S 1611018 Chapter2

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. The earliest use of iron, the main
component of steel, was for small tools in approximately 4000 B.C. or the Bronze
Age. Steel was in the form of wrought iron and produced from the process of
heating metal ores in a charcoal fire or we know now as smelting. (Segui, 2013).
Steel, as a structural material, was firstly built in England in 1777-1779. During the
period from 1780 until 1820, arch-shaped structures are being built by cast-iron
pieces forming bars or trusses in which these pieces were compiled as main girders
of the structure. (Salmon, et al., 2009).
According to McCormac & Csernak (2012), the advantages of steel as a

structural material follows:
1. Steel has high strength in order to support structures such as long-span

bridges, tall buildings, structures situated in poor foundation, and
workshops.
2. Steel has a consistent property which do not change in a considerable

amount of time compared to reinforced-concrete structure.
3. The moments of inertia of a steel structure can be calculated accurately

as it follows Hooke’s law up to high stresses, hence engineers are likely
to use steel as a design material.
4. If steel structures are properly maintained, the structure will last

indefinitely. Maintenance such as annual inspection of corrosion and
paint will increase the longevity of the structure.
5. Steel can withstand substantial deformation without failure under high

tensile stress.
6. Even though steel member is loaded until it has large deformation, it is

still able to withstand large forces loaded upon them.
5 Universitas International Batam
Bernard Hocking. An Analysis on Design Efficiency Between

Castellated Beam and Conventional Beam (Study Case:
Workshop Smelter at Tanjung Uncang). UIB Repository©2020
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7. Steel structures are easy to have additions made to the structure itself.
8. Steel structures have simple connection devices such as welds and bolts
that can be fastened together easily.
9. Construction time is shortened due to its speed upon erection.
10. Steel can be reuse for another structure if disassembled, or can be sold
as scrap if it is not reusable.
As for the disadvantages of steel, McCormac & Csernak (2012) concluded

that:
1. Steel are prone to corrosion when it is exposed to air and water.

Corrosion may lead to reduction of strength of the structure. Hence,
maintenance such as painting is needed to prevent corrosion
2. Steel’s strength can be reduced dramatically at the burning of other

materials around it. With the characteristic of steel being a good
conductor, heat can be easily transferred to other members of the steel
structure. In order to prevent such happening, the steel structure can be
protected by applying and installing insulation.
3. Steel are susceptible towards buckling. To prevent buckling, additional

structures may be added but it may increase its cost.
4. The strength of steel may be reduced if the steel structure is exposed to

a large number of stress reversals or a variation of tensile stress.
5. Under certain conditions such as fatigue-type loadings, low temperature

or even triaxial stress condition may lead to steel losing its ductility and
eventually leads to brittle fracture.
2.2 Castellated Beam
According to Boyer (1964), castellated beam is a type of expanded beam in

which a steel profile is being expanded and creates a regular pattern of holes in the
web of the profile. The name castellated means “built like a castle, having
battlements, or regular holes in the walls, like a castle”.
Universitas Internasional Batam

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Castellated beams are usually custom designed according to the design from
a professional engineer in which a specific area that needs a strong and yet
economical steel member. According to AISC, the fabrication of castellated beams
is helped with computer operated cutting torch to cut a zigzag pattern along the web
of a wide-flange section. After the cutting the section into the appropriate pattern,
the waste of both ends of the beam is removed and the two sections are welded back
together to form the castellated section. And lastly, a full or partial penetration butt
weld is being made from either side of the web.
2.2.1 Classifications of Castellated Beam
According to Rugge (2017), the classifications of castellated beam are:
1. Hexagonal Openings
Figure 2.1 Hexagonal castellated beam. Source: Rugge & Pasnur (2017)
2. Circular Openings
Figure 2.2 Circular castellated beam. Source: Rugge & Pasnur (2017)

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3. Sinusoidal Openings
Figure 2.3 Sinusoidal castellated beam. Source: Rugge & Pasnur (2017)
4. Rectangular Openings
Figure 2.4 Rectangular castellated beam. Source: Rugge & Pasnur

(2017)
While according to Jamadar (2015), castellated beam can be classified as:
1. Hexagonal Castellated Beam
Figure 2.5 Hexagonal castellated beam. Source: Jamadar & Khumbar

(2015)

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2. Cellular Beam
Figure 2.6 Cellular castellated beam. Source: Jamadar & Kumbhar

(2015)
3. Castellated Beam with Diamond Shaped Opening
Figure 2.7 Diamond shaped opening castellated beam. Source: Jamadar

& Kumbhar (2015)

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2.2.2 Terminology of Castellated Beam
Figure 2.8 Terminology of castellated beam. Source: Wakchaure, et al.

(2012)
The parts of a castellated beam according to Fig. 2.8 are:
1. Throat Width: the width of the opening in the form of a polygon.
2. Throat Depth: the height between the flange and the opening.
3. Web Post: the solid cross section of a castellated beam
2.2.3 Advantages of Castellated Beam
According to Hayati (2009), the advantages of castellated beam are:
1. Higher moment of inertia due to higher web profile hence making the
profile much stronger and rigid.
2. The moment of the structure produced is large, while the minimum

allowed stress is meager.
3. The material is light yet strong and can be easily assembled.

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While according to Zirakian & Shokati (2006), castellated beam has the
following advantages:
1. The increase of profile’s height creates higher moment of inertia,

ductility, stiffness and flexibility of the profile.
2. The decrease of the profile’s weight will have the overall weight of the
structure much lighter.
3. The opening on the castellated beam can be used for mechanical,

electrical and plumbing purposes.
2.2.4 Disadvantages of Castellated Beam
According to Hayati (2006), the disadvantages of castellated beam are:
1. The increase of tension on the end of the profile.
2. Castellated beams are not suitable on designing short length with huge
loads.
3. The structural analysis is much complicated than conventional profiles.
While according to Verweij (2010), castellated beam has the following

disadvantages:
1. The structure is not suitable for withholding concentrated load.
2. It is needed to have much complex calculation on the strength of the

profile.
3. The capacity on withholding axial loads is reduced.
4. The increase of cost production.
2.3 Failures on Castellated Beam
In a study conducted by Kerdal & Nethercot (1984), there are six failure
modes assuming that there are adequate lateral support and applied loading
producing both moment and shear:

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1. Vierendeel mechanism.
2. Bending failure.
3. Lateral torsional buckling.
4. Rupture of the welded joint.
5. Web post buckling due to shear.
6. Web post buckling due to compression.
Since the presence of web opening inflicts such failure modes, the following
limit states should be investigated and check thoroughly when designing castellated
beams:
1. Compactness and local buckling
2. Overall beam flexural strength
3. Vierendeel bending of tees
4. Web post buckling
5. Axial tension/compression
6. Horizontal shear
7. Vertical shear
8. Lateral-torsional buckling
2.3.1 Failure by Formation of Vierendeel Mechanism
This failure occurs due to the presence of a high magnitude of shear force
working on the beam. It forms plastic hinges at corners of the openings in which
the openings are deformed in a manner of a parallelogram, though some studies
report that these plastic hinges are also formed at corners of the other openings in
the span and the distortion pattern varies. When shear force is applied to the
castellated beam, the beam receives shear force and bending moment. The location
of the failure occurs at the span which receives the maximum shear force.

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2.3.2 Failure by Bending Moment
This failure is occurred by bending moment whereas the upper and below
tee section of the profile yields. In this case, calculating the castellated beam’s
capability of withstand the maximum moment is the same as calculating for the
conventional beam.
2.3.3 Failure by Lateral Torsional Buckling
This failure is similar to conventional profile’s lateral torsional buckling.

Lateral torsional buckling is usually linked to the span of the beam, from one
support to another. But even so, lateral torsional buckling does not bring any
significant effect towards the structure.
2.3.4 Failure by Rupture of Welded Joint
This failure happens at welded joint on the web post. This failure happens
because of the horizontal shear force is more than the yield force of the welded joint.
In other words, the welded joint cannot withhold the horizontal shear force applied
to it.
2.3.5 Failure by Web Post Buckling Due to Shear
This failure happens at the web post. The reason for this buckling is shear
force that is acting on the web post. Shear force affects the bending moment of the
profile. Hence, if ever the shear force is too much to handle and caused bending
moment to act irregularly, the upper tee section needs to support tensile stress while
the lower tee section needs to support compressive stress and it costs the beam to
buckle to the web post.
2.3.6 Failure by Web Post Buckling Due to Compression
The main cause of this failure is concentrated load applied on the beam. Too
much load caused the web post to buckle. This failure may be solved by adding
more stiffeners.

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2.4 Structural Design and Analysis
In designing the structure, LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) will
be used as the limit state of design. The proposed strength of every component of
the structure must not be lower than the strength needed to withhold the loads
working on the structure. According to SNI 1729:2015, the design with LRFD
matches the specification needed if:
𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 ≤ ϕ𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 (1)
With Ru is the strength needed for withholding the load combinations and ϕRn is the
strength of the designed structure with ϕ is the safety factor.
According to SNI 1727:2013, the types of load combinations are:
1. 1,4D
2. 1,2D + 1,6L + 0,5 (Lr or R)
3. 1,2D + 1,6 (Lr or R) + (1,0L or 0,5W)
4. 1,2D + 1,0W + 1,0L + 0,5 (Lr or R)
5. 1,2D + 1,0E + L
6. 0,9D + 1,0W
7. 0,9D + 1,0E
With
D = Dead load
L = Live load
Lr = Live roof load
R = Rain load
W = Wind load
E = Quake load

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2.4.1 Dead Load
Dead load is defined as the weight of the construction material itself, such
as: floor slab, stairs, columns, beams, walls, floor ceramics, roofs, etc. While for
roofs, dead loads can be: roof tiles, purlin, ceilings, hangers, maintenance bridge,
mechanical-electrical installations, roof insulations, etc.
2.4.2 Live Roof Load
Live Roof Load is defined as the weight of an active person with its
materials working on the roof in case of installation or maintenance and also an
active object such as: plants or moving accessories.
According to SNI 1727:2013, the formula of reducing the live roof load is:
𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 = 𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 with 0.58 ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 ≤ 0.96 (2)
With R1 and R2 is defined as
𝑅𝑅1 = 1 if 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 ≤ 18.58 𝑚𝑚2
𝑅𝑅1 = 1.2 − 0.011𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 if 18.58 < 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 < 55.74 𝑚𝑚2
𝑅𝑅1 = 0.6 if 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 ≥ 55.74 𝑚𝑚2
𝑅𝑅1 = 1 if 𝐹𝐹 ≤ 4
𝑅𝑅1 = 1.2 − 0.05𝐹𝐹 if 4 < 𝐹𝐹 < 12
𝑅𝑅1 = 0.6 if 𝐹𝐹 ≥ 12

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In which
2
AT = Tributary area (m )
F = 0.12 x slope; slope is defined in percentage

2
Lr = Reduced live roof load (N/m )
2
Lo = Live roof load without reduction (N/m )
Table 2.1 Live roof load specifications
Concentrated
Usage Distributed Load (kN/m2)
Load (kN/m2)
Roof
Flat, conjoined, curved roof 0.96

Roof garden 4.79
Roof for other purposes Same as the other
Roof for other residential purposes

Canopy and awning
Workshop construction with rigid frame 0.24 (cannot be reduced)
Roof fulcrum 0.24 (cannot be reduced and 0.89

must according to the
tributary area of the roof to
the structure)
All other constructions 0.96
Main components of roof structure in which

is related to floor works
Singular panel points from lower member 8.9

of the truss or every point on the main
structure that supports roof of workshops,
storages or garages
All other components of the main structure 1.33

Workers doing maintenance on rooftop 1.33
Source: SNI 1727:2013

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2.4.3 Wind Load
A structure must be able to withstand wind load. SPBAU (Sistem Penahan

Beban Angin Utama) is a standard code in which SNI 1727:2013 follows. The rule
mentions that the minimum wind load design for enclosed buildings or semi-
enclosed buildings can be no lower than 0.77 kN/m2 times the area of the building’s
wall and 0.38 kN/m2 times the area of the roof projected vertically, perpendicular
towards the wind direction.
According to SNI 1727:2013, the parameters of wind loads are:
1. Wind speed (V): this data may be acquired from BMKG/Meteorology,

Climatology, and Geophysical Agency. Though the latest data is not
available, we may assume the wind speed from the standard Design Wind
Speeds for Asia-Pacific Region (HB 212-2002). According to the journal,
Indonesia is on region number 1. The wind speed of each region is explained
on Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Wind speed for Asia-Pacific region

Risk Category Reset Period (Years) Wind Speed (m/s)
I 300 38.3
II 700 40.9
III 1700 43.4
IV 1700 43.4
Source: “Design Wind Speeds for Asia-Pacific Region”, John Holmes, HB
212-2002
2. Wind direction factor (Kd): wind direction factor decreases the probability
of maximum wind speed from any direction and decreases the probability
of maximum pressure coefficient of wind speed from any direction. The
factor Kd is defined in Table 2.3.

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Table 2.3 Wind direction factors by structure type
Structure Type Wind Direction Factor

Buildings
Truss members 0.85
Cladding 0.85
Curved roof 0.85
Chimney, tanks and similar structure
Rectangular 0.90
Hexagonal 0.95
Ellipse 0.95
Solid walls and billboards 0.85
Billboard grille 0.85
Truss tower
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
Other types of cross section 0.95
3. Exposure: Every wind direction must be considered. The exposure of

resisting winds must be based on topography, vegetation, and the facility
that is going to be build. Exposure is categorized into 3 classes: B, C, D.
4. Topography factor (Kzt): Wind speed is affected by topography, where

winds on hills and cliffs will cause a dramatical change. The factor can be
calculated with the following formula:
𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = (1 + 𝐾𝐾1 𝐾𝐾2 𝐾𝐾3 ) (3)
As for flat lands
Kzt = 1
5. Wind-blown effect factor (G): The factor of wind-blown effect on a rigid

structure is 0.85.
6. Enclosure: Enclosure affects the internal pressure coefficient. Structures

must be classified whether it is enclosed fully, partially enclosed or open
fully.

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7. Internal pressure coefficient (GCpi): internal pressure coefficient is

classified according to the enclosure of the structure. Table 2.4 explains the
coefficient with each type of enclosure.
Table 2.4 Internal pressure coefficient of each enclosure type
Enclosure Type GCpi

Enclosed fully 0.00
Partially enclosed + 0.55
- 0.55
Open fully + 0.18
- 0.18
8. Exposed wind speed pressure coefficient (Kz or Kh): this coefficient is

classified according to the height from level soil.
Table 2.5 Exposed wind speed pressure coefficient

Exposure
Height from level soil (m)
B C D
0 – 4.6 0.57 0.85 1.03
6.1 0.62 0.90 1.08
7.6 0.66 0.94 1.12
9.1 0.70 0.98 1.16
12.2 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.2 0.81 1.09 1.27
18 0.85 1.13 1.31
21.3 0.89 1.17 1.34
24.4 0.93 1.21 1.38
27.4 0.96 1.24 1.40
30.50 0.99 1.26 1.43
9. Wind speed pressure (q): wind speed pressure can be calculated with this
formula
𝑞𝑞ℎ = 0.613𝐾𝐾ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 2 (4)
where 𝑉𝑉 is in m/s

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10. External pressure coefficient (Cp): the external pressure of an enclosed

structure with gable roof affects the wind load.
Figure 2.9 External pressure coefficient for gable roof. Source: SNI
1727:2013
11. Wind pressure (p)
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 (𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ) (5)
With
p = wind pressure (N/m2)
q = qh of roof with the height of h
qi = qh of positive internal pressure
2.5 Steel Properties
Steel beam may happen instability due to local buckling on flange or web,
flexural buckling, torsional buckling and flexural torsional buckling. According to
SNI 1729:2015, there are 2 properties of steel components:
1. Shear
The structural component that withstand shear force is classified as

slender and non-slender. Non-slender structural component has a ratio of
width thickness less than the restricted slender ratio (λr). If the width
thickness ratio is larger than λr, hence the structure is a slender element.

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Limitation of ratio λr for flanges of WF and Tee-section (b/t):
𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟 = 0.56�𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (6)
Limitation of ratio λr for web of WF (h/tw):
Limitation of ratio λr for stem Tee-section (d/t):
2. Bending
The structural component that withstand bending force is classified as

compact element and non-compact element as well as slender element.
The section is accounted as a compact element whereas the flanges are
joined with the web and the width-thickness ratio is less than λp. If the
width-thickness ratio is larger than λp but less than λr, the section is
accounted as a non-compact element. If the width-thickness ratio is larger

than λr, the section is accounted as a slender element
Limitation of ratio λp for flanges of WF and Tee-section (b/t):
𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝 = 0.38�𝐸𝐸⁄𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (9)
Limitation of ratio λr for flanges of WF and Tee-section (b/t):
𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟 = 1.0�𝐸𝐸⁄𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (10)
Limitation of ratio λp for web of WF (h/tw):

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Limitation of ratio λr for web of WF (h/tw):
Limitation of ratio λp for stem of Tee-section (h/tw):
Limitation of ratio λr for stem of Tee-section (h/tw):
With
E = elastic modulus of steel (MPa)
Fy = yield stress of steel (MPa)
λr = Limitation of ratio for slender element
λp = Limitation of ratio for non-compact element
2.6 Castellated Beam Design
The design for castellated beam follows “Castellated and Cellular Beam
Design” by AISC.
2.6.1 Design Criteria
The design criteria of beams with web openings or castellated beams

follows the journal by the ASCE Task Committee on Design Criteria for Composite
Structures in Steel and Concrete. The committee has outlined the criteria of the
dimensions of the castellated beam, in which:
• The opening depth (ho) must not exceed 0.7d.
• The depth of the tee (dt) must not be less than 0.15d.
• The ratio of the opening length to the depth of the steel portion of a tee
(v) must not exceed 12.

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• The clear spacing (S) must be greater than or equal to the opening depth
(ho).
Hence with the given values of e, b and dt in which are designated from the
depth of the root beam section and a trial opening size that can be modified, the
design of the castellated beam with hexagonal opening consists of:
1. Half height of castellated opening
ℎ = 𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (15)
2. Opening depth
ℎ𝑜𝑜 = 2ℎ (16)
3. Depth of expanded beam
𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 = ℎ𝑜𝑜 + 2𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (17)
4. Angle of hexagonal cut
ℎ
𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 � � (18)
𝑏𝑏
5. Spacing of openings
𝑆𝑆 = 2𝑒𝑒 + 2𝑏𝑏 (19)
with
S = Spacing of openings (mm)
b = horizontal length (mm)
d = depth of the steel profile (mm)
dg = depth of the expanded beam (mm)
dt = depth of tee (mm)

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e = length of tee section (mm)
h = half height of castellated opening (mm)
ho = opening depth (mm)
θ = angle of hexagonal cut (°)
2.6.2 Beam Net Section Analysis
1. Combined area of top and bottom tees
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (20)
2. Distance between centroids of top and bottom tees
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 − 2(𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 − 𝑦𝑦�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ) (21)
3. Net moment of inertia about x-axis
2
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 2𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 2𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � (22)
2
4. Net elastic section modulus about x-axis
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 (23)
� �
2
5. Net plastic section modulus about x-axis
𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � (24)
2
with
Atee = area of tee section (mm2)
𝑦𝑦�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = distance from either top or bottom fiber to centroid of tee (mm)

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2.6.3 Beam Gross Section Properties
1. Gross area of castellated tee
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 (25)
2. Gross moment of inertia about x-axis
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑜𝑜 3
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + � � (26)
12
4. Gross elastic section modulus about x-axis
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 (27)
� �
2
5. Gross plastic section modulus about x-axis
ℎ
𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 2𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 ℎ � � (28)
2
2.7 Vierendeel Bending Analysis
According to AISC Design Guide 31, vierendeel bending is caused by axial

force and Vierendeel moment transferred throughout the beam altogether on both
upper and bottom tee. The axial strength and Vierendeel moment can be calculated
with the following formula:
1. Required axial compressive strength
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = (29)
2. Vierendeel required flexural strength (Vierendeel moment)
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒
𝑀𝑀𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 � �� (30)
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
with:
Mr = required flexural strength (N-mm)

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Vr = required shear strength (N)
Figure 2.10 Terminologies used for calculating axial forces and Vierendeel
moment in noncomposite beams. Source: AISC Design Guide 31
2.7.1 Calculation of Axial and Flexural Strength of Top and Bottom Tees
In order to reduce the number of calculations, it is tolerable to have tension

force on the bottom tee use as a compression force. The nominal compressive
strength, Pn, is obtained from the lowest value between flexural buckling and
flexural-torsional buckling. Assuming the design uses:
1. Kx = 0.65 (assumes translation and rotation are fixed at the ends of the tee
section)
2. Ky = 1.0
3. L = e (length of the laterally unbraced member)
4. Lc = KxL or KyL
5. E = 200,000 MPa
6. G = 77,200 MPa
According to SNI 1729:2015, compressive strength for flexural buckling of

members without slender elements can be calculated with the following formula:
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (31)
The critical stress, Fcr, is determined with the following formula with
different conditions, in which:

27
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
1. If ≤ 4.71� or 𝐹𝐹 ≤ 2.25
𝑟𝑟 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �0.658 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 � 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (32)
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
2. If > 4.71� or 𝐹𝐹 > 2.25
𝑟𝑟 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.877𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 (33)
in which the elastic buckling stress, Fe, is calculated with the following
formula:
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = (34)
𝐿𝐿 2
� 𝑐𝑐 �
𝑟𝑟
As for calculating the compressive strength for flexural-torsional buckling,
it is needed to determine the nominal compressive strength with this formula:
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (35)
The formula of critical stress, Fcr, can be determined through Equation (32)
and (33). The torsional or flexural-torsional elastic buckling stress, Fe, is
determined with the following formula:
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐻𝐻

𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = � � �1 − �1 − 2� (36)
2𝐻𝐻 �𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝐹 � 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
with
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 (37)
� �
𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 1
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺� (38)
(𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ) 2 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟̅𝑜𝑜2

28
𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜2
𝐻𝐻 = 1 − (39)
𝑟𝑟̅𝑜𝑜2
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑟𝑟̅𝑜𝑜2 = 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜2 − (40)
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔
Cw = Warping constant (mm6)
Fe = Elastical critical buckling stress (MPa)
G = Shear modulus of elasticity (Gsteel = 77,200 MPa)
H = Flexural constant
Kx = Effective length factor with respect to x-axis
Ky = Effective length factor with respect to y-axis
Lc = Effective length of member for buckling (mm)
Pn = Nominal compressive strength (N)
𝑟𝑟̅𝑜𝑜 = Polar radius of gyration about the shear center (mm)
xo, yo = Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid (mm)
2.7.2 Calculation of Nominal Flexural Strength, Mn
In order to support the Vierendeel design moment, the flexural strength of

top and bottom tee sections must be calculated and compared to the known flexural
strength. The design assumption is:
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 = 𝑒𝑒
The nominal flexural strength is obtained from the lowest value according
to the obtained value of plastic bending moment and yield moment.
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (41)
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 (42)

29
with
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (43)
Lb = Distance between lateral braces (mm)
Mn = Nominal flexural strength (N-mm)
Mp = Plastic bending moment (N-mm)
My = yield moment (N-mm)
Sx-tee = Section modulus of tee about x-axis (mm3)
The lateral torsional buckling on element of the structure is calculated with

the following formula and conditions:
If Lb ≤ Lp, the lateral-torsional buckling does not apply on this condition.
If Lp < Lb ≤ Lr,
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 −𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 − �𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 − 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 � � � (44)
𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 −𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
If Lb > Lr,
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐 (45)
For tee stems
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≤ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 (46)
with
𝐸𝐸
𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 1.76𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦 � (47)
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸 �𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐽𝐽 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥

𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟 = 1.95 � � �2.36 � � +1 (48)
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝐸 𝐽𝐽

30
1.95𝐸𝐸
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐽𝐽 �𝐵𝐵 + �1 + 𝐵𝐵2 � (49)
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝐵𝐵 = −2.3 � � � (50)
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐽𝐽
The flange local buckling on element of the structure is calculated with the
following formula and conditions:
If the section has a compact flange, the limit state of flange local buckling
does not apply
If the section has a noncompact flange in flexural compression:
𝜆𝜆 − 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = �𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 − �𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 − 0.7𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 � � �� (51)
𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
If the section has a slender flange in flexural compression:
0.7𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 =
𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓 2 (52)
� �
2𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
with
𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓
𝜆𝜆 = (53)
2𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
Sxc = elastic selection modulus referred to the compressions flange (mm3)
λpf = λp, the limiting slenderness for a compact flange
λrf = λr, the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange
The nominal flexural strength for local buckling in flexural compression is

calculated with the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 (54)
with
Sx = elastic section modulus about the x-axis (mm3)

31
The critical stress for the formula (54) is calculated with the following
formula and conditions:
𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸
If ≤ 0.84�
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (55)
𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸
If 0.84� < ≤ 1.52�
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �1.43 − 0.515 � � 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (56)
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸
If > 1.52�
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
1.52𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑑𝑑 2 (57)
� �
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
with
d = dt
2.7.3 Calculation of Combined Flexural and Axial Forces on Top and Bottom
Tees
According to AISC Specifications, the interation of flexure and axial forces

in top and bottom tees constrained to bend about a geometric axis to either x and/or
y axis is limited. The formulas and conditions below are used to check the tees on
combined axial land flexural loads:
𝑃𝑃
If 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 ≥ 0.2
𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 8 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

+ � + � ≤ 1.0 (58)
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 9 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

32
𝑃𝑃
If 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 < 0.2
𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

+� + � ≤ 1.0 (59)
2𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
with
d = dt
Pc = available axial strength (N)
Pr = required axial strength (N)
Mc = available flexural strength (N)
Mr = required flexural strength (N)
2.8 Web Post Buckling
The cause of web post buckling is due to the horizontal shear force passing
through the web post. The main factor of the failure is dependent on the geometry
as well as the thickness of the web post. According to researches done by Aglan
and Redwood in 1974, the buckling capacity of the web post is calculated using
equations that have been developed through destructive testing.
Figure 2.11 Terminologies used for calculating web post buckling. Source:
AISC Design Guide 31

33
The calculation to determinate the horizontal shear on the web post uses the
following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟(𝑖𝑖+1) −𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟(𝑖𝑖)
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟ℎ = � � = �𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟(𝑖𝑖) − 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟(𝑖𝑖+1) � (60)
The required flexural strength in the web post of top tee is calculated with
the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟ℎ = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟ℎ ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (61)
The required flexural strength in the web post of bottom tee is calculated
with the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟ℎ = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟ℎ ℎ𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (62)
Plastic bending moment is determined with the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = 0.25𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 (𝑒𝑒 + 2𝑏𝑏)2 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (63)
The critical moment for lateral buckling is calculated with the following
formula and condition in which θ = 60°:
If e/tw = 10
2ℎ
𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 0.587(0.917) 𝑒𝑒 ≤ 0.493 (64)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝
If e/tw = 20
2ℎ
= 1.96(0.699) 𝑒𝑒 (65)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝
If e/tw = 30
2ℎ
= 2.55(0.574) 𝑒𝑒 (66)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝

34
It is to be noted that the value of Mocr/Mp is limited to 0.493. With the

condition of θ = 60°, it is needed to interpolate between equation (64) and (66)
based on the actual value of e/tw.
Figure 2.12 Terminologies used for calculating web post horizontal shear
in noncomposite castellated beam. Source: AISC Design Guide 31
The resistance factor of LRFD as θ = 60°, ϕb = 0.90.
The available flexural strength of the web post is calculated with the
following formula with different design combinations:
𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝑛𝑛 = 𝜙𝜙𝑏𝑏 � � 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (67)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝
with
Mocr = Critical moment for lateral buckling (N-mm)
Mrh = Required flexural strength using load combinations (N-mm)
Tr(i) = Required axial force in tee at opening (i) (N)
Tr(i+1) = Required axial force in tee at opening (i+1) (N)
Vrh = Horizontal shear force (N)
2.9 Calculation of Horizontal and Vertical Shear Strength
The nominal horizontal shear strength can be calculated with the following
formula:

35
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 (68)
𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 (69)
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 (70)
with
ϕv = 1.00
Aw = Area of web post (mm2)
Vc = Available horizontal shear strength (N)
Vn = Nominal horizontal shear strength (N)
The nominal vertical shear strength can be calculated with the following
formula:
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 (71)
The resistance factor is determined with the conditions below
ℎ 𝐸𝐸
a. If ≤ 2.24� , then ϕv = 1.00
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
ℎ 𝐸𝐸
b. If > 2.24� , then ϕv = 0.90
2.9.1 Calculation of Available Vertical Shear Strength at Gross Section
The available vertical shear strength at gross section is calculated with the
following formula:
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣1 (72)

36
with
ℎ 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸
If ≤ 1.10� , then Cv1 = 1.0
If > 1.10� , then
1.10�𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣1 = (73)
ℎ�
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

= (74)
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
2.9.2 Calculation of Available Vertical Shear Strength at Net Section
The available vertical shear strength at gross section is calculated with the
following formula:
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = 0.6𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡−𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 �𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣2 (75)
with
If ≤ 1.10� , then Cv2 = 1.0
𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸 ℎ 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸
If 1.10� < ≤ 1.37� , then
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
1.10�𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣2 = (76)
ℎ�
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
If > 1.37� , then
1.51𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣2 = 2 (77)
�ℎ�𝑡𝑡 � 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝑤𝑤

37
ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
= (78)
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
2.10 Structural Analysis of Conventional Steel Profile
For the analysis of conventional steel profile, flexural strength and shear
strength is put into consideration on calculating the efficiency of the profile.
2.10.1 Flexural Strength
The calculation of yield stress is determined with the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥 (79)
For the scetion in which the flange and the web of the steel profile is
noncompact, the flexural strength is determined with the following formula:
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 (80)
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (81)
Rpc is determined with the following conditions:
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
1. > 0.23
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
ℎ
If 𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 ≤ 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑤𝑤
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (82)
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
ℎ
If 𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 > 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑤𝑤
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 𝜆𝜆 − 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝

𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = � −� − 1� � �� ≤ (83)
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝜆𝜆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

38
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
2. ≤ 0.23; hence Rpc = 1.0
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
with
Myc = yield stress of compressed flange (N-mm)
Rpc = plasticity factor of web
Sxc = elasticity modulus of compressed flange (mm3)
Iyc = moment of inertia of compressed flange with respect to y-axis (mm4)
2.10.2 Shear Strength
The calculation of shear strength of the conventional steel profile is similar

to the formula of vertical shear strength of gross section.
2.11 Calculation of Deflection
A structure is consider worthy to be used if the state of the structure is

deemed safe for use. Deflection of the structure must be restricted in order to prove
that the structure is safe. According to SNI 03-1729:2002, the allowable deflection
of gable frame is calculated with the following formula:
𝐿𝐿
𝑓𝑓 = (84)
240
with
L = the span of the frame (mm)
f = the limited deflection of the frame (mm)
The deflection for castellated beams can be approximated by using 90% of

the moment inertia at the net section and treating it as a prismatic section (Hosain
et al., 1974; Altfillisch et al., 1957). The formula of the deflection of castellated
beam is:
5𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
∆= (85)
384𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (0.90)

39
with
E = modulus elasticity of steel (200,000 MPa)
Ix-net = moment of inertia about x-axis of net section (mm4)
q = distributed load (kN/m)
Δ = the deflection of the castellated beam (mm)
2.12 Previous Researches
M.R. Wakchaure and A.V. Sagade (2012) conducted a research about the
height of the opening on castellated beam. The conclusion of this research is that
the castellated beam is being used efficiently if the height of the opening is limited
to 0.6h and also being used efficiently at longer spans which is controlled by
deflection.
Masita Nur Hayati (2013) conducted a research about the width of the
opening towards bending on castellated beam. The conclusion of this research is
that the width of the opening is not effective on withstanding moment and bending
while the height of the opening is much more effective on withstanding moment
and bending as well as deflection.
Hansel Fatah Khorasani (2014) conducted a research about the comparison

analysis between conventional beam with castellated beam on roof rafters. With the
research based on SNI and ASCE, the result of the research shows that castellated
beam is much efficient compared to conventional beam in terms of volume of steel
being used for the structure, with the efficiency of the main rafter is 7.38% while
for the secondary rafter is 16.03%.
Seetha D. (2016) conducted a research about the flexural behavior of rolled

steel I-beams with castellated beams. The research concluded that the usage of
castellated beam is much more advantageous and economic compared to using
conventional beams.
Benny Rudiyanto (2018) conducted a research about the efficiency between

conventional beam with castellated beam with circular opening. The result of the

40
research shows that castellated beam with circular opening is much efficient
compared to conventional beam in terms of volume of steel being used for the
structure, with the efficiency of the beam is 23.29%.


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CHAPTER II

According to McCormac & Csernak (2012), the advantages of steel as a

1. Steel has high strength in order to support structures such as long-span

2. Steel has a consistent property which do not change in a considerable

3. The moments of inertia of a steel structure can be calculated accurately

4. If steel structures are properly maintained, the structure will last

5. Steel can withstand substantial deformation without failure under high

6. Even though steel member is loaded until it has large deformation, it is

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Bernard Hocking. An Analysis on Design Efficiency Between

9. Construction time is shortened due to its speed upon erection.

As for the disadvantages of steel, McCormac & Csernak (2012) concluded

1. Steel are prone to corrosion when it is exposed to air and water.

2. Steel’s strength can be reduced dramatically at the burning of other

3. Steel are susceptible towards buckling. To prevent buckling, additional

4. The strength of steel may be reduced if the steel structure is exposed to

5. Under certain conditions such as fatigue-type loadings, low temperature

2.2 Castellated Beam

According to Boyer (1964), castellated beam is a type of expanded beam in

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2.2.1 Classifications of Castellated Beam

According to Rugge (2017), the classifications of castellated beam are:

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Figure 2.4 Rectangular castellated beam. Source: Rugge & Pasnur

While according to Jamadar (2015), castellated beam can be classified as:

1. Hexagonal Castellated Beam

Figure 2.5 Hexagonal castellated beam. Source: Jamadar & Khumbar

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Figure 2.6 Cellular castellated beam. Source: Jamadar & Kumbhar

3. Castellated Beam with Diamond Shaped Opening

Figure 2.7 Diamond shaped opening castellated beam. Source: Jamadar

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2.2.2 Terminology of Castellated Beam

Figure 2.8 Terminology of castellated beam. Source: Wakchaure, et al.

The parts of a castellated beam according to Fig. 2.8 are:

1. Throat Width: the width of the opening in the form of a polygon.

3. Web Post: the solid cross section of a castellated beam

2.2.3 Advantages of Castellated Beam

According to Hayati (2009), the advantages of castellated beam are:

2. The moment of the structure produced is large, while the minimum

3. The material is light yet strong and can be easily assembled.

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1. The increase of profile’s height creates higher moment of inertia,

3. The opening on the castellated beam can be used for mechanical,

2.2.4 Disadvantages of Castellated Beam

According to Hayati (2006), the disadvantages of castellated beam are:

1. The increase of tension on the end of the profile.

3. The structural analysis is much complicated than conventional profiles.

While according to Verweij (2010), castellated beam has the following

1. The structure is not suitable for withholding concentrated load.

2. It is needed to have much complex calculation on the strength of the

3. The capacity on withholding axial loads is reduced.

4. The increase of cost production.

2.3 Failures on Castellated Beam

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3. Lateral torsional buckling.

4. Rupture of the welded joint.

5. Web post buckling due to shear.

6. Web post buckling due to compression.

1. Compactness and local buckling

2. Overall beam flexural strength

3. Vierendeel bending of tees

4. Web post buckling

2.3.1 Failure by Formation of Vierendeel Mechanism

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