o alguien, utilizar las brillante, ¿no?
It's a beautiful isn't it? \ falling not a real questions tags serán de gran ayuda B: Yes, she is. She is kind of lazy
view, question para vos. though. → Si, lo es. Aunque es un
poco holgazana.
Impeatives Jessica isn't a Doctor, is she? →
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the Jessica no es Doctora, ¿o sí?
sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We James and Lisa are friends, aren't
use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders. they? → James y Lisa son amigos,
imperative + question tag notes ¿cierto?
Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation Uso 3. Conocer la opinión de otra Por ejemplo:
persona. A: You think my new car is
Help me, can you? quite friendly
Cuando nos encontramos conversando awesome, don't you? → Tú piensas
Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?) con otra persona, es normal que que mi auto nuevo es sorprendente,
Close the door, would you? quite polite algunas veces queramos saber si la otra ¿no es así?
Do it now, will you. less polite persona opina igual que nosotros, por B: Yeah, it is. Let's go on a ride. →
Don't forget, will you. with negative imperatives lo que es común que se utilicen las Si, lo es. Vamos a dar un paseo.
only will is possible “question tags” para esto.
Uso 4. Confirmación de una Por ejemplo:
Same-way tag questions información Seth wasn't at the party last night, was
Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative- Por último, este tipo de preguntas, he? → Seth no estaba en la fiesta
positive, it is sometimes possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative también se utilizan cuando queremos ayer, ¿o sí?
confirmar una información. Angelina and George went on a
structure. We use same-way tag questions to express interest, surprise, anger
business trip, didn't they? →
etc, and not to make real questions.
 Angelina y Jorge fueron a un viaje de
negocios, ¿no es así?
David is not going to play soccer on
the weekend, is he? → David no va a
jugar fútbol en el fin de semana, ¿o
sí?
Beautiful casual woman texting on
her cell phone
Reglas de uso
Ahora que ya conoces las diferentes situaciones en las que podés usar las
“question tags”, repasemos algunas reglas para que puedas usarlas
correctamente.
Si la frase es afirmativa, la pregunta Por ejemplo:
quedará en negativo. She's really kind, isn't she? → Ella es
agradable, no es así?
Kimberly will quit her job, won't she?
→ Kimberly renunciará a su trabajo,
¿no es así?

Si la frase es negativa, la pregunta Por ejemplo:

quedará en afirmativo. He's not very tall, is he? → El no es
tan alto, ¿cierto?
You’re not the oldest sister, are you?
→ Tu no eres la hermana mayor,
¿cierto?
Si hay un verbo modal en la frase
principal, la pregunta se forma con este Por ejemplo:
verbo. You couldn't come, could you? → No
podía venir, ¿verdad?
I can't come, can I? → Yo no puedo
venir, ¿cierto?
Kevin can't repair a computer, can
he? → Kevin no puede reparar una
computadora, ¿verdad?
Clean your room, will you? →
Limpia tu cuarto, ¿de acuerdo?
Let's not discuss this now, shall we?
→ No discutamos esto ahora, ¿de
acuerdo?
 diferencias en su significado. En general, “do” considera más la acción,
3. VERB mientras que utilizando “make” nos referimos más al resultado de la
acción.

Do Make
Se usa “do” para acciones, Se utiliza “make” en el sentido de
actividades y trabajos. Se utiliza “fabricar”, “elaborar” o “crear”.
en un sentido amplio, como de Se usa para actividades en que se
“realizar”. En general, estas crea algo que se puede tocar, un
acciones y actividades no producen objeto físico.
Positive un objeto físico.
verb -ed -ing noun do homework make a dress
You ______ me¡ I´m _______¡ How _______¡ What ______¡
do a job make furniture
amaze amazed amazing amazement do the dishes Expresiones
amuse amused amusing amusement do housework Nota: Hay muchas expresiones
captative captived captivating a captivation do exercise que utilizan “make”. En muchas
challenge challenged challenging a challenge Se utiliza “do” cuando hablamos de estas, el sentido de “make” no es
charm charmed charming charm de cosas en general, cuando no “fabricar”, ni “hacer” y muy a
comfort comforted comforting comfort especificamos la actividad. En este menudo “do” parece más
concern concerned concerning concern sentido, se utiliza mucho con los apropiado, pero son expresiones
convince convinced convincing conviction pronombres indefinidos como establecidas, así que hay que
encourage encouraged encouraging encouragement “something”, “anything”, memorizarlas.
enchant enchanted enchanting enchantment “nothing”, etc. Ejemplos:
energize energized energizing energy Ejemplos: make a decision(tomar una
entertain entertained entertaining entertainment What are you doing today? I’m not decisión)
enthrall enthralled enthralling enthrallment doing anything.(¿Qué haces hoy? make a choice(hacer una elección)
excite excited exciting excitement No hago nada.) make a plan(trazar/hacer un plan)
He’s always doing nice things for make arrangements(hacer
exhaust exhausted exhausting exhaustion
his girlfriend.(Siempre hace cosas preparativos)
fascinate fascinated fascinating fascination
buenas para su novia.) make a mistake(cometer un error)
flatter flattered flattering flattery
Are you doing anything important make money(ganar dinero)
fulfill fulfielled fulfilling fulfillment right now?(¿Haces algo importante
gratify gratified gratifying gratification make an excuse(dar una excusa)
ahora mismo?) make an effort(hacer un esfuerzo)
humiliate humiliated humiliating humiliation Expresiones make an attempt(hacer un intento)
interest interested interesting interest do good(hacer el bien) make fun of(reírse/burlarse de)
intrigue intrigued intriguing intrigue do right(hacer bien) make progress(hacer progresos)
move moved moving do wrong(hacer mal) make an offer(hacer una oferta)
please pleased pleasing (pleasant) a pleasure do one’s best(hacer lo posible) make [a] noise(hacer [un] ruido)
relax relaxed relaxing relaxation do a favor(hacer un favor) make peace(firmar la paz)
relieve relieved relieving a relief do justice(hacer justicia) make a phone call(hacer una
satisfy satisfied satisfying satisfaction do research(investigar) llamada)
surprice surprised surprising a surprise do harm(hacer daño) make an exception(hacer una
tempt tempted tempting temptation do business(hacer negocios) excepción)
touch touched touching do one’s hair(arreglarse el pelo) make a confession(hacer una
thrill thrilled thrilling a thrill do wonders(hacer maravillas) confesión)
titilate titilated titilating titilation make a discovery(hacer un
descubrimiento)
make a change(hacer un cambio)
make amends(reparar el daño
[causado al alguien]/desagraviar
a)
make a comment(hacer un
comentario)
make a statement(hacer una
declaración/afirmación)
make a speech (pronunciar/hacer
un discurso)
make a difference(hacer
diferencias/marcar la [una]
diferencia)
make friends(hacer amigos)
make love(hacer el amor)
make a fire(encender un fuego)
make an impression(causar
impresión)
make a point(dar un argumento
concreto)
make a promise(hacer una
promesa)
make a suggestion(hacer una
sugerencia)
make time(encontrar tiempo)
make the bed(hacer la cama)

Conjugation of modal verbs

Modal verbs are probably the simplest verbs to conjugate in the English
language. They DO NOT HAVE SINGULAR OR PLURAL FORM and they
are always accompanied by a verb in its BASE FORM. Modal verbs are also
special in the sense that they DO NOT USE AUXILIARY VERBS to form
their negative or interrogative forms as the rest of verbs do. The following chart
helps us understand the ways most of the modal verbs work.

“Do” y “make” son dos verbos que se confunden frecuentemente en

inglés. Ambos se pueden traducir como “hacer”, pero hay algunas
 (informal)
MODA
CONCEPT EXAMPLE obligation
L must You must tell the police the truth.
(full)
Ability Julie can swim obligation You should tell your friends the
CAN Permission Can I come with you? (may´is also used) should
(informal) truth.
Offers Can I help you? obligation ought You ougth to tell your friends the
Possibility That story could be true – who knows¡ (full) to truth.
Past ability Charlie could swim when he was four logical conclusions He left an hour ago, so he must
Permission years old must
COULD (stronger than “should”) be there already.
Request Could I use your phone please?
logical conclusions He left half an hour ago, I believe
Could you tell me the way to the station should
(weaker than “must”) he should be there already.
please?
possibility
Possibility The President may come to our office can I can rain sometimes.
(general)
MAY If the meeting finishes before 5 pm
possibility It could rain, but it is not very
Permission May i borrow your dictionary?
(weaker than “may” and could common in this part of the
Slight possibility We might win a prize but I doup it
“might”) country.
Past form of The President said he might come
MIGHT possibility It’s not very cloudy yet, but it
“may” in reported might
(weaker than “may”) might rain.
speech
possibility It’s starting to get cloudy – it
Advice You should take an umbrella in case it may
(stronger than “might”) may rain soon.
SHOUL Logical deduction trains
future
D I´ve revised so I should be ready for the will Look at the sky! It will rain soon.
actions/states/intentions
test
OUGH Advice You ought to write to your grandmother
T TO Logical deduction 30 € ought to be enough for the taxi
Offers/ Shall I order a taxi?
SHALL suggestions Shall we begin the meeting now?
With “I” and “we”
Future tense Tomorrow I will be in New Yorrk
WILL auxiliary Will you join us for coffe? Won`t you
Invitantions/offers come in?

AFFIRMATIVE FORM
VERB IN
SUBJECT MODAL COMPLEMEN
BASE
PRONOUN VERBS T
FORM
I must study English hard.
You should be more patient.
He–She-It can play tennis tomorrow.
could
We work next Sunday.
may
might
You will buy a new car.
would
shall carefully next
They drive
ought to time.

NEGATIVE FORM
VERB IN
SUBJECT MODAL COMPLEMEN
BASE
PRONOUN VERBS T
FORM
I mustn´t study English hard.
You shouldn’t be more patient.
He–She-It can’t play tennis tomorrow.
couldn’t
We may not work next Sunday.
might not
You won’t buy a new car.
wouldn’t
shan’t carefully next
They drive
ought not to time.

Examples:
a. Tom mustn’t wear a uniform at work even though he is a watchman.
b. Billy looks very sick. He should see a doctor.
c. The teacher just said that today’s class will be postponed for next week.
d. Colombia might obtain a new Nobel Prize next decade.
e. He lived in Rome two years, but he can’t speak Italian very well.
f. I wouldn’t be very happy if Colombia won the World Cup. I would be totally
excited
g. We shall consider a new design for the logo of our company.
h. Our boss ought not to decide so quickly when making some important
decisions.

SITUATIONS TABLE
MODA
SITUATION L EXAMPLE
VERB
request
may May I sit down?
(formal)
request
can Can I sit down?
(informal)
request
could Could I sit down?
(polite)
request
would Would you mind if I sit down?
(polite)
permission
may You may sit down.
(formal)
permission can You can sit down.
 Cut something make something We had to cut the old tree in our yard down
down fall to the ground after the storm.
PHARASAL VERB cut in interrupt Your father cut in while I was dancing with
While most verbs are single words, some are phrasal: they contain two your uncle.
words. In phrasal verbs, the first word is a verb and the second word is cut in pull in too closely The bus driver got angry when that car cut
in front of another in.
called a particle. In many cases, the two parts of a phrasal verb, the vehicle
verb and its particle, can be separated. cut in start operating (of The air conditioner cuts inwhen the
an engine or temperature gets to 22°C.
electrical device)
phrasal verb meaning example sentence
Cut something remove with The doctors cut off his leg because it was
Ask somebody invite on a date Brian asked Judy out to dinner and a movie.
off something sharp severely injured.
out
Cut something stop providing The phone company cut off our phone
ask around ask many people I asked around but nobody has seen my
off because we didn't pay the bill.
the same question wallet.
Cut somebody off take out of a will My grandparents cut my father off when he
add up to equal Your purchases add up to$205.32.
remarried.
something
Cut something remove part of I cut this ad out of the newspaper.
Back something reverse You'll have to back up your car so that I can
out something (usually
up get out.
with scissors and
Back somebody support My wife backed me up over my decision to
paper)
up quit my job.
Do somebody/ beat up, ransack He's lucky to be alive. His shop was done
blow up explode The racing car blew up after it crashed into
something over (BrE, informal) over by a street gang.
the fence.
do something do again (AmE) My teacher wants me to do my essay over
Blow something add air We have to blow 50 balloons upfor the
over because she doesn't like my topic.
up party.
do away with discard It's time to do away with all of these old tax
break down stop functioning Our car broke down at the side of the
something records.
(vehicle, machine) highway in the snowstorm.
do something up fasten, close Do your coat up before you go outside. It's
break down get upset The woman broke down when the police
snowing!
told her that her son had died.
dress up wear nice clothing It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress
Break something divide into smaller Our teacher broke the final project down
up.
down parts into three separate parts.
drop back move back in a Andrea dropped back to third place when
break in force entry to a Somebody broke in last night and stole our
position/group she fell off her bike.
building stereo.
drop in/ by/ over come without an I might drop in/by/over for tea sometime
break into enter forcibly The firemen had to break intothe room to
appointment this week.
something rescue the children.
Drop somebody/ take somebody/ I have to drop my sister off at work before I
Break something wear something a I need to break these shoes inbefore we run
something off something come over.
in few times so that it next week.
somewhere and
doesn't look/feel
leave them/it there
new
drop out quit a class, school I dropped out of Science because it was too
break in interrupt The TV station broke in to report the news
etc difficult.
of the president's death.
eat out eat at a restaurant I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat
break up end a relationship My boyfriend and I broke upbefore I moved
out.
to America.
end up eventually We ended up renting a movie instead of
break up start laughing The kids just broke up as soon as the clown
reach/do/decide going to the theatre.
(informal) started talking.
fall apart break into pieces My new dress fell apart in the washing
break out escape The prisoners broke out of jail when the
machine.
guards weren't looking.
fall down fall to the ground The picture that you hung up last night fell
break out in develop a skin I broke out in a rash after our camping trip.
down this morning.
something condition
fall out separate from an The money must have fallen out of my
Bring make unhappy This sad music is bringing me down.
interior pocket.
somebodydown
fall out (of hair, teeth) His hair started to fall out when he was only
Bring somebody raise a child My grandparents brought me up after my
become loose and 35.
up parents died.
unattached
Bring something start talking about My mother walks out of the room when my
Figure something understand, find I need to figure out how to fit the piano and
up a subject father brings upsports.
out the answer the bookshelf in this room.
Bring something vomit He drank so much that he brought his
Fill something in to write Please fill in the form with your name,
up dinner up in the toilet.
information in address, and phone number.
call around phone many We called around but we weren't able to blanks, as on a
different find the car part we needed. form (BrE)
places/people
Fill something to write The form must be filled out in capital letters.
Call somebody return a phone call I called the company back but the offices out information in
back were closed for the weekend. blanks, as on a
Call something cancel Jason called the wedding offbecause he form (AmE)
off wasn't in love with his fiancé. Fill something up fill to the top I always fill the water jug upwhen it is
call on somebody ask for an answer The professor called on me for question 1. empty.
or opinion find out discover We don't know where he lives. How can we
call on somebody visit somebody We called on you last night but you weren't find out?
home. Find something discover We tried to keep the time of the party a
Call somebody phone Give me your phone number and I will call out secret, but Samantha found it out.
up you up when we are in town. Get something communicate, I tried to get my point across/over to the
calm down relax after being You are still mad. You need to calm down across/ over make judge but she wouldn't listen.
angry before you drive the car. understandable
not care for not like (formal) I don't care for his behaviour. get along/on like each other I was surprised how well my new girlfriend
somebody/ and my sister got along/on.
something get around have mobility My grandfather can get aroundfine in his
catch up get to the same You'll have to run faster than that if you new wheelchair.
point as somebody want to catch upwith Marty. get away go on a vacation We worked so hard this year that we had to
else get away for a week.
check in arrive and register We will get the hotel keys when we check get away with do without being Jason always gets away withcheating in his
at a hotel or airport in. something noticed or maths tests.
check out leave a hotel You have to check out of the hotel before punished
11:00 AM. get back return We got back from our vacation last week.
Check somebody/ look at carefully, The company checks out all new Get something receive something Liz finally got her Science notes back from
something out investigate employees. back you had before my room-mate.
check out look at (informal) Check out the crazy hair on that guy! get back at retaliate, take My sister got back at me for stealing her
somebody/ somebody revenge shoes. She stole my favourite hat.
something
get back into become interested I finally got back into my novel and
cheer up become happier She cheered up when she heard the good something in something again finished it.
news.
get on something step onto a vehicle We're going to freeze out here if you don't
Cheer somebody make happier I brought you some flowers to cheer you up. let us get on the bus.
up
get over recover from an I just got over the flu and now my sister has
chip in help If everyone chips in we can get the kitchen something illness, loss, it.
painted by noon. difficulty
Clean something tidy, clean Please clean up your bedroom before you go get over overcome a The company will have to close if it can't get
up outside. something problem over the new regulations.
come across find unexpectedly I came across these old photos when I was get round to finally find time to I don't know when I am going to get round
something tidying the closet. something do (AmE: get to writing the thank you cards.
come apart separate The top and bottom come apartif you pull around
hard enough. tosomething)
come down with become sick My nephew came down withchicken pox get together meet (usually for Let's get together for a BBQ this weekend.
something this weekend. social reasons)
come forward volunteer for a The woman came forward with her get up get out of bed I got up early today to study for my exam.
task or to give husband's finger prints. get up stand You should get up and give the elderly man
evidence your seat.
come from some originate in The art of origami comes fromAsia. Give somebody reveal hidden His wife gave him away to the police.
place away information about
count on rely on I am counting on you to make dinner while somebody
somebody/ I am out. Give somebody take the bride to My father gave me away at my wedding.
something away the altar
Cross something draw a line Please cross out your old address and write Give something ruin a secret My little sister gave the surprise party away
out through your new one. away by accident.
cut back on consume less My doctor wants me to cut back on sweets Give something give something to The library was giving away old books on
something and fatty foods. away somebody for free Friday.
Give something return a borrowed I have to give these skates backto Franz make up forgive each other We were angry last night, but we made up
back item before his hockey game. at breakfast.
give in reluctantly stop My boyfriend didn't want to go to the ballet, Make somebody apply cosmetics to My sisters made me up for my graduation
fighting or arguing but he finally gave in. up party.
Give something give to many They were giving out free perfume samples Mix something confuse two or I mixed up the twins' names again!
out people (usually at at the department store. up more things
no cost) pass away die His uncle passed away last night after a
Give something quit a habit I am giving up smoking as of January 1st. long illness.
up pass out faint It was so hot in the church that an elderly
give up stop trying My maths homework was too difficult so I lady passed out.
gave up. Pass something give the same The professor passed the textbooks out
go after follow somebody My brother tried to go after the thief in his out thing to many before class.
somebody car. people
go after try to achieve I went after my dream and now I am a Pass something decline (usually I passed up the job because I am afraid of
something something published writer. up something good) change.
go against compete, oppose We are going against the best soccer team Pay somebody return owed Thanks for buying my ticket. I'll pay you
somebody in the city tonight. back money back on Friday.
go ahead start, proceed Please go ahead and eat before the food gets pay for be punished for That bully will pay for being mean to my
cold. something doing something little brother.
go back return to a place I have to go back home and get my lunch. bad
go out leave home to go We're going out for dinner tonight. Pick something choose I picked out three sweaters for you to try on.
on a social event out
go out with date Jesse has been going out withLuke since Point somebody/ indicate with your I'll point my boyfriend outwhen he runs by.
somebody they met last winter. something out finger
go over review Please go over your answers before you Put something put what you are You can put the groceries downon the
something submit your test. down holding on a kitchen counter.
go over visit somebody I haven't seen Tina for a long time. I think surface or floor
nearby I'll go over for an hour or two. Put somebody insult, make The students put the substitute teacher down
go without suffer lack or When I was young, we went without winter down somebody feel because his pants were too short.
something deprivation boots. stupid
grow apart stop being friends My best friend and I grew apartafter she Put something off postpone We are putting off our trip until January
over time changed schools. because of the hurricane.
grow back regrow My roses grew back this summer. Put something extinguish The neighbours put the fire outbefore the
grow into grow big enough This bike is too big for him now, but he out firemen arrived.
something to fit should grow into it by next year. Put something assemble I have to put the crib togetherbefore the
grow out of get too big for Elizabeth needs a new pair of shoes because together baby arrives.
something she has grown out of her old ones. put up with tolerate I don't think I can put up withthree small
grow up become an adult When Jack grows up he wants to be a somebody/ children in the car.
fireman. something
Hand something give something I handed my old comic books down to my Put something on put clothing/ Don't forget to put on your new earrings for
down used to somebody little cousin. accessories on the party.
else your body
Hand something submit I have to hand in my essay by Friday. run into meet unexpectedly I ran into an old school-friend at the mall.
in somebody/
Hand something to distribute to a We will hand out the invitations at the door. something
out group of people run over drive a vehicle I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the
Hand something give (usually The police asked the man to hand over his somebody/ over a person or driveway.
over unwillingly) wallet and his weapons. something thing
hang in stay positive Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job very run over/ rehearse, review Let's run over/through these lines one more
(informal) soon. through time before the show.
hang on wait a short time Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes! something
(informal) run away leave The child ran away from home and has
hang out spend time Instead of going to the party we are just unexpectedly, been missing for three days.
relaxing (informal) going to hang out at my place. escape
hang up end a phone call He didn't say goodbye before he hung up. run out have none left We ran out of shampoo so I had to wash my
Hold somebody/ prevent from I had to hold my dog backbecause there was hair with soap.
something back doing/going a cat in the park. Send something return (usually by My letter got sent back to me because I used
Hold something hide an emotion Jamie held back his tears at his back mail) the wrong stamp.
back grandfather's funeral. Set something up arrange, organize Our boss set a meeting up with the president
hold on wait a short time Please hold on while I transfer you to the of the company.
Sales Department. set somebody up trick, trap The police set up the car thief by using a
hold onto hold firmly using Hold onto your hat because it's very windy hidden camera.
somebody/ your hands or arms outside. shop around compare prices I want to shop around a little before I
something decide on these boots.
Hold somebody/ rob A man in a black mask held the bank up this show off act extra special He always shows off on his skateboard
something up morning. for people
keep on doing continue doing Keep on stirring until the liquid comes to a watching (usually
something boil. boastfully)
Keep something not tell We kept our relationship fromour parents sleep over stay somewhere You should sleep over tonight if the weather
fromsomebody for two years. for the night is too bad to drive home.
(informal)
Keep somebody/ stop from entering Try to keep the wet dog out of the living
something out room. Sort something organize, resolve a We need to sort the bills outbefore the first
out problem of the month.
Keep something continue at the If you keep those results up you will get
up same rate into a great college. stick to continue doing You will lose weight if you stick to the diet.
something something, limit
let somebody fail to support or I need you to be on time. Don't let me down
yourself to one
down help, disappoint this time.
particular thing
let somebody in allow to enter Can you let the cat in before you go to
Switch stop the energy The light's too bright. Could you switch it
school?
somethingoff flow, turn off off.
log in (or on) sign in (to a I can't log in to Facebook because I've
Switch something start the energy We heard the news as soon as we switched
website, database forgotten my password.
on flow, turn on on the car radio.
etc)
take after resemble a family I take after my mother. We are both
log out (or off) sign out (of a If you don't log off somebody could get into
somebody member impatient.
website, database your account.
etc) Take something purposely break He took the car brakes apartand found the
apart into pieces problem.
look after take care of I have to look after my sick grandmother.
somebody/ Take something return an item I have to take our new TV backbecause it
something back doesn't work.
look down on think less of, Ever since we stole that chocolate bar your take off start to fly My plane takes off in five minutes.
somebody consider inferior dad has looked down on me. Take something remove something Take off your socks and shoes and come in
look for try to find I'm looking for a red dress for the wedding. off (usually clothing) the lake!
somebody/ Take something remove from a Can you take the garbage out to the street
something out place or thing for me?
look forward to be excited about I'm looking forward to the Christmas break. Take somebody pay for somebody My grandparents took us out for dinner and
something the future out to go somewhere a movie.
look into investigate We are going to look into the price of with you
something snowboards today. tearsomething up rip into pieces I tore up my ex-boyfriend's letters and gave
look out be careful, Look out! That car's going to hit you! them back to him.
vigilant, and take think back remember (often + When I think back on my youth, I wish I
notice to, sometimes + had studied harder.
look out for be especially Don't forget to look out forsnakes on the on)
somebody/ vigilant for hiking trail. Think something consider I'll have to think this job offer over before I
something over make my final decision.
Look something check, examine Can you look over my essay for spelling Throw something dispose of We threw our old furniture away when we
over mistakes? away won the lottery.
Look something search and find We can look her phone number up on the Turn something decrease the Please turn the TV down while the guests
up information in a Internet. down volume or strength are here.
reference book or (heat, light etc)
database Turn something refuse I turned the job down because I don't want
look up to have a lot of My little sister has always looked up to me. down to move.
somebody respect for Turn something stop the energy Your mother wants you to turnthe TV off
Make something invent, lie about Josie made up a story about why we were off flow, switch off and come for dinner.
up something late. Turn something start the energy, It's too dark in here. Let's turnsome lights
on switch on on.
Turn something increase the Can you turn the music up? This is my
up volume or strength favourite song.
(heat, light etc)
turn up appear suddenly Our cat turned up after we put posters up all
over the neighbourhood.
Try something on sample clothing I'm going to try these jeans on, but I don't
think they will fit.
Try something test I am going to try this new brand of detergent
out out.
Use something up finish the supply The kids used all of the toothpaste up so we
need to buy some more.
wake up stop sleeping We have to wake up early for work on
Monday.
Warm increase the You can warm your feet up in front of the
somebody/ temperature fireplace.
something up
warm up prepare body for I always warm up by doing sit-ups before I
exercise go for a run.
wear off fade away Most of my make-up wore offbefore I got to
the party.
work out exercise I work out at the gym three times a week.
work out be successful Our plan worked out fine.
Work something make a calculation We have to work out the total cost before
out we buy the house.
 
ASPECT SIMPLE PERFECT CONTINUOS/PROGRESSIVE PERFECT CONTINUOS/PROGRESSIVE
Main verb in simple form Auxiliary have + Past participle Verb to be + Present participle Auxiliary have + verb to be + present participle
FORM 
Open questions To explain a situation
Connects action that started in the past to present For actions repeated over a period of time
Present facts Used for temporary actions going on now
Action repeadted itself before now – exactly when is not important To emphasize the length of an action (progressive) and show that it started in
 Repeated actions in the present
Actions has just finished (still closely connected to now)
The action must have a beginning and an end
the past and has recently (just) stopped or is still true now
Timetables The action should be important enough to comment on
Actions happened before now at an unspecified time in the past To emphasize or show that it has been a long time
Action in not over To ask or say how long something has been happening
 Usually – Everyday – Often – Everyweek – Always - Sometimes Already - ever - just - this week - since (+point of time) - how long - yet - for - so far At the moment - Presently - Today - Now - This week How long - Since - For
SUBJECT + PRESENT OF HAS/HAVE + 3RD FORM OF VERB [regular SUBJECT + PRESENT PERFECT OF “TO BE” + -ING + FORM OF
PRESENT

SUBJECT + 1ST FORM OF VERB (“s” with he, she and it) SUBJECT + PRESENT OF “TO BE” + -ING FORM OF VERB
STATEMEN

verb/irregular verb] VERB

(I, you, we, they) write/listen (I, you, we, they) have written/listened (I, you, we, they) am/are writing/listening (I, you, we, they) have been writing/listening
(he, she, it) writes/listenes (he, she, it) has written/listened (he, she, it) is writing/listening (he, she, it) has been writing/listening
PRESENT QUESTION OF HELPING VERB “TO BE”: + SUBJECT + -ING PRESENT PERFECT QUESTION OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + -
HELPING VERB DO/DOES + SUBJECT + 1ST FORM OF VERB PRESENT OF HELPING VERB: + HAS/HAVE + SUBJECT + 3RD FORM OF VERB
QUESTION

FORM OF VERB ING FORM OF VERB

Do (I, you, we, they) write/listen? Have (I, you, we, they) written/listened? am/are (I, you, we, they) writing/listening? have (I, you, we, they) been writing/listening
Does (he, she, it) write/listen? Has (he, she, it) written/listened? is (he, she, it) writing/listening? has (he, she, it) been writing/listening
SUBJECT + HELPING VERB DO/DOES + NOT + 1ST FORM OF SUBJECT + PRESENT OF HELPING VERB: HAS/HAVE + NOT + 3RD FORM OF SUBJECT + PRESENT NEGATIVE OF HELPING VERB “TO BE”: + SUBJECT + NEGATIVE PRESENT PERFECT OF HELPING VERB:
VERB VERB “TO BE” + NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB
NEGATIVE

NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB

(I, you, we, they) do not [don´t] write/listen (I, you, we, they) have not [haven´t] written/listened (I, you, we, they) am/are not [‘m not/aren´t] writing/listening (I, you, we, they) have not [haven´t] been writing/listening
(he, she, it) does not [doesn´t] write/listen (he, she, it) has not [hasn´t] written/listened (he, she, it) is not [isn´t] writing/listening (he, she, it) has not [hasn´t] been writing/listening
For the past of the present progressive
To show that two actions were going on at the same time in the past
Past facts To say that someone was in the middle of doing something at a certain time in As the past of the present perfect progressive
Repeated actions in the past To change the order of events the past To emphasize or show that it was a long time
 Action is over Action was completed before another action or time in the past For an action that was interrupted by another action in the past To emphasize the length of an action (progressive) and show that it started in
Definite time in the past To show that an action in the past went on for a longer period of time or was the past and had been going on before a past action (past perfect)
repeated
For indirect speech
Before + past simple - Until + point of time in past - By the time + past simple By time + present simple (in future time clause) - While
 Usually – Yesterday - When I was a child - Last week - Sometimes - Always
After + past perfect - When + past simple At this time + point of time in future - When + past simple (in future clause)
For - Before - How long
SUBJECT + PAST PERFECT OF “TO BE” + -ING + FORM OF
PAST
TENSE

SUBJECT + 2ND FORM OF VERB [regular verb/irregular verb] SUBJECT + PAST OF HAVE + 3RD FORM OF VERB [regular verb/irregular verb] SUBJECT + PAST PERFECT OF “TO BE” + -ING FORM OF VERB
STATEMEN

VERB
(I, you, we, they) wrote/listened (I, you, we, they) had written/listened (you, we, they) were writing/listening (I, you, we, they) had been writing/listening
(he, she, it) wrote/listened (he, she, it) had written/listened (*I, he, she, it) was writing/listening (he, she, it) had been writing/listening
PAST QUESTION OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + -ING FORM OF PAST PERFECT QUESTION OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + -ING
HELPING VERB: DID + SUBJECT + 1ST FORM OF VERB PAST O HELPING VERB: HAVE + SUBJECT + 3RD FORM OF VERB
QUESTION

VERB FORM OF VERB

did (I, you, we, they) write/listen? had (I, you, we, they) written/listened? were (you, we, they) writing/listening? had (I, you, we, they) been writing/listening?
did (he, she, it) write/listen? had (he, she, it) written/listened? was (*I, he, she, it) writing/listening? had (he, she, it) been writing/listening?
SUBJECT + PAST NEGATIVE OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + NEGATIVE PRESENT PERFECT OF HELPING VERB:
SUBJECT + HELPING VERB: DID + NOT + 1RS FORM OF VERB SUBJECT + PAST HELPING VERB: HAVE + NOT + 3RD FORM OF VERB
NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB “TO BE” + NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB
NEGATIVE

(I, you, we, they) did not [didn´t] write/listen (I, you, we, they) had not [hadn´t] written/listened (you, we, they) were not [weren´t] writing/listening (I, you, we, they) had not [hadn´t] been writing/listening
(he, she, it) did not [didn´t] write/listen (he, she, it) had not [hadn´t] written/listened (*I, he, she, it) was not [wasn´t] writing/listening (he, she, it) had not [hadn´t] been writing/listening
Future facts
To emphasize or show that it will be a long time
Repeated actions in the future
 Consequence of an action
Actionwillbe completed before another action or time in the future Action will be going on at a definite time in the future To emphasize the length of an action (progressive) and show that it will have
been going on for a long time before a future action (future perfect)
Unplanned/spontaneous
Before + present simple (in future time clause) - By this time + point of time in future - By By the time + Present Simple (in future time clause)
 Usually - Tomorrow - When I retire - Next week - In 2020 time + present simple (in future clause) - After + future perfect (in future clause) - When + At this time + point of time in future When - By the time - For - Before - How long
present simple (in future time clause) When + Present Simple (in future time clause)
SUBJECT + FUTURE PERFECT OF “TO BE” + -ING + FORM OF
SUBJECT + WILL + 1ST FORM OF VERB SUBJECT + FUTURE OF HAVE + 3RD FORM OF VERB [regular verb/irregular verb] SUBJECT + FUTURE OF “TO BE” + -ING FORM OF VERB
STATEMEN

VERB
FUTURE

(I, you, we, they) will write/listen (I, you, we, they) will have written/ listened (I, you, we, they) will be writing/listening (I, you, we, they) will have been writing/listening
(he, she, it) will write/listen (he, she, it) will have written/listened (he, she, it) will be writing/listening (he, she, it) will have been writing/listening
FUTURE QUESTION OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + -ING FORM FUTURE PERFECT QUESTION OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + SUBJECT + -
HELPING VERB: WILL + SUBJECT + 1ST FORM OF VERB FUTURE OF HELPING VERB: HAVE + SUBJECT + 3RD FORM OF VERB
QUESTION

OF VERB ING FORM OF VERB [regular verb/irregular verb]

will (I, you, we, they) write/listen? will (I, you, we, they) have written/ listened? will (I, you, we, they) be writing/listening? will (I, you, we, they) have been writing/listening?
will (he, she, it) write/listen? will (he, she, it) have written/listened? will (he, she, it) be writing/listening? will (he, she, it) have been writing/listening?
SUBJECT + NEGATIVE FUTURE PERFECT OF HELPING VERB:
SUBJECT + NEGATIVE FUTURE OF HELPING VERB: “TO BE” + “TO BE” + NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB
SUBJECT + HELPING VERB: WILL + NOT + 1ST FORM OF VERB SUBJECT + FUTURE OF HELPING: HAVE + NOT + 3RD FORM OF VERB
NOT + -ING FORM OF VERB
NEGATIVE

(I, you, we, they) will not [won´t] write/listen (I, you, we, they) will not [won´t] have written/ listened (I, you, we, they) will not [won´t] have been
(I, you, we, they) will not [won´t] be writing/listening?
(he, she, it) will not [won´t] write/listen (he, she, it) will not [won´t] have written/listened writing/listening?
(he, she, it) will not [won´t] be writing/listening?
(he, she, it) will not [won´t] have been writing/listening?
 4. ADJECTIVE

COMPARISION OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives Affirmative Comparative Superlative Equatives
fast faster thah the fastest as fast as
small smaller thah the smallest as small as
tall taller thah the tallest as tall as
vowels +
short shorter thah the shortest as short as
consonats weak weaker thah the weakest as weak as
long longer thah the longest as long as
slow slower thah the slowest as slow as
fine finer than the finest as fine as
large larger than the largest as large as
One
ending in - e nice nicer than the nicest as nice as
syllable wide wider than the widest as wide as
wise wiser than the wisest as wise as
hot hotter than the hottest as hot as
thin thinner than the thinnest as thin as
big bigger than the biggest as big as
1 vowel +
wet wetter than the wettest as wet as
consonant fat fatter than the fattest as fat as
flat flatter than the flattest as flat as
fit fitter than the fittest as fit as
not ending in polite more polite than the most polite as polite as
helpful more helpful than the most helpful as helpful as
–y, -ow, -le, - useful more useful than the most useful as useful as
er obscure more obscure than the most obscure as obscure as
friendly friendlier than the friendliest as friendly as
easy easier than the easiest as easy as
heavy heavier than the heaviest as heavy as
funny funnier than the funniest as funny as
pretty prettier than the prettiest as pretty as
ending in -y hungry hungrier than the hungriest as hungry as
Two busy busier than the busiest as busy as
syllables noisy noisier than the noisiest as noisy as
early earlier than the earliest as early as
happy happier than the happiest as happy as
sunny sunnier than the sunniest as sunny as
ending in - narrow narrower than the narrowest as narrow as
ow shallow shallower than the shallowest as shallow as
ending in -le humble humbler than the humblest as humble as
gentle gentier than the gentiest as gentle as
simple simpler than the simplest as simple as
ending in -er clever cleverer than the cleverest as clever as
interesting more interesting than the most interesting as interesting as
comfortable more comfortable than the most comfortable as comfortable as
beautiful more beautiful than the most beautiful as beautiful as
difficult more difficult than the most difficult as difficult as
Three syllables dangerous more dangerous than the most dangerous as dangerous as
expensive more expensive than the most expensive as expensive as
popular more popular than the most popular as popular as
complicated more complicated than the most complicated as complicated as
confident more confident than the most confident as confident as
good better than the best as good as
bad worse than the worst as bad as
Exceptions far farther than the farthest as far as
little less than the least as little as
much/many more than the most
Negative stupid less stupid than the least stupid

COUMPOUND ADJECTIVES
Adjective + Past Participle
narrow-minded, high-spirited, old-fashioned, short-haired, absent-minded, strong-willied,
quick-witted, kind-hearted
Adverb + Past Participle
well-behaved, well-educated, densely-populated, widely-recognized, highly-respected,
brightly-lit, deeply-rooted, well-know, well-paid
noun + Past Participle
sun-baked, child-wanted, middle-aged
Noun + Present Participle
English-speaking, time-saving, record-breaking, mouth-watering, thought-provoking
Adjective + Present Participle
good-looking, long-lasting, slow-moving, far-reaching, easy-song
Adverb + Present Participle
never-ending, forward-thinking
Noun + Adjective
Wolrd-famous, ice-cold, smoke-free, sugar-free, book-smart
Adjective + Noun
full-length, last-minute, long-distance
Noun + Noun
Part-time, north-west, bullet-proof
Adjective + Adjective
fat-free, big-blue
 the personal pronoun is the direct him
5. ADVERB object, indirect object, or object of it
a preposition. us
them
Possessive pronouns The determiner possessive
ADVERBS There are just a few possessive pronouns are:
An adverb describes a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells us how, pronouns that function as my
where, when, how much and with what frequency. An adverb can tell… determiners. These are commonly your
HOW? WHERE? WHEN? HOW HOW referred to as possessive pronouns his
MUCH? OFTEN? with determiner function or her
Quietly Adove Now Quite Always possessive adjectives. We will call
Peacefully Abroad Yesterday Fairly Sometimes its
them simply determiner possessive our
Carefully Far Soon Too Often
Slowly Away Later Enormously Frequently
pronouns their
Badly Back Tomorrow Entirely Normaly Reflexive pronoun replaces the The reflexive pronouns are:
Closely Here Yet Very Generally second of two noun phrases that myself
Easily Outside Already Extremely Usually refer to the same yourself
Well Backwards Tonignt Rather Occasionally
person or thing within the same himself
Fast Behind Today Almost Seldom
Quickly Below Then Absolutely Rarely clause. herself
Cheerfully Down Last Just Hardly ever itself
Efficiently Indoors month Barely Never ourselves
Paintfully Downstairs Last year Completely yourselves
Secretly Inside Enough
Nearby Deeply
themselves
There Enormously Subject pronoun The subject pronouns are:
Towards Fully the form of a personal pronoun that I
is used when the pronoun functions you
as the subject. he
QUESTIONS WORDS she
Who? ¿?and object it
What? we
Whiich? they
When? Demostrative pronoun
Where? Interrogative pronoun
From where? Relative pronoun
Why?
How? Nominal possessive pronouns The nominal possessive
How much? replace a whole noun (or noun pronouns are:
How many? phrase) mine
yours
DETERMINER his
one of several types of words occurring before a noun. hers
Articles Articles give us Definite article its
information about a noun; they may be used with both singular ours
indicate whether or not the and plural nouns theirs
noun is a specific one known to The:
both the speaker and listener. Indefine article only with PRONOUN
singular nouns demonstrative pronoun
A There are only four demonstratives this
An: in English (this table, these tables, that
interrogative determiner The interrogative determiners that idea, those ideas) these
question word occurring before are: those
a noun which Interrogative pronouns The interrogative
EX: Which option do you whose are question words pronouns are:
prefer? what how
determiner possessive The determiner possessive what
pronoun: a possessive pronoun pronouns are: when
used before a noun. Also called my where
possessive pronoun with your which
determiner function. Example: his who
our decision her whom
Its whose
Our why
their personal pronoun
Quantifier
a determiner that indicates
amount or quantity. Example:
all topics
Demonstrative determiner
this and that (singular) and This Relative pronouns The common relative
these and those (plural) That Are not used to ask questions, used pronouns are:
when used before a noun. These to replace a noun that’s already that
Example: this morning Those mentioned earlier in the sentence. which
Relative pronouns are a type of who
PERSONAL PRONOUN subordinating conjunction. A whom
a type of pronoun that has di¡erent forms, depending on whether it relative pronoun typically occurs whose
refers to the speaker (first person), listener (second person), or soon after the noun it refers to.
anyone/anything else (third person) Example: He liked the teacher who
Object pronoun The object pronouns are: gave easy tests.
the form of a personal pronoun that me Other relative pronouns, (all
is used when the pronoun has an you ending in -ever), represent, rather whatever
object function.This happens when her than refer back to, a noun phrase whoever
whomever
whosever
 6. PREPOSITION

TIME PREPOSITIONS
About – alrededor, It’s about 6 p.m.
aproximadamente
After - después Summer comes after spring
At – a, en Let’s meet at 10 a.m.
During- durante She was sleeping during the
whole lesson
For – durante He laughead for 5 minutes
In – en I’ll be at home in 20 minutes
On – en I usually go shopping on
Fridays
Till – hasta I won’t go shopping till Sunday
Withing – en el transcurso de You must do it withing a month

CASUAL PREPOSITIONS
Because of Porque
On account of Debido a
Thanks to Gracias a
In accordance with De acuerdo a
Opposite of, opposite to Al contrario
Due to Debido a
7. CONJUNCTION

8. INTERJECTION
Five alternatives to “and”
1. As well as
Keit loves singing as well as dancing
2. Furthermore
Mina´s a great singer furthermore, she can do magic tricks¡
3. Too
Kevin is a Lady Gaga fan. He likes Rihanna too
4. Also
Ali plays piano. She´s also learning the guitar
5. What´s more
I´ve got all his music. What´s more, I´ve seen him live three times

Five alternatives to “and”

1. However
Mario loves dogs. However, he hates cats
2. Although
Although Mina adores cats, she can´t have one because she´s
allergic to them.
3. And yet
Keiko´s got eleven cats, four dogs and a rabbit, and yet she wants
more pets.
4. Nevertheless
Keeping horses can be very expensive. Nevertheless, I´ve got three
of them.
5. Even so
My dog´s old, smelly and he pees in the house. Even so, I lovehim
to bits.
(bbclearingeglish.com)
 BE MORE DESCRIPTIVE
Instead of said, use: Instead of laughed, use:
called shouted snickered guffawed
cried whispered giggled cackled
responded remarked roared howled
demanded quetioned chuckled tittered
asked replied chortled hee-hawed
stated exclaimed crowed bellowed
Instead of ran, use: Instead of walked, use:
hurried bolted Staggered Shuffled
raced darted Traveled Sauntered
scurried sped Trudged Lumbered
dashed jogged Strutted Paraded
galloped sprinted Marched Ambled
trotted rushed hiked strolled
Instead of saw, use: Instead of like, use:
glimpsed glanced at love prefer
noticed eyed admire cherish
observed gazed at appreciate care for
sighted spied fancy favor
spotted examined adore enjoy
stared at watched idolize treasure
Instead of sad, use: Instead of pretty, use:
downcast unhappy beautiful exquisite
depressed dejected lovely gorgeous
woeful forlorn glamorous stunning
gloomy melancholy attractive handsome
miserable crestfallen elegant striking
sorrowful mourful cute fair
Instead of good, use: Instead of little, use:
great splendid teeny small
pleasant superb diminute tiny
marvelous grand compact minuscule
delightful terrific microscopic miniature
superior amazing petite slight
wonderful excellent wee minute
Instead of nice, use: Instead of funny, use:
kind congenial farcical hysterical
benevolent agreeable jocular sidesplitting
thoughtful courteous amusing hilarious
gracious warm humorous laughable
considerate cordial witty silly
decent humane comical nonsensical
Instead of big, use: Instead of walked, use:
towering enormous glad merry
huge tremendous jovial contended
large massive jubilant pleased
great giant joyful delighted
gigantic colossal thrilled jolly
mammonth immense cheerful elated
Instead of smart, use: Instead of like, use:
witty ingenious
bright sharp
quick-witted brainy
knowledgeable brilliant
intelligent gifted
clever wise
Abruptly Meanwhile
After Momentarily
After a few days Never
After a long time Next
After a short time Not at all
After a while Not long after
After that Not long ago
Afterward Now
All at one Occasionally
All of the time Of late
All the while Often
Always Often time
As long as On the next occasion
As soon as Once
At first Once upon a time
At last Past
At lenght Periodically
At present Preceding
At that time Present
At the beginning Presently
At the end Previously
At that onset Prior to
At the same time Promptly
At this moment Quick
At times Rarely
Before Recently
Begin Repeatedly
By now Right after
Commence Right away
Commencing Second
Concurrently Seldom
Consequently Sequentially
Continually Shorty
Currently Simultaneously
Cyclically Slow
Directly So far
During Some of the time
Earlier Some time
Embark Soon
Eventually Soon after
Every time Soon afterward
Final Sporadically
Finally Starting with
First Subsequently
Following Suddenly
Following that Temporary
Former The latter
Formerly The next
Frequently The final
From this point Then
Generally There after
Gradual This instant
Henceforth Third
Hereafter To begin with
Heretofore To conclude
Immediately To finish
In an instant Today
In awhile Tomorrow
In conclusion Twice
In the end Uncommon
In the first place Ultimately
In the future Until
In the last place Until now
In the meantime Usually
In the past When
In the second place While
In turn Yesterday
In frequently
Initial
Instantly
Instantaneously
Intermittent
Just then
Last
Last for all
Lastly
Later
Later on
Later that day
Little by little
 100 expresiones en inglés para redacciones ‘Notably-significantly-in – ‘especialmente’
particular’
‘To give an illustration’ – ‘para dar una ilustración’
Expresiones en inglés para empezar un texto como es debido
‘For instead’ – ‘por ejemplo’
‘At first’ – ‘Al principio’
‘As well as (also, and)’ – ‘tanto como’
‘Initially’ – ‘Inicialmente’
‘Another key thing to remember’ – ‘otro punto importante para recordar’
‘At first sight’ – ‘A primera vista’
‘In order to’ – ‘a fin de que’
‘First of all’ – ‘Antes que nada’
‘In the first place/ firstly’ – ‘En primer lugar’
‘To start with/ To begin with’ – ‘Para empezar’ Expresiones en inglés para concluir
‘In the second place/ Secondly’, – ‘En segundo lugar,’ ‘All in all,’ – ‘En conjunto/ Resumiendo’
‘Second’, – ‘Segundo,’ ‘In brief,/ In short,’ – ‘En resumen’
‘Third’, – ‘Tercero,’ ‘In conclusion/ to put it in a – ‘Para concluir’
nutshell’
‘Thirdly’, – ‘En tercer lugar,’
‘To draw the conclusión, one can – ‘Para concluir, se puede decir que’
say that’
Expresiones en inglés para introducir tu opinión ‘To sum it up,’ – ‘Para resumir’
‘As far as I am concerned’ – ‘Por lo que a mí respecta’ ‘On the whole,’ – ‘En general’
‘From my point of view’ – ‘Desde mi punto de vista’ ‘Finally, Lastly,’ – ‘Por último,’
‘Talking from experience’ – ‘Desde mi experiencia’ ‘Let me finish/ conclude by – ‘Permíteme terminar/ concluir
‘First of all, let us try to – ‘Ante todo, intentemos entender’ saying’ diciendo’
understand’ ‘So it is up to everybody to – ‘Así que le corresponde a cada quien
‘I agree/ disagree’ – ‘Estoy de acuerdo / no estoy de decide whether… or not’ decidir si… o no’
acuerdo’ ‘From these arguments one must/ – ‘De estos argumentos se debe/ se
‘Many people think… But others – ‘Mucha gente piensa… Pero otros no could/ might conclude that’ puede/ se podría concluir que’
do not agree’ están de acuerdo’ ‘As a result’ – ‘En consecuencia, como resultado’
‘In my opinión’ – ‘En mi opinión’ ‘Last but not least…’ – ‘Por último, aunque no menos
‘In my view’ – ‘En mi opinión’ importante... ’
‘I think (that)’ – ‘Creo que’
‘It is true that’ – ‘Es verdad que’ Conectores
‘Let us start by considering the – ‘Empecemos tomando en ‘However/ Nonetheless (formal)/ – ‘Sin embargo’
facts’ consideración los hechos’ Nevertheless (formal)/ Even so/
‘Personally’ – ‘Personalmente’ Still’
‘To be honest,’ – ‘Para ser honesto’ ‘Because of/ Due to/ Owing to’ – ‘Debido a’
‘To tell the truth,’ – ‘A decir verdad’ ‘As … as’ – ‘Tan … como’
‘Actually/ Really’ – ‘En realidad’ ‘Although / Though / Even – ‘Aunque’
‘As a matter of fact/ In fact’ – ‘De hecho’ though’
‘Therefore’ – ‘Por lo tanto’
Expresiones en inglés para añadir más información ‘Provided/ Providing/ As long as’ – ‘Siempre que/ Mientras’
‘And eventually,’ – ‘Y finalmente,’ ‘Moreover/ Furthermore/ – ‘Además’
‘Apart from’ – ‘Aparte de’ Besides’
‘In addition,/ Moreover,/ On top – ‘Además,’ ‘Not only… but… as well’ – ‘No solo … sino…también’
of that,/ Besides’ ‘Otherwise’ – ‘De otro modo’
‘In addition to’ – ‘Además de’ ‘So as to’ – ‘De manera que’
‘What is more,’ – ‘Además/ Lo que es más/ Aún más’ ‘Afterwards’ – ‘Después/ Más tarde’
‘Furthermore’ – ‘Asimismo’ ‘Even so’ – ‘Aún así’
‘Also’ – ‘También’
‘First and foremost/ First of all’ – ‘Ante todo’ E-mail o carta formal
‘Another point is that’ – ‘Habría que añadir que’ ‘I am writing with regard to’ – ‘Le escribo con respecto a’
‘The crux of the matter is’ – ‘El punto crucial del asunto es’ ‘I am contacting you to’ – ‘Me pongo en contacto con usted’
‘Not only… But (also)’ – ‘No sólo… Pero (también)’ ‘In reply to your e-mail of’ – ‘En respuesta a su e-mail de’
‘After that’ – ‘Después de eso’ ‘We are able to confirm that’ – ‘Le podemos confirmar’
‘All of a sudden/ Suddenly’ – ‘De repente’ ‘This is an urgent matter’ – ‘Es un tema urgente’
‘In the meantime,/ Meanwhile’ – ‘Mientras tanto’ ‘Glad to hear that you’re well’ – ‘Me alegra saber que estás bien’
‘Perhaps we should also point out – ‘Quizás también debemos señalar el ‘Thanks for your attention’ – ‘Gracias por su atención’
the fact that’ hecho de que’ ‘I look forward to hearing from – ‘Esperaré su respuesta’
‘Next’ – ‘Luego’ you’
‘Then’ – ‘Entonces/ Después’ ‘Best regards’ – ‘Atentamente’
‘While’ – ‘Mientras’
‘Doubtless’ – ‘Sin duda’ Bloques de texto para tu resumen en inglés
‘On the other hand’ – ‘Por otro lado’ The text… El texto …
‘In other words,’ – ‘En otras palabras,’ is about … trata de …
‘That is (to say),’ – ‘Es decir,’ deals with the question of … trata sobre la cuestión …
‘All things considered’ –‘tomando en cuenta lo anterior’ presents the problem of … representa el problema …
‘To put in another way’ – ‘para decirlo de otra manera’ The author … El autor …
starts by … empieza con …
Expresiones en inglés para explicar sucesos, points out that … hace hincapié en …
resultados, argumentaciones, etc. examines the question of … analiza si …
‘Because of’ – ‘A causa de’ discusses the argument that … tratar el argumento de que …
‘Due to’ – ‘Debido a’ supports the view that … respalda la opinión de que …
‘Due to the fact that’ – ‘Debido a que’ argues / claims / states that … argumenta/reclama/señala que …
‘For this/ that reason’ – ‘Por esta/ esa razón’
‘On account of’ – ‘A causa de’
‘As a result’ – ‘Como resultado/ En consecuencia’
‘Consequently’ – ‘En consecuencia’
‘It is true that’ – ‘Es cierto que’
‘One should, however, not forget – ‘No obstante, no se debe olvidar que’
that’
‘Experts believe/ say/ suggest/ – ‘Expertos creen/ dicen/ sugieren/
point out that’ señalan que’
This is why – ‘Esta es la razón por la que... ’
That is to say- that it – ‘lo que quiere decir’
‘In other words’ – ‘en otras palabras’
‘Above all’ – ‘Sobre todo’
‘In the same way’ – ‘Del mismo modo’
‘On the other hand’ – ‘Por otra parte’
‘Indeed’ – ‘En efecto’
 CONECTORES DISCURSIVOS «In the case of» en caso de,
Hay tres tipos de conectores en inglés: Conectores lógicos, que marcan la «As for…» en cuanto a,
relación lógica entre dos oraciones o locuciones, Conectores temporales, «On the whole» en su conjunto,
que marcan la relación cronológica entre dos oraciones o locuciones, «For the most part» para la mayoría,
Conectores espaciales, que mejoran la descripción de un texto. «Usually» habitualmente, normalmente,
SEQUENCING – Showing the order of events or claims «As a rule» como, como norma, por lo general,
Conectores de secuencia «Such as» por ejemplo,
«E.g» (exempli gratia) por ejemplo.
«First / firstly» primero / en primer lugar
«For instance / for example» como
«First of all» primero que todo
«Like» a parte de
«Second / secondly» segundo / en segundo lugar
«Apart from» en caso de
«Third / thirdly» tercero / en tercer lugar
«In case of» tal como lo revelan
«Next / then» seguidamente / luego (además)
«As revealed by» ilustrado por
después de / más tarde
«Illustrated by» como se muestra
«After / afterwards» finalmente / al final
«As shown by» es decir
«Finally / eventually» por último, si bien no menos
«That is» para ilustrar
«Last but not least» (importante)
«To illustrate» parefrasear
asimismo
«To paraphrase» a saber,
«in addition» finalmente
«Namely»
«at latest» por último
«finally» Conectores de propósito y precisión
«Meanwhile» mientras tanto «By way of» por medio de, mediante,
«Following» suiguiendo «(In order) to» para,
«Subsequently» después «So as to» a fin de, con el objetivo de,
CONTRASTING – Showing differences «So that» para que,
«In order that» para que, a fin de que,
Conectores de contraste y oposición «In such a way as to» de tal manera que,
«Either … or …» o… o…, «I.e (id est) / that is to say» es decir,
«Neither … nor …» ni … ni …, «Insofar as» en tanto que,
«Otherwise» no, de lo contrario, si
«However» sin embargo,
QUALIFYING – Limit, specify, or modify
«Unlike» a diferencia de…, Conectores de condición y grado
«Nevertheless / nonetheless» no obstante, «Whether» si,
«On the contrary» al contrario, «Even if» aunque,
«Whereas» mientras que, «On condition that» a condición de,
«While» mientras que, «In the event of…» en caso de,
«But» pero, «As long as» siempre y cuando,
«In spite of / despite» a pesar de…, «Provided / providing (that)» siempre que,
«Although / even though» aunque, «(just) In case» por si acaso, en caso de que,
«Instead (of)» en lugar de…, a menos que,
«On the one hand» por un lado, «Unless» de algún modo, hasta cierto punto,
«On the other hand» por otro lado, «To some extent» en gran medida,
«Still» aun así, sin embargo, de una forma o de otra,
«Yet» pero, sin embargo. «To a large extent» en muchos sentidos, en cierto
«in other words» en/con otras palabras «One way or another» modo,
«previous» anteriormente «In many ways» en cierto sentido,
«conversely» a la inversa «In some respects» así, por tanto,
Differ from difiere de «Thus» de alguna manera.
Alternatively alternativamente «Somehow» pero
Though aunque «But» sin embargo
Instead en lugar «However» a pesar de que
COMPARING – Showing similarities «Although» excepto
«Except» aparte de
Conectores de adición y comparación «Apart from» si
«Moreover» además, «If»
«Also» también, además
«Furthermore» es más, además,
Conectores de conclusión
«Too» también, «In conclusion» en conclusión
«Besides» además, «To sump up» para resumir
«As well as» así como, «In short» en resumen
«In addition» además, «All in all» en suma
«In comparison with» en comparación con, «In brief» en resumen
«Likewise» igualmente, asimismo, «On the whole» en general
«Similarly» de forma similar. «All in all» considerándolo todo...
«As with» al igual que con Certainly ciertamente
«Like» me gusta Doubtless indudable
«Equally» igualmente Definitely seguro
«In the same way» del mismo modo Undoubtedly indudablemente
«As compared to» en comparación con No doubt sin duda
Just as tal como Of course por supuesto
As the same time al mismo tiempo Conectores de adición
Resemble parecerse a «Furthermore / moreover / in además, es más
CAUSE and EFECT – Linking events together addition»
Conectores de causa y consecuencia «No only… but also…» no solo…sino que también, incluso
además
«Since»: ya que,
«Besides» tanto como
«Because of» a causa de,
«As well as» también
«Thanks to» gracias a,
«Too»
«Owing to» debido a,
«Due to» debido a, Conectores causales
«As a result» como resultado, «Because / because of» porque
«Therefore» como consecuencia, «Therefore» por lo tanto, entonces
«So»: por tanto, «Since» puesto,ya que
«Accordingly» así que, «As a results / as a consequence» por eso (como resultado/ como
«Hence» por consiguiente, «In order to» consecuencia)
«Thus» por tanto, de ahí, para, con tal de
«Then» así, por consiguiente, Conectores para generalizar
entonces, «Mostly» prácticamente, normalmente,
«Consequently» por consiguiente, por lo tanto mayoritariamente
porque, como, pero también, «In general» en general
«as» mientras, ya que o aunque. «Generally» generalmente
«so» así que «Overall» general
ILLUSTRATING – Citing direct evidence or examples «It seems to me that» me parece que
Conectores de identificación, de generalidades y de ejemplo «All in all» considerándolo todo
«Elsewhere» en otro lugar, en otra parte, «Essentially» esencialmente
«Wherever» en cualquier sitio, «All things considered» todas las cosas consideradas
«Generally speaking» generalmente hablando
 «On the whole» en conjunto
«By and large» en general
«As a rule» por regla general
«For the most part» en la mayor parte
Conectores para clarificar
«That is to say» es decir
«in other words» en otras palabras
«i.e» (id est) es decir
EMPHASIIZNG – Draw attention to a main idea/ a main idea/
claim/ evidence
Conectores para enfatizar
«As a matter of fact» por cierto, de hecho
«Definitely» en efecto, definitivamente
«Obviously» obviamente
«Above all» sobre todo
«Actually» de hecho
«In particular» en particular
«Signigicantly» significativamente
«Indedd» en efecto
«Notably» notablemente
Meaning
«However» sin embargo
«Whatever» Lo que sea
«Whichever» Cualquier
«Whenever» Cuando sea
«Wherever» Donde quiera
«Whoever» Quien sea
Examples
«However» sin embargo
«Whatever» Lo que sea
«Whichever» Cualquier
«Whenever» Cuando sea
«Wherever» Donde quiera
«Whoever» Quien sea
(aprendeinglessila.com)
Stating your opinion
In my opinion
In my view
From my point of view
It seems to me that
From my perspective
It appears that
I realize
I imagine
According to
To me
I think
I believe
To my way of thinking
I suppose
I understand
I feel
Expressing certainty
Certainly
Doubtless
Definitely
Undoubtedly
No doubt
Of course

Ciertamente
Indudable
Seguro
Indudablemente
Sin duda
Por supuesto
 ARGUMENTATION
ARGUMENTACIÓN
INTRODUCTION Experts believe that… Los expertos creen que…
INTRODUCCIÓN … say that … … dicen que …
Many people think… but others Mucha gente piensa… pero … suggest that … … sugieren que …
do not agree otros no están de acuerdo … are convinced that … … están convencidos de que …
Let us consider what the Consideremos las ventajas y las … point out that … … señalan que …
advantages and disadvantages desventajas de… (Veamos … emphasize that … … enfatizan que …
of … are cuales son las ventajas y According to some experts … De acuerdo con algunos
desventajas de…) expertos …
Let’s consider some pros and Considremos algunos pros y Perhaps we should also point Quizá también debemos señalar
cons of it. contras de esto (Veamos cuales out the fact that … el hecho de que…
son los pros y contras de esto) It would be unfair not to Sería injusto no mencionar el
Let us start by considering the Empecemos tomando en mention that fact that … hecho de que …
facts. consideración los hechos One must admit that … Hay que admitir que …
It is generally agreed today En general se reconoce hoy en We cannot ignore the fact that No podemos ignorar el hecho
that… día que… (según la opinión … de que …
general) One cannot possibly accepted No se puede aceptar de ninguna
CONSIDERING PROS AND CONS the fact that … forma el hecho de que …
CONSIDERANDO LOS PROS Y CONTRAS
From these facts, one may A partir de estos hechos, se
To being with… Para empezar…
conclude that … puede concluir que…
You can… Puedes…
Which seems to confirm the Lo cual parece confirmar la idea
One argument in support of… Un argumento a favor de… idea that … de que …
The first thing that needs to be Lo primero que hay que decir es Thus, … / Therefore, … De este modo, … / Por lo tanto,
said is… que… …
First and foremost… Ante todo… (En primer lugar) The most common argument El argumento más común en
It is true that…/ clear that…/ Es cierto que…/ claro que…/ against this is that… contra de esto es que…
noticeable that… notorio que… CONCLUSION
One should note here that… Hay que señalar aquí que… CONCLUSIÓN
(cabe destacar que…) In conclusion, I can say that En conclusión, puedo decir que
The second reason for… La segunda razón / el segundo although … , … aunque … , …
motivo… To draw the conclusion, one Para concluir, se puede decir
It is often said that… A menudo se dice que can say that … que …
It is undeniable that… Es inegable que… So it is up to everybody to Así que le corresponde a cada
It is a well-known fact that… Es un hecho bien conocido decide wheter … or not. quien decir si … o no.
que… The argument I have presented Los argumentos que he
For the great majority of Para la gran mayoria de las … suggest that … / prove that presentado … sugieren que /
people… personas… … / would indicate that … comprueban que …/ indican
We live in a world which… Vivimos en un mundo en el que …
que… From these arguments one must De estos argumentos se debe …
A number of keys issues arise Una serie de custiones claves … / could …/ might … / se puede … / se podría …
from the statement. For surgen de la declaración. Por conclude that… concluir que …
instance, … ejemplo…
One of the most striking Una de las características más
features of this problem is… sorprendentes de este problema
es…
First of all, let us try to Ante todo, intentemos
understand… entender…
The public in general tend to El público en general tiende a
believe that… creer que…
What is more, … Además / Aún más, …
Besides, …because it is… Además, …porque es…
Doubtless… Sin duda, …
One cannot deny that… Uno no puede negar (no se
puede negar) que…
It is (very) clear from these De estas observaciones está
observations that… (muy) claro que…
On the other hand, we can Por otro lado, podemos
observe that… observar que…
The other side of the coin is, Pero la otra cara de la moneda
however, that… es…
Another way of looking at this Otra manera de ver esta
question is to… cuestión es
One should, nevertheless, Sin embargo, se debe considerar
consider the problem from el problema desde otro ángulo.
another angle.
Onr should, however, not forger No obstante no se debe olvidar
that… que…
If on the one hand it can be said Sí, por otro lado, se puede decir
that… the same is not true for… que… no ocurre los mismo con
(no es el caso de)…
On the other hand, … Por el otro lado,…
Althought … Aunque…
Besides, … Además, …
Moreover, … Además / Más aún…
Futhermore, on should not Además, no hay que olvidar
forget that… que…
In addition to… Además (de) …
Nevertheless, one should accept No obstante, se debe aceptar
that… que…
However, we also agree that… Sin embargo, también estamos
de acuerdo con que…
 50+ FRASES PARA DEBATIR EN INGLES More or less Más o menos
Uo to a point Hasta cierto punto
Inicia el debate In a way En cierto sentido
What I want to speack about is De lo que quiero hablar ahora es To some extent Hasta cierto punto
Let me inform you about Déjame informarte acerca de So to speak Por así decirlo
My speech will be about Mi discurso será acerca de Almost Casi
As far as I remember / know Según recuerdo / sé
If I´m not mistaken Si no me equivoco En desacuerdo/ Disagreeing
It´s needless to say Es innecesario decir I’m not sure I agree with you No estoy seguro de estar de acuerdo
It´s common knowledge that Es de conocimiento general que contigo
There is no doub that No cabe duda que (I’m afraid) I don’t agree (Me temo) No estoy de acuerdo
Let´s discuss pro and contra Analicemos los pros y los contras (I’m afraid) I disagree (Me temo) que no estoy de acuerdo
(I’m afraid) I can’t agree with (Me temo) No puedo estar de acuerdo
Suple las pausas you contigo
Now, where was I? Bueno, ¿de qué estaba hablando? (I’m afraid) I don’t share your (Me temo) No comparto tu opinión
Getting back to the topic Regresando al tema opinion
Let me think Déjame pensar I think we’re going to have to Creo que tendremos que estar de acuerdo
How could it slip my mind? ¿Cómo fue que se me olvidó? agree to disagree en no estar de acuerdo
I´m trying to collect my Estoy intentando reunir mis pensamientos
thoughts En fuerte desacuerdo/ Disagreeing strongly
I don’t agree at all No estoy de acuerdo en lo absoluto
Especifica, pregunta I totally disagree Estoy en total desacuerdo
What do you mean? ¿Qué quieres decir? I couldn’t agree with you less No podría estar de acuerdo con ustedes
Could you repeat, please? ¿Podrías repetir, por favor? menos
Could you speack not so ¿Podrías hablar no tan despacio? I really can’t agree with you Realmente no puedo estar de acuerdo
quickly? there contigo
I don´t quite follow you No te estoy entendiendo muy bien
Paraphasing we can say En otras palabras (parafraseando) Expresa desacuerdo (y aporta los argumentos opuestos)
podemos decir que I´m afraid you aren´t quite right Temo que no estás completamente en lo
Tell me please Dime, por favor correcto
Are you sure? ¿Estás seguro? I should not day so Yo no diría eso
What are you driving at? ¿Qué estás insinuando? I may be wrong, but Puedo estar equivocado, pero
I just want to pay your attention Solo quiero llamar su atención
Reacciona ante una nueva información Nothing of the kind Nada de eso
To my mind En mi opinión I wish I could agree, but I Me hubiera gustado estar de acuedo pero
I am surprised Estoy sorpendido really can´t no puedo
It is a thousand pities Qué lástima It doesn´t prove your idea Esto no comprueba tu idea
Something tells me Algo me dice You had better think about Mejor huebieras pensado en
It could have been worse¡ Pudo haber sido pero Generally I like your idea, but En general, tu idea me gusta pero
Dear me¡ ¡Vaya! But we must take into account Pero debemos tomar en cuenta
It is great¡ I like it ¡Que bueno! Me gusta But, please, don´t let out of Pero, por favor, no pierdas de vista el
It´s really interesting Es realmente interesante your sight the fact hecho (no olvides que…)
It was just my opinion of view Solo es mi punto de vista
Declaraciones de opinión/ Statements of opinion
Estas de acuerdo con el interlocutor/ In my opinion… En mi opinión…
Statements of agreement Frankly, I think… Francamente, pienso que…
Exactly! ¡Exacto! Personally, I think that… Personalmente, pienso que…
Quite so Precisamente así If you ask me, i think that… Si me preguntas, creo que…
You read my mind Me leíste la mente As far as I’m concerned… En lo que a mí respecta…
I dare not protest No me atrevo a contradecirte
Interrupciones/ Interruptions
I hadn´t thought of that before No había pensado en eso antes
Can I add something here? ¿Puedo agregar algo aquí?
It´s worth trying/discussing Vale la pena probar / intentar
Is it okay if I jump in for a ¿?
I have nothing against No me opongo (no tengo nada en contra) second?
I think you’re right Creo que tienes la razón If I might add something… Si puediera agregar algo…
I agree with you Estoy de acuerdo contigo Can I throw my two cents in? ¿Puedo tirar mis dos centavos?
I think so too Yo también lo creo Sorry to interrupt, but… Perdón por interrumpir, pero…
So do I Yo también (after being interrupted) You (después de ser interrumpido) no me
Neither do I Yo tampoco didn’t let me finish dejaste terminar
I couldn’t agree more No podría estar más de acuerdo
Resolver un argumento/ Settling an argument
Acuerdo fuerte/ Strong agreement Let´s just move on, shall we? Sigamos adelante, ¿vale?
I couldn’t agree with you more No podría estar más de acuerdo contigo Let´s drop it Dejemoslo
You’re absolutely right Estás absolutamente en lo correcto I think we’re going to have to Creo que tendremos que estar de acuerdo
I agree entirely Estoy enteramente de acuerdo agree to disagree en no estar de acuerdo
I totally agree Estoy totalmente de acuerdo (sarcastic) Whatever you say/ If (sarcástico) Lo que digas/ si lo dices
I see exactly what you mean! Veo exactamente lo que quieres decir you say so
You’re right. That’s a good Tienes razón. Ese es un buen punto
point Termina el debate, resume
I completely agree Estoy completamente de acuerdo In conclusion I would like to En conclusión me gustaría decir
say
That’s right!, that’s the idea Es correcto¡ esa es la idea
To sum up Para resumir
Absolutely! Absolutamente¡
Wait and see Ya veremos
Exactly! Exactamente¡
People say tastes differ Dicen que sobre los gustos no hay nada
Parcialmente de acuerdo/ Partly agreeing escrito
I agree up to a point, but… Estoy de acuerdo hasta cierto punto, pero In any case it was nice to speak En cualquier caso fue un placer hablar
I see your point, but … Veo tu punto, pero to you contigo
That’s partly true, but … Eso es en parte cierto, pero…
I´m not so sure about that… No estoy tan seguro de eso..
I agree with you up to a point, Estoy de acuerdo contigo hasta cierto
but … punto, pero…
That’s quite true, but … Eso es bastante cierto, pero…
I agree with you in principle, Estoy de acuerdo contigo en un prinicipio,
but … pero…
I agree to some extent but … Estoy de acuerdo en cierta medida pero…
On the whole, I agree with you En general, estoy de acuerdo contigo
but … pero…
Well, you could be right. Bueno, podrías tener razón
It’s only partly true that… Es solo en parte cierto pero…
 OPENING
I’d like to point out right at the Me gustaría señalar desde el
beginning that… principio que ...
Just at the beginning I would go Justo al principio me atrevería a
as far as to say that… decir que ...
Let`s talk brief about… Hablemos brevemente sobre ...
Recordamos muy claramente
We very clearly remember que ...
that… Cabe señalar como el principio
It should be pointed out right as que ...
the beginning that… Para empezar con …
To start off with…
ADDITION
Further Promover
Furthermore Además
Moreover Es más
In addition En adición
Additionally Adicionalmente
Then Entonces
Also Además
Too También
Besides Además
Again Otra vez
Equally important Igualmente importante
First, second Primero, segundo
Finally, last Finalmente, último
CONTINUING
But right now our attention Pero ahora mismo nuestra
turns to… atención se dirige a ...
Now, let’s look at the situation Ahora, veamos la situación
in… en ...
What is likely to happen is… Lo que es probable que suceda
Let’s move to another question es ...
Now it is going to be my Pasemos a otra pregunta
pleasure to explain to you… Ahora va a ser un placer para
Then, …but then mí explicarte ...
After that Entonces, ... pero luego
Next, Después de esto
As soon as/ when + full clause, Siguiente,
Immediately, Tan pronto como / cuando +
completo clausula,
Inmediatamente,
OPONION
Well, my personal feeling is… Bueno, mi sentimiento personal
es ...
It’s my firm belief that… Creo firmemente que ...
As far as I am concerned Hasta donde me concierne
I hold the view that… Tengo la opinión de que ...
No one, I think, is challenging Nadie, creo, está desafiando la
the view that… opinión de que ...
COMPARISON
Similarly similar
Comparable Comparable
In the same way Del mismo modo
Likewise Igualmente
As with Al igual que con
Equally Igualmente
Just as… so too Así como ... también
A similar X Uno similar
Another x like Otro x gusta
TIME
Meanwhile Mientras tanto
Presently Ahora
At last Al final
Finally Finalmente
Immediately Inmediatamente
Thereafter Después de eso
At that time En ese tiempo
Subsequently Después
Eventually Finalmente
Currently Actualmente
In the meantime Mientras tanto
In the past En el pasado
CONTRAST
However Sin embargo
Although A pesar de
Nevertheless Sin embargo
In the other hand Por otro lado
On the contrary De lo contrario
Even so Aún así
Notwithstanding A pesar de
Alternatively Alternativamente
At the same time Al mismo tiempo
Though Aunque
Otherwise De otra manera
Instead En lugar
Nonetheless Sin embargo
Conversely A la inversa
Reliably Seguramente
RESULT
Hence Por lo tanto
Therefore Por lo tanto
Accordingly En consecuencia
Consequently Por consiguiente
Thus Así
Thereupon Luego
As a result Como resultado
In consequence En consecuencia
So then Por lo que entonces
SUMMARY
In short En breve
On the whole En conjunto
In other words En otras palabras
To be sure Para estar seguro
Clearly Claramente
Anyway De todas formas
On the whole En conjunto
In sum En suma
After all Después de todo
In general En general
It seems Parece
In brief En breve
EXAMPLE
For example Por ejemplo
For instance Por ejemplo
That is Es decir
Such as Como
At revealed by En revelado por
Illustrated by Ilustrado por
Specifically Específicamente
In particular En particular
For one thing Por una cosa
This can be seen in Esto se puede ver en
An instance of this Un ejemplo de esto
Let me give you a brief Déjame darte un breve ejemplo
example Déjame ilustrar el punto con el
Let me illustrate the point with ejemplo ...
the example… Lo que hemos visto ahora es
What we have seen now is a una especie de ejemplo perfecto
kind of a perfect example of… de ...
Nobody doubts that…this Nadie duda de que ... esto
means just what it says significa exactamente lo que
dice
PLACE
There Ahí
Here aquí
Beyond Más allá
Nearby Cerca
Next to Cerca de
At that point En ese punto
Opposite to Opuesto a
Adjacent to Adyacente a
On the other side Por otro lado
In front of En frente de
In the back En la espalda
CONCLUDING
Let’s have a final look at… Echemos un vistazo final a ...
It only remains for me to say… Sólo me queda por decir ...
All in all, it is evident… Con todo, es evidente ...
To sum it up I’d like to say… Para resumir, me gustaría
To draw to the conclusion I’d decir ...
like to say that… Para concluir, me gustaría decir
que ...
1.
 I got/had the brakes checked by the mechanic
2. WRITING: organizing a paragraph
Questions and negations of the verb 'have' are formed with do/does
In a paragraph where you argue for against something and explain or did in the past simple.
your point of view, you can organize the main points by listing them e.g. Did you have your camera fixed?
from the most to the least important, or viceversa.
 We also use 'have something done' to talk about an unpleasant
A paragraph have : experience.
- The writer argue for against or opposite point of view - ‘Peter had his phone stolen last night.’
- The topic sentence
- The concluding sentence  In informal conversations we can use 'get' instead of 'have'.
- The points organized from the most to the least important, or from - ‘She's getting her hair done again.’
the least to the most important
- Include main points  The causative can be used with most verb forms and is also
- The additional information include to support or explain each formed with the infinitive and -ing forms.
point - ‘He should have his car repaired.’
- ‘It's worth having his car repaired.’
How to write a paragraph
Topic sentence: … Examples:
Point 1: … Additional information: … - ‘Where can I get my car fixed?’
Point 2: … Additional information: … (etc) - ‘Where can I have my hair cut?’
Concluding sentence - ‘Who can I get (repair) my phone line?’
- ‘Who can I call to have my house painted?’
How to say it - Where can I have my watch fixed?
Agreeing and disagreeing - ‘Where can I get someone (install) a stereo in my car?’
I think so, too / I agree with you - ‘Is there a quiet place where I can get my homework done?’
I don`t really agree because - ‘Is there an online service where I can have someone create a
Well, actually, I think
website for me?’
So do I / neither do I
-
- ‘I want to have someone clean my car seats’
- ‘I wish I could have my laundry done. I hate doing it myself.’
2. VOCABULARY: Business - ‘Jane is at the hairdresser at the moment. She's having her hair
done.’
- ‘This is the third time I've had the air conditioner repaired in four
Create a business plan days.
Set up: a web site - ‘Joan had a new dress made for the wedding.’
Research: the target market and the competition - ‘Sarah is going to take her TV to have it repaired.’
Advertise: a product or service online, in print publications, with
signs, or on radio or TV - I’m having my bicycle fixed
Design: a logo and promotional material
- I’m getting my hair cut
Launch: a business, a web site about the new service we offer
LET, MAKE, HAVE, GET
Plan: a marketing strategy
Registrer: a business with the proper autorities
LET
Create: a business plan
FORM: Have + object + verb
USED EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Give someone Next week I will have the examine my
3. GRAMMAR: causative have and get responsibility to do father’s car
something
MAKE
In general, what do you prefer? To do things yourself or to have FORM: Make + object + verb
someone make them for you? …sometimes but not always, the mosto USED EXAMPLE SENTENCES
common thing is to pay/ask for these services Force someone to do They made students obey the school rules
(a haircut by a hairdresser, teeth cleaned by a destist, a test eyes by a something
optician, take blood pressure by a doctor) HAVE
FORM: Let + object + verb
We use the causative in English to say that we have arranged for USED EXAMPLE SENTENCES
someone to do something for us. Allow/ give The open window let the air escape
e.g. ‘He had his jacket cleaned.’ permission for an
(He didn't clean it himself.) action
GET
To have/get something done means that… another person does FORM: Get + person + to + verb
something for you
USED EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Have someone do something and get someone to do something
Convince someone to Mark is so much in love with me, I can
mean…the same thing: to ask/hire someone to do something for you
do something get him to do anything I want
Englishstudyhere.com
 get/have +  Have + indirect  Get + indirect
direct object + past object + base object + infinitive
participle form
Get you hair cut Have us cook Get our 4. PRONUNCIATION: compound nouns vs.
Have your home professionals to do compound adjectives
computer system Get us to do
checked
Get it done Coumpound nouns: it is a fixed expression made with morethan one
Have dinner cooked word
and served Rule:

Form: First part Second Part

(Get + person + to + verb) Purpose or kind Who or what
I got the mechanic to check my brakes The strees is on the firts syllable
or
Get/have + object + past participle Compound nouns Compound adjectives
  Noun + noun  Adjective + noun tiring tired
Adverb + past participle Tire
- You hace to make a - These chair are very high
business plan quality
- We need a marketing - This jacket isn’t very well
strategy made
- Our office has a good - Their salespeople are very
7. SPEAKING: talking about a business
cleaning service well informed
- My sister is a wedding - Cars are very poorly made
How to say it
planner these days
Asking for and giving explanations
In compound nouns, the stress In compound adjectives, the
What is that?
is on the first word stress is on the second word
So, … (…ing) is all you do?
Who uses this service?
The main thing (we) do is…
…that is…
Well, …
You see/know…
It’s mostly…
5. VOCABULARY: describing products and
services Turning problems into opportunities
- Identify problems
- Brainstorm possible opportunities
Describing products and services - Identify the advantages and desadvantages of each idea
People Products - Choose one idea and develop it
Positive: Negative: Positive: Negative:
professional, uninformed, high quality, poor Choose your business idea
helpful, polite, unprofessional, well made quality, Business idea Product/service Market Details
well informed rude, unhelpful poorly
made How to say it
Presenting a business idea
Examples: Our idea is to have a … business
- The salespeople in the computer store were very helpful. They We’re going to offer…
showed me the best product for my needs Our main market(s) will be …
- I’m not going to buy this jacked because it’s poorly made The advantages of this idea are …
- The instructors here are excellent-very professional Here’s how it works. We can get people to …/ We can change …/
- I don’t like this necklace. It looks like it’s poor quality We can have …
- I’m going to complain to the manager. That salesperson was very
rude
- This store has a good furniture department. The furniture is
inexpensive but high quality
- I like this store because the staff is very well informed

6. SPEAKING: Adjectives ending in ed/ing

Function:

PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

Used as adjectives describe the Used as adjectives describe an
person or thing that causes an effect on a person or thing
effect
e.g. frustrating, uninteresting, e.g. frustrated, uninterested,
surprising,confusing, surprised, confused, exhausted,
exhausting, depressing, anoying depressed, annoyed

Form:
Change to ing to ed
verb Adjective in present Adjective in present
participle (ed) participle (ing)
(lo que yo siento (lo que yo pienso
respecto a…) respecto a…)
check checked cheking
look looked looking
anoy annoyed annoying
frustate frustated frustrating
fix fixed fixing
surprice surprised
interest interested interesting
disappoint disappointed disapointing
worry worried worring
do doing
amaze amazed amazing
fill filled filling
confuse confusing confused
boring bored
satisfying satisfied
interesting
exhausting exhausted
exciting exited
depressing depressed
 Was / were doing Had been doing
1. READING: Distinguishing fact and opinion Had been doing Had been doing (no change)
Will be doing Would be doing
Will have been doing Would have been doing

Others
2. GRAMMAR: reported speech Continuos Tense
Used to Used to (no chages)
Am / is / are going to do Was / were going to do
Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person
said before. Distinction must be made between direct speech and  If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in
reported speech. reported speech.
 If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in
Direct speech Reported speech reported speech.
Jhon said, “I often come here” Jhon said (that) he often came (the ver of the original sentence has changed its tense)
here (Can be connected with “that” or with “that”)
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next She said that she was visiting
weekend" Paris the following weekend. Direct speech Reported speech
She says: "I like tuna fish." She says that she likes tuna fish.
(no backshift) “I write poems.” He says that he writes poems.
Different types of sentences (backshift) “I write poems.” He said that he wrote poems.
When you use reported speech, you either report:
A. statements No backshift
B. questions
C. requests / commands Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense
D. other types (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form
of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
A. Reporting Statements Example:
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change: - He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.
 pronouns
Backshift
 tense
 place and time expression You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense
(e. g. He said).
The most commmon reporting verbs for statements are “say”, “tell” Example:
and “explain” - He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.

Be careful that with “say” and “explain”, you have choise to specify Examples of the main changes in tense:
the person or not. If you specify the person,use the preposition “to”:
e.g. He said (to her)…, they explained (to us) [Note that if the reporting verb is inthe present, then is no tense
change: Jhon: “I often come here”(DE -What is John saying? – He
With “tell”, you should specify the person: saying (that) he often comes here) the verb stays in the same tense
e.g. He told her…, they told us … present simple]

1- Pronouns Direct speech Reported speech

In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending Simple Present Simple Past
on who says what. (has changed to indicate hte persson who spoke) He said: "I am happy" He said that he was happy
Alfie: I live in London Alfie said that he lived in London
Example: Present Progressive Past Progressive
She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes He said: "I'm looking for my He said that he was looking for his
roast chicken. keys" keys
Mary: I am working very Mary said that she was working very
2- Tenses hard hard
Tenses changes: The tense of the original sentence changes as follows: Simple Past Past Perfect Simple
He said: "I visited New York He said that he had visited New York
Verb”to be” & Modal Verbs last year" the previous last year
Am/ is Was Mick said that he had wanted to be
Are Were Mick: I wanted to be an astronaut
Was/were Had been anastronaut
Can Could Present Perfect simple Past Perfect simple
Must Must (no change) or had to He said: " I've lived here for a He said that he had lived there for a
may Might long time " long time
Might Might (no change) Sue: I have read the travel Sue said that she had read the travel
Could Could (no change) or had been able to guide guide
Shall Should Past Perfect Past Perfect
Should Should (no change) He said: "They had finished He said that they had finished the
Ought to Ought to (no change) the work when I arrived" work when he had arrived"
Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I was playing He said that he had been playing
The tense of the original sentence changes as follows:
football when the accident football when the accident had
occurred" occurred
Simple Tense
Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
Do / does Did He said:"I have been playing He said that he had been playing
did Had done football for two hours." football for two hours
Will do Would do Past Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading He said that he had been reading a
Perfect Tense a newspaper when the light newspaper when the light had gone
Have / has done Had done went off" off
Had done Had done (no changes) Future Simple (will+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
Will have done Would have done He said: "I will open the He said that he would open the door.
door." Jack said that he would meet you at
Continuos Tense Jack: I will meet you at the the cafe
Am/ is / are doing Was / were doing cafe
Have / has been doing Had been doing Conditional (would+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy He said that he would buy Mercedes
 Mercedes if I were rich" if he had been rich" where, how...) English?”
Without question “Do you speak He asked me
The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used word (yes or no english?” whether/ if I spoke
to do not normally change. questions) English.
Example:
He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right. Also note that you have to:
 transform the question into an indirect question
Other modal verbs may change:  use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if/whether

Direct speech Reported speech Reporting verb for questions:

can "I can do it." He said he could do it. The most common reporting verb for questions is ‘ask’ You have a
may "May I go out?" He wanted to know if he choise specify the person or not. If you specify the person, do not use
might go out. ‘to’:
must "She must apply for the job” He said that she
must/had to apply for the He asked…
job. He asked me… (Not: He asked to me…)
will "They will call you." He tod her that they
would call her. Statements form:
You need to change the question form back into the statement form:
“Would like” change to “want” He asked me, ‘when can I call you back?’
Remenber that ‘I’d like to is a formal equivalent of ‘I want’, used He asked me ‘when he could call you back’
only in the Present Tense. To report a sentence with this expression, (Not: He asked me when could he call me back)
use the verb “want”
They asked us, ‘Where will you be?’
Direct speech Reported speech They asked us where we would be
Would like want (Not: They asked us where would we be)
She said: ”‘I’d like to be a She said she wanted to be a
singer” singer” Yes/No questions:
He said: ”‘I’d like some rice, He said he wanted some rice, When you have a yes/no (closed) question,you need to connect the
please” please” two parts (reporting verb and reported question) wiht the word ‘if’

B. Place, demonstratives and time expressions We asked Andrew, ‘Have you bought a new game?’
Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of We asked Andrew if he had bought a new game
the reported statement (i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is
different from that of the direct speech. They asked us, ‘are you French?’
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; They asked us if we were French
demonstratives and time expressions.
Polite questions:
Time Expressions We something ask an indirect questions to be more polite or formal
Direct Speech Reported Speech We formulate these questions with expressions such as:
today that day
Now Then Coul you tell me… / Would you mind telling me…
Yesterday the day before May I ask …
... days ago ... days before I was wondering…
last week the week before
next year (month, week) the following year (month, week) Direct question Indirect question (more polite)
tomorrow the next day / the following day Where did yo go? Could you tell where you went?
Last year (week, night…) The previous last year (week, How old are you? May I ask how old you are?
night…) How much did you I was wondering how much you had
pay? paid?
Example Time Markers that change:
D.S.: She said: “I”ll (will) call you tomorrow” **Note that with ‘I was wondering’, you must change the tense of the
R.S.: She said She’d (would) call me the next day / the following day original sentence, because this expression is in the past

D.S.: John told her: “I handed in the report yesterday”

R.S.: John told her he had handed in the report the day before”

Demonstratives Specific Cases:

Direct Speech Reported Speech When we report a sentence that has a specific function (inviting,
This That apologising, making a request etc.), it is better to use a specific verb.
these those
Function Example Most appropiate for
here There (if the location has changed)
reporting a verb is…
(a request) He said to me: He asked me to slow
Example:
‘slow down, down
Direct Speech Reported Speech
please’
She said: “This is the last bus” She said that was the last bus”
They told us: “were chosen They told us they’d chosen
(an order) He said to him: He told him to stop
these books” those books” ‘Stop shouting’ shouting
We’re been living here for They said they’d been living
(a suggested / a She said: ‘Why She suggested /
recommendation) don’t we write a recommended writing a
twenty years there for twenty years
letter?’ letter
C. Reporting Questions
(an invitation) I said to her: [More appropiate] I
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: ‘Would you like to invited her to dance.
 pronouns dance’ [You could report
directely] I asked her if
 place and time expressions
she wanted to dance.
 tenses (backshift) (an offer) She said to them: [More appropiate] She
‘Shall I drive you offered to drive them
Types of Direct speech Reported speech home?’ home.
questions
[You could report
With question "Why" don’t you He didn’t speak directely] She asked if
word (what, why, asked me why I speak English. she should drive them
 home. Plase let me finish Por favor déjame terminar
(an apology) We said to him: [More appropiate] We Returning to speaking
‘Sorry for the apologised to him for the As I was saying Como decía
inconvenience’ inconvenience. Explaining something
[You could report Don’t get me wrong No me malinterpretes
directely] We said to End the discussion
him that we were sorry In conclusion En conclusión
for the inconvenience. In a nutshell En una palabra
Can we sum up by saying… ¿Podemos resumir diciendo ...
D. Reporting requests / commands
When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have
to change:
 pronouns
 place and time expressions 3. GRAMMAR: Reported questions
Direct speech Reported speech
“Nancy, do the exercise” He told Nancy to do the Questions in reported speech
exercise - How we report questions asked by someone else.
“Nancy, give me your pen, He asked nancy to givehim her
please” pen - You have to steal move everything into the past.
Examples:
‘What do you do?’ (present - question)
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to +
He asked (me) what I did (past - in affirmative sentence)
verb (infinitive without "to")
‘Where is he going?’ (present - question)
Example:
She asked them whete he was going (past - in affirmative sentence)
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
- All reported question have: he, she, they asked… at the beginning
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
- You may have noticed the word ‘do’ or ‘did’ has been removed
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to) from the reported question, there is no need to use either do or did
when reporting question
D. Other transformations
 Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are - If/whether
usually reported using advise / urge. Examples:
Example: “You must read this book.“ ‘Did you like the film?
He advised / urged me to read that book. She asked me if I had liked the film’
 The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this
case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund ‘Did you enjoy the theater?
or statement with should. He asked me whether I had enjoyed the theater’
Example: “Let’s go to the cinema.“
1. He suggested going to the cinema. ‘Will you come to the party please?
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema. They asked me if I would come to their party’

‘He asked if I was good at time management?

1. VOCABULARY: Oral communication She asked If I was good with people’

When using verbs regarding oral communication, have in mind some Direct speech Report
of them can be followed by the preposition "About" but some others ‘Do you have any He asked me if I had any
do not require any preposition. Identify the verbs as follows: experience?’ experience
‘Have you worked in this area He asked me If I’d worked in this
Verb Preposition Topic before?’ area before
Argue + about ‘Are you a British citizen?’ She asked me if I was a British
Chat citizen
Talk ‘Can you make They asked me if I could make
Last class activities
Speack spreadsheets?’ spreadsheets
Discuss - not required- ‘What’s your name?’ He asked me what my name was
However ‘Can you speak Japanese’ She asked me if I spoke Japanese
‘Who do you trust the most?’ They asked me who I trusted the
most
2. SPEAKING: Introducing a new topic
It is helpful to listen for phrases that signal a change in the topic in a 6. VOCABULARY: Ask, say, tell
conversation so that can follow what people are talking about.
How to discuss a topic in a group:
SAY: you say something to somebody
Express your opinion
I think Yo pienso que She said that she loved me
I believe Yo creo que He said he was tired
Contradict/ disagree with what someone else has said He said to me that he was tired
That’s true, but Eso es verdad, pero She said hello to her friends
However Sin embargo She said that she loved him
Yeah, but Si, pero
You recognize the contribution that someone else has made to says He says he loves me. Él dice que me ama.
the discussion in the first part, and you are going to add your say The children say good Los niños dicen buenas
own opinion night. noches.
You made a good point but I’d Hiciste un buen punto, pero said My sister said you are too Mi hermana dijo que tú
also like to add también me gustaría agregar old for her. eres muy viejo para ella.
Different ways in which yo can interrupt a discussion saying We were saying Nosotras estábamos
Sorry, but (no polite) Lo siento, pero (no educado) something. diciendo algo.
May I say something? (polite) ¿Puedo decir algo? (Cortés) said I have never said I do not Nunca he dicho que no
Establish your position as the speaker like your yard. me gusta tu jardín.
 say When did you say that to ¿Cuándo le dijiste eso a
my friend? mi amigo?

INDICATIVE
PERSON PRESEN PAST INFINITI PAST PRESENT
T VE PARTICIP PARTICIP
LE LE
I say
he/she/it says said say said saying
you/we/they say

TELL: You tell somebody something (qhen you give instructions

or you know certain information)

Object pronoun (told me, told she/he, told her/him, told us/told them)
He told us a nice story
Tell me the truth
She told me that she loved him
You also tell somebody to do something as an instruction or an order
He told me to finish the work soon
They told the children not to run

Orders, advice & certain phrases

She told him to leave
Tell them to come on time
Mother tells him a story at bed time
She always tells lies
He told her the truth

Direct speech
Statement: Question: always
use said
Jhon said, ‘hello She said, ‘Do you He told her, ‘open
Sir, How are you?’ love me?’ the door’

Reported Speech
Statement: You always say
asked
She said that it was She asked where he He told me that he
cold lived would come late

ASK: you ask somebody something

He asked me the time
You asked somebody to do something
She asked me to close the door
They asked us to wait a minute

She said, “I’m vey happy”. (Ella dice, “Estoy muy feliz”)
She said that she was very happy. (Ella dijo que estaba muy feliz)

She tell me that she was very happy. (Ella me dijo que estaba muy
feliz)

She said to me, “I’m very happy” (Ella me dijo, “Estoy muy feliz”)

Tell a joke Say what you think Ask permission

Tell the truth/ a lie Say hello/ good bye Ask (for) favor
Tell a story Aske a question
Usamos say (decir) para citas También podemos usar say Usamos tell (decir) para citas no Si usamos say y mencionamos a
textuales: (decir) para citas no textuales textuales cuando se menciona a la la persona que habla debemos
siempre que no se menciona a la persona que habla: escribir say + to + object pronoun
persona que habla: (me, you, him, her, it, us, them):
 She tell me that she was very  She said to me, “I’m very
 She said that she was very happy. happy”
 She said, “I’m vey happy”. happy. (Ella me dijo que estaba muy (Ella me dijo, “Estoy muy feliz”)
(Ella dijo que estaba muy feliz) feliz)
(Ella dice, “Estoy muy feliz”)
 My uncle said, “I am going to  My uncle said that he was  My uncle told me that he was  My uncle said to me, “I am
Florida”. (Mi tío dijo, “Voy a going to Florida. (Mi tío dijo que going to Florida. (Mi tío me dijo going to Florida”. (Mi tío me dijo,
Florida”) él iba a Florida) que él iba a Florida) “Voy a Florida”)
 My cousin said, “I am too  My cousin said that he was  My cousin told her that he  My cousin said to them, “I am
tired”. (Mi primo dijo, “Estoy too tired. (Mi primo dijo que él was too tired. (Mi primo le dijo too tired”. (Mi primo les dijo,
muy cansado”) estaba muy cansado) que él estaba muy cansado) “Estoy muy cansado”)
 He said, “I like it very much.  He said that he liked it very  He told us that he liked it  He said to her, “I like it very
(Él dijo, “Me gusta mucho”) much. (Él dijo que le gustó very much. (Él nos dijo que le much. (Él le dijo, “Me gusta
mucho) gustó mucho) mucho”)
 My sister said, “English is  My sister said that English is  My sister told them that  My sister said to us, “English
easy for me”. (Mi hermana dijo, easy for her. (Mi hermana dijo English is easy for her. (Mi is easy for me”. (Mi hermana nos
“El inglés es fácil para mí) que el inglés es fácil para ella) hermana les dijo que el inglés es dijo, “El inglés es fácil para mí)
fácil para ella)
 She said, “I want to kiss  She said that she wanted to  She told me that she wanted  She said to me, “I want to
him”. (Ella dijo, “Quiero kiss you. (Ella dijo que quería to kiss you. (Ella me dijo que kiss him”. (Ella me dijo, “Quiero
besarlo”) besarte) quería besarte) besarlo”)
 She said, “I can not finish my  She said that she couldn’t  She told me that she couldn’t  She said to him, “I can not
homework”. (Ella dijo, “No finish her homework. (Ella dijo finish her homework. (Ella me finish my homework”. (Ella le
puedo terminar mi tarea) que ella no podría terminar su dijo que ella no podría terminar su dijo, “No puedo terminar mi
tarea) tarea) tarea)
 She said, “I will never speak  She said that she will never  She told her that she will  She said to her, “I will never
to him again”. (Ella dijo, “No speak to him again. (Ella dijo que never speak to him again. (Ella le speak to him again”. (Ella le dijo,
volveré a hablar con él nunca) ella no volverá a hablar con él dijo que ella no volverá a hablar “No volveré a hablar con él
nunca) con él nunca) nunca)
 He said, “I can not go to the  He said that he could not go  He told us that he could not  He said to me, “I can not go
party with her”. (Él dijo, “No to the party with her. (Él dijo que go to the party with her. (Él nos to the party with her”. (Él me
puedo ir a la fiesta con ella”) él no podría ir a la fiesta con ella) dijo que él no podría ir a la fiesta dijo, “No puedo ir a la fiesta con
con ella) ella”)
 My boss said, “I am very  My boss said that he was very  My boss told them that he  My boss said to us, “I am
busy”. (Mi jefe dijo, “Estoy muy busy. (Mi jefe dijo que él estaba was very busy. (Mi jefe les dijo very busy”. (Mi jefe nos dijo,
ocupado”) muy ocupado) que él estaba muy ocupado) “Estoy muy ocupado”)
 They said, “We can not  They said that they could not  They told me that they could  They said to me, “We can not
attend the meeting”. (Ellos attend the meeting. (Ellos dijeron not attend the meeting. (Ellos me attend the meeting”. (Ellos me
dijeron, “No podemos asistir a la que no podrían asistir a la junta) dijeron que no podrían asistir a la dijeron, “No podemos asistir a la
junta) junta) junta)
 - I would have passed - I’d have passed
1. GRAMMAR: third conditionals - you would have passed
- he / she / it would have
- you’d have passed
- he / she / it’d have passed
passed
- we would have passed - we’d have passed
FUNCTION:
- you would have passed - you’d have passed
Describes hypothetical situation in the past. We are imagining the
- they would have passed - they ’d have passed
result of something that didn’t not happen.
We are imagining a different past - I had - I’d
e.g. (Context: yesterday, you played the lottery. But you did not win. - I would - I’d
Today, we are thinking about it): - I woul have - I’d’ve
- If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a house. - Would not have - Wouldn’t’ve
(In reality, I did not buy a house because i did not win the lottery) - Might have - Might’ve
- Must have - Must’ve
1. We use the third conditional to talk about unreal situations in the - Could have - Could’ve
past - Should have - Should’ve
e.g. If I hadn’t studied philosophy, i wouldn’t have met Jessica - Would have - Would’ve
(the opposite is true: I studied philosopy, and so I met Jessica)
- May’ve
2. We can use could or might instead of would in the result clause - Coulda
to talk about results that were possible inthe past. - Woulda
e.g. If you had studied business, you could/might have found a good - Shoulda
job (spoken only)  - Mighta
(it’s possible that you would have found a good job. But you didn’t - musta
study business, so you didn’t find a good job)
Uses:
FORM:  Talk about the past:
If I had had famous parents, I would have had an amazing life.
If-clause Result clause Examples Si hubiera tenido unos padres famosos, habría tenido una vida
If + past perfect Would/could/might + If you had studied business, increíble.
have + past participle like i said you should, you If you had helped me, I wouldn't have failed the exam.
could have gotten a good job Si me hubieras ayudado, no hubiera suspendido el examen.
If you studied business, you f you had come earlier, you would have had better seat.
might have liked it
Si hubieras venido antes, habrías tenido un asiento mejor.
We use a comma If i hadn’t studied
when the if- philosophy, i wouldn’t have
clause is at the met Jessica  To express regret:
beginning of the I wouldn’t have met Jessica If I'd worked harder, I'd have got a promotion.
sentence if I hadn’t studied philosophy Si hubiera trabajado más, habría conseguido un ascenso.
If I 'd been careful, I wouldn't have cut myself.
Si hubiera ido con cuidado, no me habría cortado.
WOUL If I had remembered it was your birthay, I would have If I had taken an umbrella, I wouldn't have got wet.
D bought you a present. Si hubieras cogido un paraguas, no me habría mojado.
Si hubiera recordado que era tu cumpleaños, te habría
comprado un regalo. Third conditional vs Second conditional
COUL If I had saved my money, I could have gone on holiday. - If I had won the lottery, I - If I won the lottery, I would
D Si hubiera ahorrado, me habría ido de vacaciones. would have bought a boat. bought a boat.

MIGH If we had had time, we might have gone to the beach. We are imagining a different We are describing an unlikely
T Si fuera una buena amiga, te ayudaría. past situatuin in he present or
futere
It is a hypotetical situation in It is a hypotetical situation in
 If + condition + result the past the present or futere
If I had seen Jane, I would have invited her to the concert The condition is impossible, The condition is not impossible,
(is a comma after the condition) because it didn’t happen and but it is very unlikely
 result + If + condition it’s in the past. We cannot
I would have invited Jane to the concert If I had seen her change the past
(don’t use a comma)
MODALS IN THE THIRD CONDITIONAL
If I had known your reaction, I I wouldn't have told you if I had For the result, we can also use certain modals:
wouldn't have told you. known your reaction. - If she had gone to university, it is certain that she would have
Si hubiera sabido tu reacción, No te lo hubiera dicho si become a doctor.
no te lo hubiera dicho. hubiera sabido tu reacción. (if she had gone to university, it is certain that she would have come a
doctor)
Verb tense of the conditional
- If she had gone to university, she might have become a doctor
 The tense of the conditions is past perfect (if she had gone to university, it’s not certain that she would have
 If + subject + past perfect become a doctor), maybe, she would have become a doctor)
- If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a house.
- If I had seen Jane, I would have invited her to the concert - If she had gone to university, she could have become a doctor
(if she had gone to university, she would have been able to become a
 Structure of the resuts: “would have” + past participle doctor, she would have had the ability to become a doctor)
 subject + “would have” + past participle
- If he had studied for the exam, he would have passed

Full form Contracted form 2. PRONUNCIATION: Past modals

Past modals: to speculate about the past

 might/may have + past participle
might have:
may have: has a slightly hider level of probabilty but they are
interchangable in most sentences but not always there is an ‘They shouldn’t have allowed him to drink the wine. He was only
esception to this wich 15’
A probability in the past that didn’t happen, you have to use might Past modals: to talk about past posibilities and their consequences
have, you cannot use may have:  whould have + past participle
The car came round the corner so fast, I might have been killed Use as a past conditional to talk only about a past possibility but
(but fortunately I wasn’t) also the consequences of that action
You can use - If I had passed my exams I would have become a doctor’
 May/might have + been + verb + ing - I would have been here an dour ago but I missed my train’

Example:  Negative:
- Why isn’t Karen at work et it’s half past nine? Is with wouldn’t have
I don’t know, she might have missed her train (you can also say - ‘He wouldn’t have crashed if he hadn’t drunk all that whisky’
“she may…”) - ‘She wouldn’t have slapped him if he hadn’t been so rude’
- I can find my keys anywhere, I may have left them in the
kitchen (you can also use “might have…) MODALS IN PAST
- Why is she crying? Compare:
She might have been arguing with her boyfriend
- She’s not here do you think she might have forgotten the If + Past Perfect, Would have + If + past perfect
appointen? would have + past
- You say you can’t find the documento anywhere. Do you think participle
you might have lost it? If you had been more I wouldn't have left my job if I had
careful, you wouldn't known how difficult it is to find another
 Negative: have had an accident. one.
 Might not have/ May not have: Mean possibly not If I had seen you, I I would have taken a photo if I had
would have said hello. brought my camera with me.
If he had asked me, I He would have died if the ambulance
- They don’t yet know why he crashed the car but they say he
would have helped him. hadn't arrived quickly.
might have been drinking
If you had studied, they She would have gone to your birthday
Quinoa is a wonderfull, healty food that you might not have heard
would have passed the party if she hadn't been sick.
of.
exam. He wouldn't have become lost if he had
Past modals: to talk ability in the past
If I had known, I taken the map with him.
 could have + past participle
wouldn't have done that. The team would have won if the referee
Is sometimes similar to may have and might have and in some
hadn't taken the bribe.
cases you can use both but while may/might have speculate about
You wouldn't haved needed fillings if
the past, could have refers to ability or capability in the past.
you had brushed your teeth more
- I could have become a professional footballer but I broke my frequently.
leg
- You could have passed your exams, if you had studied harder
Examples:
- Why isn’t he here today, is he sich? Not at all, he could have
- I may be late this afternoon. (future situation) Puede que llegue
come but, he decided to say at home and play the ukulele
tarde.
- They are knoking on the door. It may be John. (present situation)
 Negative: - Yesterday they may have had an accident. (past situation) Puede
To talk about an impossibility use couldn’t have + past participle que hayan tenido un accidente
Could not have: Means definitely not - Is would have come to the English lesson. They had a fantastic
- Even if I had studied for 1000 hours I couldn’t have passed that time.
it exam. It was really impossible. - They must have had an accident. They are always on time.
- Wow¡ 100% congratulations. You couldn`t have done any - You could have come to the party. I invited you!
better - She may have forgotten about the metting.
- Betis can’t have lost the match. They are very good.
 Criticism - “You could have hurt yourself.”
You can also use could have to offer gentle criticism: - You could have helped me.
- You’re an hour late. You could have called me
If you want it to be a bit stronger use should have:
You should have called me More examples:
Past modals: to talk about what you believe is certain (about the Statements
past) - If Tom had said sorry, Sonia would have forgiven him
 must have + past participle - I would’ve met Francesca if I’d gone to the party
<Must in the present is used to talk about obligation. ‘I must buy - I was really late for work today. When I got to the station, it
some bananas’. ‘You mustn’t smoke in here’> turned out the trains were cancelled. If I had known the trains were
In the past you use had to ‘Yesterday, I had to buy bananas’ cancelled, I would have taken a bus
‘we weren’t allowed to somoke’ - I would have taken a bus if I had know the trains were cancelled.
Use must have + past participle to talk about what we believe is - I got two Ds and an F in my exams. If I had worked harder, I
certain in the past. would have got better grades.
‘why isn’t karen here it’s already half past 9? She must have - Patty was a great singer when she was younger. She would have
missed her train’ won that TV talent show if she had entered it.
‘where are my keys? I must have left them in the kitchen’
‘last week he was poor but I just saw him driving a brand new Negative:
Ferrari. He must have won the lottery’ / ’he musto have stolen it’ - Abid met his wife at university. They’ve been married for 3 years
 Negative: now. If Abid hadn’t gone to university, he wouldn’t have met his wife.
We don’t usually use must have with a negative. Instead use - I registered my mobile phone on a tracker website. When I lost it,
could’t have to talk about negative certainty ‘ why isn’t he here? I logged on to the site and they told me where it was. If I hadn’t
He couldn’t have forgotten, he never forgets our reunions¡ registered my phone, it would have been lost for ever.
Past modals: to talk about past mistakes, recommendations and - I lived in Canada when I was a child and if I hadn’t lived in
criticism about the past Canada I wouldn’t have got dual citizenship. I’m a citizen of the UK
 should have + past participle and Canada.
Use to talke about past mistakes and to criticize past behaviour. - If I’d woken up earlier, I wouldn’t have missed my flight.
 Negative - If Mike hadn’t forgotten Jane’s birthday she wouldn’t have been
The negative is shouldn’t have: upset
- ‘I should have won the gold medal instead of the silveer but I - (I ate too much. I feel sick) If i hadn’t eaten too much, I wouldn’t
didn’t because of my stupid mistake’ have felt sick
- ‘Where have you been you should have been here an hour ago’ - I didn’t go to the party. I didn’t meet Francesca
- ‘You shouldn’t have said to her. She was very upset’
 I think Mom wishes you lived a little closer to home, too
I have exams next week. I hope they won’t be too hard
3. SPEAKING: Talking about hopes and I wish you would come home more often.
wishes

Talk about:
Dirty cities, climate change, the economy, unsafe drivers
Discuss the responses of the dilemmas
Which response do you agree with more in each case?
What would you have done in these situation?

I wish there weren’t any…

I wish I were/ I could…
I wish people would/wouldn’t…
I hope that some day, people will…
I hope that in the future…

FORM:

Present Future
Hope + simple present Hope+will
I hope you don’t study all the time¡ I hope they won’t be too hard
Hope + present progressive Past
I hope you’re having some fun too¡ Hope + simple past
Wish + simple past I hope you had a nice time at
I wish you were here hte party last night
If only + simple past
If only I could get on a bus…
Wish + would
I wish you would come home more often

FUNCTION:

We use hope to refer to things that are possible in the present and future
We use wish and if only to refer to thinks that are impossible in the present
We use wish+would/wouldn’t to express dissatisfaction with a situation in
the present
I wish I had some money
I hope he arrives soon
If only have more time

VOCABULARY: DECISIONS:
Weight all the options To look at all the possible courses
of action
Think about consequences To think about the results of a
decision
Make up your mind To decide something
Take responsability for their To accept the consequences of a
decisions decision
Take all the factors into account To consider all the aspects of a
decision
Gather information To find out thinks about the
situation
Consider the positive and negative
effects
Make a fair decision
Make a decision

 Wish and hope can be quite confusing:

We use hope for - I hope this car satys in good conditions
desired outcomes for many years to come.
- I hope it doesn’t rain tomorrow
- He hopes a lot of people will go to his
party
- I hope ¿the beautiful weather stays this
way for the rest of the day
- ‘Wish to had much free time’
- ‘Wish you were here’
- ‘Wish/could she called me’
We use wish when I - I wish it weren’t so bright now
want a change of - I wish the radio worked
situation, use this - I wish had planted different types of
mainly for apple trees
hypotetical - I hope doesn’t rain because we want to
situations. When go on a walk we want to saty outside and
we’re talking about we don¡t want to get wet
things that - ‘Hope tomorrow to be sunny’
happened in the - ‘Hope you're having a good time’
past. - ‘Hope you enyoy the concert last night’

Hopes and wish

I wish you were here
I miss you all so much
I know that you did study all the time¡ I hope you’re having some fun,
too¡
 Verbs Followed by Gerunds & Infinitives

In English, if you want to follow a verb with another action, you must use a gerund or infinitive.

EXAMPLE: We resumed talking. (gerund – verb + ing)

I want to see a movie. (infinitive – to + base verb)

There are certain verbs that can only be followed by one or the other, and these verbs must be memorized. Many of these verbs are
listed below.
Verbs commonly followed by a gerund Verbs commonly followed by an infinitive
EXAMPLE: “He misses playing with his friends.” EXAMPLE: “She threatened to quit if she didn’t get a
raise.”
abhor give up (stop)
acknowledge keep (continue) agree mean
admit keep on appear need
advise mention arrange neglect
avoid deny ask offer
allow mind (object to) attempt pay
anticipate miss beg plan
appreciate necessitate can/can’t afford prepare
avoid omit prefer
be worth permit can/can’t wait pretend
can’t help picture care profess
celebrate postpone chance promise
confess practice choose prove
consider prevent claim refuse
defend put off come remain
delay recall consent request
denie dare resolve
detest recollect decide say
discontinue recommend demand seek
discuss report deserve seem
dislike resent determine shudder
dispute resist elect strive
dread resume endeavor struggle
endure risk expect swear
enjoy shirk fail tend
escape shun get threaten
evade suggest grow (up) turn out
explain support guarantee venture
fancy tolerate hesitate volunteer
fear understand hope wait
feel like urge hurry want
feign warrant incline wish
finish learn would like
forgive manage yearn
 Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with little to no change in meaning:
EXAMPLES: “It started to rain.” ~OR~ “It started raining.”

begin like
can’t bear love
can’t stand prefer
continue propose
hate start
Help: I can't help thinking that you are hiding something. (only in the negative: I have to think that you are hiding something.)
Could you help me (to) undo my shoelaces? My fingers are frozen. (Could you undo my shoelaces?)
Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with a change in meaning:

I forgot to meet him.

(I didn’t meet him because I forgot to do it.)
forget
I forgot meeting him.
(I don’t have the memory of meeting him before.)
He went on to learn English and French.
(He ended one period of time before this.)
go on
He went on learning English and French.
(He continued learning the languages.)
She quit to work here.
(She quit another job in order to work here.)
quit
She quit working here.
(She quit her job here. She doesn’t work here anymore.)
I regret promising to help you.
(I’m sorry that I made the promise.)
regret
I regret to tell you that we can’t hire you.
(I’m telling you now, and I’m sorry.)
She remembered to visit her grandmother.
(She didn’t forget to visit.)
remember
She remembered visiting her grandmother.
(She had memories of this time.)
I stopped to call you.
(I interrupted another action in order to call you.)
stop
I stopped calling you.
(I stopped this activity. Maybe we had a fight.)
I tried to open the window.
(I attempted this action but didn’t succeed.)
try
I tried opening the window.
(This was one option I sampled. Maybe the room was hot.)
 Pag 64? C practive
P 68 A grammar

My idea is to have a organic chocolate business. I'm going to offer a hundred percent organic chocolate, without additives, without sugar, made with
cocoa from Colombia's chocolate zones, like: Nile, Arauca, my main market will be people with sugar problems or who want maintain your weight
Once I decide to star my business, I nedd to make: a research the business, the target market and the competition, the advantage of this idea are that
few people have a collateral with these characteristics. The propaganda of the product will be: online, by radio and television, the design of the
promotional material will be made in ecological paper.
The next thing I have to do is to plan, the market strategy is aimed at people who need to take care of their health and will be distributed in natural
products stores, I need to pay to create a logo.
Finally, eleven I launch my bussine, I nedd to register the company with the competent authorities. I have to be prepared to work, work, work, it
could be very hard work, but it can also be very satisfying, both financially and personally.

The key is to set up a website and project a professional image.

Most People who would like their own business , but most never do it.
Starting business is always expensive, isn`t not easy
It is very difficult to star a business to sell things online
Selling a service is a good business option
You have to got professionals to help you create your busuness plan
Running a business is as much work as working for someone else

I'm frustrated with the Exito (huge) store. The salespeople are completely uninterested in helping customers.
This type of service is totally frustrating and annoying, sometimes you can never get anyone to help you, and if you find someone, they don`t seem to
know much, they looked surprised when you asked questions, he was was confused as I was.
The worst thing is that once I went to buy toilet paper, and the promotion price was great, when I went to pay, the price was absurd twenty-five
thousand pesos, talk to the administrator told me it was an old promotion. It's too bad that There are not many stores with good service anymore. I
really complaining about bad service and bad salespeople at huge stores.

We all have a few regrets, so I want you to try and think of one regret something that happened to you in the past or something you did or didn’t
do¡ who but something you regret
Let me think about another regret, simple thigs. For me, last night, I had a really big ice cream¡ I probably shouldn’t have. So, I regretted it after. If I
hadn’t eaten that ice cream, I wouldn’t have felt so sick¡
If I had worked harder, i would have passed the exam¡ Did you study hard? No, that what you are regretting. You are regretting the fact that you
didn’t. So,

Dealing with problems

1
I haven't told anyone about your problem
keep a secret
you know me very well, steve, can i tell you something?
tell a friend
i'm not happy with what you did. we need to talk about it
confront someone
don't worry, i'll talk to jane for you. i won't forget
promise to do something
i know that alice will choose the right hotel
trust someone
let's not decide now. the situation might change
you'll be sorry if you decide to drop out, you know
warn someone

2
what's wrong?
I'm kind of worried about money
well, if you had studied KK, like i said you should, you could have gotten a good job when you graduated from college
yeah, but i would've hated studyng kk
you don't know that, you might have liked it
in any case, i wouldn't have met jessica if i hadn't studied philosophy
if you hadn't met J, you would have met someone else
B is worried because he ....

3.
If you had met him, you would have liked him
We couldn't have finished on time if you had not help us

4.
Tricia and steve have (have) an argument if we hadn`t been (not be) there
If i had explained (explain) the situation better, you haven’t been (not be) angry
If i had known (know) about the party, I could have gone (could go) with you
If my friend hadn’t intriduced (not introduce) Paula and me, we wouldn’t have met (not meet)
San could’t have bought (could not buy) a car if his brother hadn’t lent (not lend) him the money
If a friend hadn’t given (not given) me some good advice, I might have lose (might lose) a lot of money

5.
The moral dilemma, writte about and ethical dilemmas you're had, and tell us what you did
- CELIA: Last week i saw my friend's boyfriend in a cafe with another woman. i did not anything because if i had told my friend, and it had
turned out that the woman was his cousin or something, they would have thoght I was jus gossiping Did i do the right thing?
The writter isn't sure her friend's boyfriend is cheating on her or not

“Don’t worry, Celia. I wouldn’t have said anything to my friend, either. I woulddn’t have wanted to interfere in their relationship. If he really is
cheathin on her, she’ll find out anyway. RACHEL
“I disagree, Rachel¡ If I had seen something like that, I would have told my friend right away. She wouldn’t have thought you were gossiping, Celia.
She would have been happy that you cared about her feelings. AMANDA

[Celia told her friend her boyfriend was cheating on her-F

[Rachel thinks that celia did the right think-T
[Amanda says that she would have done the same thing-F

- JAKE: What would you have done if you had seen a friend steal something? That happened to me the other day. My friend and I were in a
store, and I took some pens from a display and put them in his pocked. I felt terrible when I saw him do it, but I've been too scared to say anything!
The writter thinks his friend was wrong to steal

“If I had seen a friend do that, I would have said something to him immediately. I probably wouldn't have told the store manager, but I would have
conforted my friend about it. Stealing is a serious crime. if a salesperson had seen him, he could have been arrested. talk to him about it. don't let him
think that stealind is OK. NAOMI
“Do you think he would have been arrested for taking a couple of pens? I wouldn't have said aanything about something like that. Now, if he had
stolen something more expensive, like a video game or something, that would have been different. of course stealing is wrong, but I don't think this
was that big a deal. KEVIN

[Jake stole something and now he feels bad about it-F

[Naomi thinks this is a serious problem-T
[Kevin does not agree whit Naomi's opinion-T

Well, I regret my decisions twelve years ago. I was sad about the death of my grandmother, I had planned my wedding and I was studying a degree at
the Monserrate Foundation. If I had weighted all the options, if I had thought about the consequences, I would have studied the degree and maybe I
wouldn't have married. Everything would be different, and at this moment I would be studying a master's degree and my economic situation would be
different by the position on the state scale. But, I wouldn't have had my son, whom I love and is my life partner. Sometimes I think that if I had made
different decisions, I would have a very different life. Now, I have a different idea of the dilemmas and responsibilities of our decisions, now, I take
into account all the factors and consider the positive and negative effects. I really hope that many things might change and that my son continues to
be a good person.
Well Johan,
I see that what happened to you was very hard and the recovery was difficult. In my opinion, I think that when we are young we always have the risk
of making bad decisions, if you had listened to your mother, and if you had been more cautious maybe the accident wouldn't have happened.
One of my brothers is a driver, and he has the record in the Company of 12 years without accidents. He is teaching me to drive the car, the first
advice he gave me was that in Bogota "you must drive to the defensive, not to the offensive". If my brother hadn't learned to drive when my dad
taught him, he would not be a good driver, what my dad taught him, you don't learn in a driving school.
In my way of seeing accidents, cars, motorcycles or walkers, most occur due to the imprudence of the driver or the walker, if people were more
careful, there wouldn't be so many accidents. I agree with you in the regulation of vehicles, but the main thing is that people act with more prudence.

Cita
24 de mayo
4:00 pm
Laura liliana guzman
9014573464