Unit III

Thermography and
Eddy Current
Testing (ET)
Unit III Thermography and Eddy Current Testing (ET)

Thermography- Principles, Contact and non contact inspection methods, Techniques

for applying liquid crystals, Advantages and limitation – infrared radiation and infrared
detectors, Instrumentations and methods, applications. Eddy Current Testing-Generation
of eddy currents, Properties of eddy currents, Eddy current sensing elements, Probes,
Instrumentation, Types of arrangement, Applications, advantages, Limitations,
Interpretation/Evaluation.

1.Thermography- Principles

Part-A
1.Define thermography
2.Describe pulse thermography
3.List the advantage of thermography

Part-B

1Illustrate with suitable sketch about types of thermography.

2.Demonstrate about contact and Non-contact inspection techniques used in NDT

3.Write short notes on the following

(i) Color change thermography
(ii) Characteristics of measuring instruments
4.Describe the advantage of non-contact inspection over contact inspection
techniques.
5.Describe the parameter which consider for defining the liquid crystals

Thermography measures surface temperatures by using infrared video and

still cameras. These tools see light that is in the heat spectrum. Images on the video
or film record the temperature variations of the building's skin, ranging from white
for warm regions to black for cooler areas. The resulting images help the auditor
determine whether insulation is needed. They also serve as a quality control tool, to
ensure that insulation has been installed correctly.
A thermographic inspection is either an interior or exterior survey. The
energy assessor decides which method would give the best results under certain
weather conditions. Interior scans are more common, because warm air escaping
from a building does not always move through the walls in a straight line. Heat loss
detected in one area of the outside wall might originate at some other location on
the inside of the wall. Also, it is harder to detect temperature differences on the
outside surface of the building during windy weather. Because of this difficulty,
interior surveys are generally more accurate because they benefit from reduced air
movement.
Thermographic scans are also commonly used with a blower door
test running. The blower door helps exaggerate air leaking through defects in the
building shell. Such air leaks appear as black streaks in the infrared camera's
viewfinder.
Thermography uses specially designed infrared video or still cameras to
make images (called thermograms) that show surface heat variations. This
technology has a number of applications. Thermograms of electrical systems can
detect abnormally hot electrical connections or components. Thermograms of
mechanical systems can detect the heat created by excessive friction. Energy
assessors use thermography as a tool to help detect heat losses and air leakage in
building envelopes.

Infrared scanning allows energy assessors to check the effectiveness

of insulation in a building's construction. The resulting thermograms help
assessors determine whether a building needs insulation and where in the building
it should go. Because wet insulation conducts heat faster than dry insulation,
thermographic scans of roofs can often detect roof leaks.
 In addition to using thermography during an energy assessment, you should
have a scan done before purchasing a house; even new houses can have defects in
their thermal envelopes. You may wish to include a clause in the contract requiring
a thermographic scan of the house. A thermographic scan performed by a certified
technician is usually accurate enough to use as documentation in court proceedings.
2.Contact and non contact inspection methods
Contact thermography is a method that allows functional imaging of organ
function. The basis of this method is the dermothermic effect, which consists in depicting
on the skin surface changes occurring during the formation of new, pathological blood
vessels (neoangiogenesis process). This process involves a local increase in temperature
around the lesion focus, which manifests itself on the surface of the breast skin and is
recorded by liquid crystal matrices in the form of colored images.

Liquid crystal displays are made by CLCF (continuous liquid crystal film),
which is implemented in accordance with the unique, patented by BRASTER
technology encapsulation of liquid crystal compounds, characterized by selective
reflection of light through dispersion in the film-forming material. These
compounds can selectively reflect light depending on the temperature, which in turn
is recorded on the surface of the breast examined as a thermal marker for neoplastic
lesions, and the matrices used in the Braster device provide colorful imaging of the
temperature distribution in the breast. The matrix is understood as a thermoactive
film permanently attached to the matrix frame. The thermoactive film consists of
several layers of foils, among which a liquid crystal layer is placed. The liquid crystal
layer is the main layer responsible for the generation of thermograms. Each of the
three matrixes attached to the Braster has the same geometry, the only difference
between them is the thermal sensitivity of the thermoactive film.
The Braster team has developed artificial intelligence algorithms that verify
the thermographic images based on two independent methods, the correlation of
which increases the effectiveness of the examination and the probability of
detecting pathological changes in the breast. These algorithms are based on the
detection of thermal and structural asymmetries that can be strongly associated
with the occurrence of breast cancer. They have been developed on the basis of
observational studies conducted so far and are still being improved on the basis of
new studies, on larger groups of patients in order to improve the sensitivity and
specificity of the method.
Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical
thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human
skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical
thermology is sometimes referred to as medical infrared imaging or tele-thermology
and utilizes thermographic cameras. According to the American Academy of
Thermology, Medical Thermology practitioners are licensed health care
practitioners who utilize IR imaging in consistent with medically established
paradigms of care. Non-medically licensed alternative practitioners who are not
held to the same standard may offer thermography services but that should not be
confused with the field of medical thermology.
 Restated, medical thermology is the use of infrared (IR) imaging to assess
skin temperature as an extension of the clinician's physical exam to aid in the
formation of a medical diagnosis or treatment plan. Medical Thermology does not
condone those who purport that "Thermography" can find disease by looking for
areas of the body that have abnormal heat or irregular blood flow. IR imaging simply
does not have the ability to assess temperature beyond the surface of the skin.
Thermography is a physiologic study and is not a replacement for structural
studies such as X-Ray, MRI, or Mammography. As a physiologic study, however,
medical thermology has many health-related indications. The American Academy of
Thermology (AAT) (www.aathermology.org) has published internationally peer-
reviewed guidelines for neuro-musculoskeletal (MSK), breast, veterinary, and oral-
systemic disease.

CRPS-RSD of the left foot imaged with medical thermology during a cold
pressor test.

Examples of neuro-musculoskeletal indications for medical thermology

include Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy (RSD), Chronic Regional Pain Syndrome
(CRPS), Dysautonomia, Migraine, Fibromyalgia (and other weather-sensitive pain
syndromes), thoracic outlet syndrome, and vaso-motor migraine/headaches such as
Barre-Lieou syndrome. This is especially true when used to monitor the results of a
cold stress (cold presser) test.
Thermography is not effective for any type of medical screening, and the FDA
had repeatedly issued warning letters to fraudsters claiming otherwise.
Veterinary thermography indications include, but are not limited to,
assessment of shoring, limb inflammation, and sweating disorders.
Medical Thermology versus Thermography

There is a difference between Medical Thermology as promulgated by medically based

organizations such as the American Academy of Thermology (AAT), and thermography as
practiced by alternative providers or physicians who overstate the benefits of
thermography. As a result of this disparity organizations such as the FDA, ISO, and the AAT
have published Guidelines and best use practices to help educate medical providers and the
public to recognize the difference between providers who provide medical thermology
services and those that offer something else

Infrared (IR) temperature measurement for fever screening correctly done at

the medial canthus (tear duct) of the eye

Thermography has been promoted by some alternative

medicine practitioners as a means to diagnose cancer, although it is not effective for
this purpose. Health Canada has issued "cease and desist" orders to clinics offering
breast thermography as a cancer diagnostic device because thermography cameras
are not licensed as a medical device in Canada, and because thermography for
cancer detection is viewed as ineffective by medical experts. The FDA has issued a
public warning notice stating that breast thermography is not an alternative
to mammography and has ordered Joseph Mercola to stop making excessive claims
for thermography.
 Thermography is discouraged in North America by the American Cancer
Society, radiologists and the FDA for early breast cancer detection. Advertisements
in the United Kingdom have been found to be misleading.
The FDA has cleared thermography only as an adjunct method of screening.
"Thermography devices have been cleared by the FDA for use as an adjunct, or
additional, tool for detecting breast cancer." The FDA says it is not effective for any
kind of medical screening. The AAT has published several Position Papers, including
statements on Breast Thermography that clearly delineate its utility as an
adjudicative breast risk health assessment only.

3.Advantages and limitation

Large Area

Thermography equipment allows for a large area to be assessed. Since

thermography equipment can be used over a large area, it serves some practical
uses—firefighters use thermo-imaging equipment that allows them to see through
smoke, which otherwise impairs normal eyesight. This is a tremendous safety
innovation that thermography provides.

Real Time

Current thermography technology allows for recording in real-time rather

than just snapshots. This technology allows thermo-imaging to be more useful in a
variety of circumstances. Even automakers are including live thermo-imaging
technology in luxury cars. Vehicles—such as certain models of Cadillacs—use
thermo-imaging equipment to help drivers on the road, as well as with parking.

Detecting Defects

Infrared detection is very important for pipes and shafts that are built into
buildings, skyscrapers, and homes. For high-end projects, many construction
companies use thermographic cameras that detect leaks in pipes to ensure they are
repaired prior to finishing the project.

Inaccurate Measurements

If temperatures are very close in range, infrared imaging can lead to

misreading information taken in from the camera; objects can become
indistinguishable. The current technology in thermography only allows for imaging
to be applied to surface temperatures.
 Price

The downside to thermography is the price tag that is associated with

thermo-imaging equipment. This equipment is rarely used by anybody other than
large companies, public services, or educational institutions due to the price that it
costs to purchase equipment.

4. Infrared radiation (IR),

Infrared radiation (IR), sometimes referred to simply as infrared, is a region
of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum where wavelengths range from about
700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter (mm). Infrared waves are longer than those of
visible light, but shorter than those of radio waves. Correspondingly,
the frequencies of IR are higher than those of microwaves, but lower than those of
visible light, ranging from about 300 Ghz to 400 THz.
Infrared light is invisible to the human eye, although longer infrared waves
can be sensed as heat. It does, however, share some characteristics with visible light
-- namely, infrared light can be focused, reflected and polarized.
Wavelength and frequency
Infrared can be subdivided into multiple spectral regions, or bands, based on
wavelength; however, there is no uniform definition of each band's exact
boundaries. Infrared is commonly separated into near-, mid- and far-infrared. It can
also be divided into five categories: near-, short-wavelength, mid-, long-wavelength
and far-infrared.
The near-IR band contains the range of wavelengths closest to the red end of
the visible light spectrum. It is generally considered to consist of wavelengths
measuring from 750 nm to 1,300 nm -- or 0.75 to 1.3 microns. Its frequency ranges
from about 215 THz to 400 THz. This group consists of the longest wavelengths and
shortest frequencies, and it produces the least heat.
The intermediate IR band, also called the mid-IR band, covers wavelengths
ranging from 1,300 nm to 3,000 nm -- or 1.3 to 3 microns. Frequencies range from
20 THz to 215 THz.
Wavelengths in the far-IR band, which are closest to microwaves, extend
from 3,000 nm to 1 mm -- or 3 to 1,000 microns. Frequencies range from 0.3 THz to
20 THz. This group consists of the shortest wavelengths and longest frequencies,
and it produces the most heat.
Infrared radiation uses
Infrared is used in a variety of applications. Among the most well-known are
heat sensors, thermal imaging and night vision equipment.
In communications and networking, infrared light is used in wired and
wireless operations. Remote controls use near-infrared light, transmitted with light-
 emitting diodes (LEDs), to send focused signals to home-entertainment devices,
such as televisions. Infrared light is also used in fiber optic cables to transmit data.

5.INFRARED DETECTORS
Infrared detectors are detectors for infrared light. Some of them are photo
detectors (photon detectors) which are sensitive in a relatively
long wavelength region, while others are based on sensing small temperature
increases induced by absorption of infrared light.
One may in principle also regard laser viewing cards as infrared detectors,
which however do not deliver a signal, but emit some visible light.

Infrared Photodetectors or Infrared Photodiodes

For the short-wavelength part of the near infrared,

ordinary silicon photodiodes can be used; they are responsively falls off
for wavelengths somewhere between 1 μm and 1.1 μm, depending on the thickness
of the active region.
For longer wavelengths, semiconductor materials with a lower band gap
energy are required, so that photons with lower energy are sufficient to create a
carrier which contribute to some photocurrent. Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
detectors are suitable for wavelengths up to ≈1.7 μm. Similarly, germanium (Ge)
photodiodes can be used at ≈0.9 μm to 1.6 μm. For longer wavelengths even beyond
5 μm, indium antimonide (InSb) photodiodes are available.
Infrared Photoconductive Detectors
Infrared light at wavelengths sometimes beyond 5 μm can be detected
with lead salt detectors, e.g. containing lead selenide (PbSe) or lead sulfide (PbS).
Such devices are not fabricated with epitaxial growth, as e.g. InGaAs photodiodes,
but rather by deposition of thin polycrystalline films. They
are photoconductors (photo resistors), not photodiodes, i.e., they do not contain a
p–n junction but exhibit a reduction in electrical resistance caused by incident light,
which induces intraband transitions. Lead salt detectors can be used at room
temperature, although better performance is possible with cooled detectors. Note
that cooling does not only reduce the dark current and therefore improve the
sensitivity, but also reduces the band gap energy, so that light with longer
wavelengths can be detected.
Another detector technology, which is widely used, is based on
photoresistors containing mercury cadmium telluride (MCT, HgxCd1−xTe). Through
the composition parameter (i.e., the mercury content), the bandgap energy can be
tuned in a wide range. That way, detection at rather long wavelengths (partly
beyond 12 μm) is possible. MCT detectors are usually cooled, and they can be made
as image sensors (or focal plane arrays), which are mostly used for thermal imaging.
For even longer infrared wavelengths – even in the far infrared somewhat
beyond 200 μm wavelength –, there are highly doped silicon and germanium
detectors. Such long-wave infrared detectors are extrinsic (impurity band)
semiconductor devices, i.e., they rely on additional energy levels introduced by
impurities like arsenic, copper, gold or indium. They need to be cooled to very low
temperatures (e.g. 4 K with liquid helium), because thermal excitation would
otherwise mask any infrared light signals.
Another technology is that of quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP)
based on GaAs/AlGaAs. They are cooled photoconductive detectors containing
multiple quantum wells, Where instead of interband transitions one utilizes
transitions involving quantum well bound states and possibly continuum states. For
example, GaAs/AlGaAs-based QWIPs can provide sensitivity around 6–20 μm, but
often in a relatively narrow spectral regions (defined by the utilized transitions). At
low operation temperatures of e.g. 50 K, they have some advantages over MCT
detectors, particularly for the fabrication of imaging detector arrays. There are
also quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIP), where one uses quantum
dots instead of quantum wells.
Some of the infrared detector materials contain hazardous substances like
lead, cadmium and mercury. Therefore, their use is increasingly restricted, e.g. by
the European RoHS regulations. Temporary exceptions, however, are in place for
specific applications, where it is difficult to find substitutes.

Thermal Infrared Detectors

Thermal detectors do not directly detect photons, but rather respond to a

temperature increase caused by absorption of incoming infrared light. They can be
based on different technologies:
Pyroelectric Detectors
There are pyroelectric detectors based on ferroelectric materials such as
lithium tantalate, generating a small electric voltage pulse in response to a
temperature gradient caused by an incident light pulse. They can be used e.g.
in optical energy meters for measuring the pulse energy of a Q-switched laser,
including the pulse-to-pulse fluctuations.
Bolometers
A bolometer sensor contains a thin infrared-absorbing plate, made e.g. of
amorphous silicon (aSi) or vanadium oxide, which is suspended with two
electrodes. One can then measure the temperature-dependent electrical resistance
of the plate. Note that without incoming infrared light the temperature of the plate
will relax towards the heat sink temperature, while incoming radiation will increase
the temperature above that of the substrate. The readings will thus have to be
corrected according to the substrate temperature, if that is not held constant. A
metal mirror below the plate may be used to back-reflect non-absorbed infrared
light and at the same time to reduce the thermal radiation from the substrate.
Bolometers can also be made in the form of microbolometers, e.g. for use
in infrared cameras.
Thermal detectors are often operated at room temperature, i.e., without
cooling. Often, however, they are temperature-stabilized, i.e., the operation
temperature is kept constant, typically with a small Peltier cooler, but not at a
particularly low temperature. With cooled operation, one can further improve the
performance.
Trade-off between Sensitivity and Bandwidth
Thermal detectors are subject to a fundamental trade-off
between sensitivity and bandwidth. This can be best understood by considering a
rather simplified model, where the absorber, the temperature of which is measured,
has a certain heat capacity (which is proportional to its mass) and is thermally
connected to the outside world with some thermal resistance. Ignoring the thermal
capacitance of any other things, for example the thermal connection of the absorber
to the outside world, one obtains rather simple relations between heating power,
induced temperature rise and bandwidth:
● The temperature rise and thus the measurement signal are proportional to the thermal
resistance. Therefore, a high thermal resistance is beneficial for obtaining a high sensitivity.
Also, it can help to use a rather small absorber, if the incident light can be well focused to
it.
● On the other hand, there is a thermal time constant which is proportional to the heat
capacity and inversely proportional to the thermal resistance. Therefore, a high thermal
resistance will make the detector slow.
● Besides, there is a fundamental limitation by thermal noise in the form of temperature
fluctuations. One can show that the standard deviation of the temperature of the absorber
is proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the square root of the
thermal capacitance. This limitation is most relevant for miniaturized absorbers, as used in
microbolometers – which, however, may in practice still be limited by other noise sources,
e.g. those of the temperature sensor.

Types of IR Sensor

There are two types of IR sensors are available and they are,
● Active Infrared Sensor
● Passive Infrared Sensor
Active Infrared Sensor
Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared
detector. Infrared sources include the LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared
detectors include photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the
infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on the infrared detector.
Passive Infrared Sensor
Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors. Passive infrared
sensors do not use any infrared source and detector. They are of two types:
quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use infrared energy as the source
of heat. Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and bolometers are the common
types of thermal infrared detectors. Quantum type infrared sensors offer higher
detection performance. It is faster than thermal type infrared detectors. The photo
sensitivity of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent.

IR Sensor Working Principle

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their

wavelengths, output power and response time. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED
and an IR Photodiode, together they are called as PhotoCoupler or OptoCoupler.
IR Transmitter or IR LED
 Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared
radiations called as IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the
radiation emitted by it is invisible to the human eye.

APPLICATION OF INFRARED DETECTORS

Night Vision Devices

An Infrared technology implemented in night vision equipment if there is
not enough visible light available to see unaided. Night vision devices convert
ambient photons of light into electrons and then amplify them using a chemical and
electrical process before finally converting them back into visible light.
Radiation Thermometers
IR sensos uses in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature
depend upon the temperature and the material of the object and these
thermometers have some of the following features
● Measurement without direct contact with the object
● Faster response
● Easy pattern measurements
Advantages of Infrared Sensor
The advantages of Infrared Sensor are:
● Their low power requirements make them suitable for most electronic devices such as
laptops, telephones, PDAs.
● They are capable of detecting motion in presence/ absence of light almost with same
reliability.
● They do not require contact with object to for detection.
● There is no leakage of data due to beam directionality IR radiation.
● They are not affected by corrosion or oxidation.
● They have very strong noise immunity.
Disadvantages of Infrared Sensor
The disadvantages of Infrared Sensor are:
● Required Line of sight.
● Get blocked by common objects.
● Limited range.
● Can be affected by Environmental conditions such as rain, fog, dust, pollution.
● Transmission Data rate is slow.

Eddy Current
Eddy current array (ECA) is a nondestructive testing technology that provides the
ability to electronically drive multiple eddy current coils, which are placed side by
side in the same probe assembly. Each individual eddy current coil in the probe
 produces a signal relative to the phase and amplitude of the structure below it. This
data is referenced to an encoded position and time and represented graphically as a
C-scan image. Most conventional eddy current flaw detection techniques can be
reproduced with ECA inspections; however, the remarkable advantages of ECA
technology allow improved inspection capabilities and significant time savings.
ECA technology includes the following advantages..
● A larger area can be scanned in a single-probe pass, while maintaining a
high resolution.
● Less need for complex robotics to move the probe; a simple manual scan is
often enough.
● C-scan imaging improves flaw detection and sizing.
● Complex shapes can be inspected using probes customized to the profile of
the part being inspected.
Eddy current (EC) testing is a no contact method for the inspection of
metallic parts. Eddy currents are fields of alternating magnetic current that are
created when an alternating electric current is passed through one or more coils in a
probe assembly. When the probe is linked with the part under inspection, the
alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the test part. Discontinuities or
property variations in the test part change the flow of the eddy current and are
detected by the probe in order to make material thickness measurements or to
detect defects such as cracks and corrosion.
Over the years, probe technology and data processing have advanced to the
point where eddy current testing is recognized as being fast, simple, and accurate.
The technology is now widely used in the aerospace, automotive, petrochemical, and
power generation industries for the detection of surface or near-surface defects in
materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, copper, titanium, brass, Inconel®, and
even carbon steel (surface defects only).
Benefits of Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current offers the following capabilities..
Quick, simple, and reliable inspection technique to detect surface and near-surface
defects in conductive material Can be used to measure material electrical
conductivity Measurement of nonconductive coating Hole inspection with the use of
high-speed rotating scanner and surface probe

Benefits of Eddy Current Array Testing

Compared to single-channel eddy current technology, eddy current array
technology provides the following benefits.. Drastically reduces inspection time.
Covers a large area in one single pass. Reduces the complexity of mechanical and
robotic scanning systems. Provides real-time cartography of the inspected region,
 facilitating data interpretation. Is well suited for complex part geometries. Improves
reliability and probability of detection (POD).

EDDY CURRENT

Eddy current testing uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect

flaws in conductive materials. An excitation coil carrying current is placed in proximity
to the component to be inspected. The coil generates a changing magnetic field using an
alternating current, which interacts with the component generating eddy currents.

Variations in the phase and magnitude of these currents are monitored either by
using a second coil, or by measuring changes to the current flowing in the excitation coil.
The presence of any flaw will cause a change in the eddy current field and a
corresponding change in the phase and amplitude of the measured signal. In the case of
nondestructive testing (NDT), these are displayed on an eddy current flaw detector as a
distinct change in signal (see figure 1).

The main advantages of eddy current inspection include:

● Provides a faster scanning speed than conventional ultrasonic testing (UT)

● Unlike UT, requires no fluid couplant
● The surfaces need minimal preparation
● Eddy current testing can be used through several millimeters of coating
● Can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the material
● Physically complex geometries can be investigated
● The testing devices are portable
● Provide immediate feedback
● The probe does not necessarily have to be in contact with the test object

Applications

Eddy current testing can be used for a wide range of applications. It is often
applied for surface crack detection and material sorting. Material sorting is used to ensure
that the proper materials are in use and to verify component materials or assembly
features (such as the orientation or position of a subcomponent in an assembly). Figure 2
shows the range of application types of eddy current inspection.

Flaw Detection

It’s usually carried out with pencil probes or ‘pancake’ type probes on ferrous or
non-ferrous metals. Frequencies from 100 kHz to a few MHz are commonly used.
Depending on surface condition it is normally possible to find cracks 0.1 mm or less in
depth
 More complex are dual or multiple frequency inspections . These are commonly
used for tubing inspection, in particular for suppression of unwanted responses due to
tube support plates.

Conductivity Measurement / Material Sorting

For nonferrous materials such as aluminum and copper, eddy current electrical
conductivity measurements are often used to verify material characteristics.

For raw and processed materials conductivity measurement can determine the
purity of the metal.

Heat treatment of aluminum affects the metallurgical structure of the material,

which in turn affects the electrical conductivity. Published charts list expected electrical
conductivity values for the various heat-treat conditions of aluminum alloys.

Probe Types

Many different types of probe are used for eddy current inspection depending on
the specific application.

Probe options for flaw detection include:

● Shielded probes: with their focused eddy current field, they add the ability to test very
close to or materials that are dissimilar. These may be absolute or differential.
● Differential probes are sometimes used, particularly in automated applications to give
enhanced sensitivity to small defects by ignoring large differences. However, care must
be taken to ensure that the orientation of flaws is correct for detection and that long
defects will not be ignored.
● Special low frequency probes using transmit receive connection, which may be absolute
or differential
● in response.

For external tube/rod testing or sorting, outside diameter (toroidal) encircling coils
allow for testing of the entire circumference of a tube. The sensor diameter is chosen based
on the diameter of the tube. The tube must be centered in the test coil to ensure consistent
sensitivity around the circumference.

For heat-treat and material type verification, the test material need not be centered in
the test coil but positioning should be consistent for subsequent test pieces.

For internal tube inspection then an internal diameter (bobbin) probe is used.
 Finally, groups of eddy current sensors may be used in tandem to form an array,
which gives the advantage of higher defect resolution and removes the need to scan the probe
in one axis.

Factors that affect Eddy Current Inspection

A number of factors, apart from flaws, will affect the eddy current response from
a probe. In order to successfully assess flaws or any of the below factors, we must be able
to minimize the effect of other factors on the results. The main factors are:

Material conductivity

The conductivity of a material has a very direct effect on the eddy current field.
Conductivity is often measured by an eddy current technique and using eddy currents can
help establish the different factors affecting conductivity, such as material composition,
heat treatment, work hardening, etc.

Permeability

This may be described as the ease with which a material can be magnetized. For
non-ferrous metals (copper, brass, aluminum, etc.), and for austenitic stainless steels the
permeability is the same as that of ‘free space,’ i.e. the relative permeability (μr) is one.

For ferrous metals however the value of μr may be several hundred, and this has a
very significant influence on the eddy current response, in addition it is not uncommon
for the permeability to vary greatly within a metal part due to localized stresses, heating
effects, etc.

For ferrous material the eddy current flow is concentrated extremely close to the
surface, making sub-surface defects difficult to detect unlike non-ferrous material unless
you strongly magnetize the material or use special remote field probes.

Frequency

Eddy current response is greatly affected by the test frequency chosen.

Fortunately this is one property we can control. Higher frequencies reduce the depth of
penetration and increase the phase difference between near and far defects making it
easier to detect and differentiate smaller defects; lower frequencies increase the depth of
signal penetration, enabling deeper testing to be carried out but at the cost of reduced
defect sensitivity.

Geometry

In a real part there will be geometrical features such as curvature, edges and
grooves and will affect the eddy current response. Test techniques must recognize this in
 order to maintain consistent inspection results. For example in testing an edge for cracks
the probe must be scanned parallel to the edge so that small changes may be easily seen.

Proximity/Lift-Off

Moving a probe coil relative to the surface of the material has two main effects:

There will be a ‘lift-off” signal as the probe is moved.

A reduction in sensitivity as the coil to surface spacing increases.

Depth of Penetration

Eddy current inspection gives stronger signals from a flaw when that flaw is
closer to the surface of the material. This signal declines with a greater depth of
penetration. Higher conductivity and permeability levels in a material lead to less
penetration. However, using a lower frequency can compensate for this.

Eddy Current Testing and Industry

Eddy current inspection can be used across a wide range of industries for a large
number of applications. Figure 6 demonstrates the industries that this technique can be
used in, the application types and what type of probe you would use to complete your
eddy current inspection. This table proves that although eddy current inspection can seem
complex, it is extremely versatile.

PROPERTIES OF EDDY CURRENTS

Eddy Currents Properties

● These are made only within the operating equipment.

● These are distorted by faults such as cracks, rust, edges, etc.

● Eddy currents diminish in-depth with the larger forces present above.
These structures lead to the widespread use of eddy currents in energy, aerospace, and
petrochemical industries to detect cracking and metal damage.

Causes of Eddy Currents

When the conductor moves in a magnetic field or when the magnetic field
surrounding a vertical conductor changes, eddy currents are produced. Eddy currents can
therefore be made whenever the strength or direction of the magnetic field changes in the
conductor.
 We know from Lenz Law that the direction of induced current, like eddy current,
will be such that the magnetic field created by it opposes the changes in the magnetic
field that it caused. The electrons in the conductor rotate in a plane that relies on a
magnetic field for this to happen. The size of the eddy current is:
● Depending on the size of the magnetic field
● Equivalent to the loop area
● In proportion to the degree of fluctuations of the magnetic fluctuations in reverse
● In line with the resistance of the conductor
Eddy currents often fight off changes in the magnetic field they produce, resulting
in a loss of power to the conductor. These convert heat into heat, such as kinetic or
electrical energy. In order to stabilize rotating power tools and rollercoasters, we use
resistance caused by opposing backgrounds to produce eddy currents.

EDDY CURRENT SENSING ELEMENTS, PROBES

Eddy-current sensor for measuring ranges up to 10 mm

The sensing element of an eddy current sensor is the coil of an oscillating

circuit. The oscillating circuit is made up of the actual probe (inductance) and an
interconnect capacitance. The sensing electromagnetic field is emitted from the
probe (coil). The electromagnetic field induces eddy currents on the surface of
conductive objects (i. e. metallic objects). These eddy currents counteract their
cause and attenuate the amplitude of the oscillating circuit. This attenuation effect is
inversely proportional to the distance between object and sensor. The TX-System is
driving the oscillating circuit and interprets the attenuation as position.
 Ultra-compact ceramic sensors

The ultra-compact CM-series from eddylab are eddy current sensors,

excellent for use in harsh industrial environments under high pressure and
temperature conditions. The ceramic housing can be used as the pressurised
component, there is no extra housing needed. All CM sensors are shielded. The
combination of shielded coil and ceramic housing guarentees an universal use in
limited space of machine parts. Measuring of lubrication gap of crankshafts is a
typical application for the CM series.

Eddy Current Probes

Eddy current sensors belong to the category of non-contact displacement
sensors. The name-giving principle admits the distance measurement towards
conductive objects. As a speciality of this technology - the presence of non-
conductive mediums like oil, water or coolant does not affect the measurement. This
circumstance predestines the eddy current sensor for applications in the rough
industrial environment.

Furthermore eddy current sensors are perfectly suited for the observation of
dynamic events. Eddy current sensors of the TX-Series stand out with an excellent
dynamic range >100 kSa/s and resolutions in the sub-micron range. With this
premise the eddy current sensor is suitable for general motion analysis and in
automotiveapplications.

Besides robustness, high dynamics and high resolution the TX-Series also stands out
with a wide temperature range. With a temperature range from -60°C up to 180°C
eddy current sensors are the ideal choice for applications in combustion engines.
APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS EDDY CURRENT

Applications of eddy current testing

● Eddy current testing is used to measure properties as magnetic permeability,
electrical conductivity, condition after heat treatment, dimensions, grain size, and
hardness.
● It is also used to measure coating thickness.
● Differentiate dissimilarly of metals.
● Identify differences in their structure and composition.
Advantages of eddy current testing
● Speed of eddy current testing is very fast.
● This testing is suitable for both ferrous and nonferrous components.
● Due to digitalization, permanent records of the testing can be available for a long
time.
● The testing specimen does not come in direct contact with electricity.
● This testing has the flexibility to test the entire production output because of its
automation.
Limitations of eddy current testing
● It requires the proper size of the coil to maintain the sensitivity of instruments.
● This method only works on metallic components.
● The shape of the coil should be similar to the shape of the testing specimen.
● As this testing is digital, the instruments require are costly.
● Instruments used in the testing should be standardized.
● Calibration of the instruments is very important.
● Both at or near the surface defects can be identified.

INTERPRETATION/EVALUATION.

Eddy current inspection is used in a variety of industries to find defects and

make measurements. One of the primary uses of eddy current testing is for defect
detection when the nature of the defect is well understood. In general, the
technique is used to inspect a relatively small area and the probe design and test
parameters must be established with a good understanding of the flaw that is to be
detected. Since eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a material, they
can only be used to detect surface and near surface defects. In thin materials such as
tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to measure the thickness of the
material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion damage and
other damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to
make corrosion thinning measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing
used in assemblies such as heat exchangers.

Eddy current testing is also used to measure the thickness of paints and
other coatings. Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity
and magnetic permeability of materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements
can be used to sort materials and to tell if a material has seen high temperatures or
been heat treated, which changes the conductivity of some materials.

Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of

configurations. Eddy scopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very small
and battery operated units for easy portability. Computer based systems are also
available that provide easy data manipulation features for the laboratory. Signal
processing software has also been developed for trend removal, background
subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance analyzers are also sometimes used to
allow improved quantitative eddy-current measurements. Some laboratories have
multidimensional scanning capabilities that are used to produce images of the scan
regions. A few portable scanning systems also exist for special applications, such
as scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.