LOAD FLOW on SLD

LOAD FLOW (LF) STUDY

- When analyzing power systems we know neither the complex bus voltages nor the complex
current injections Rather, we know the complex power being consumed by the load, and
the power being injected by the generators plus their voltage magnitudes.

- Therefore we can not directly use the Ybus equations, but rather must use the power balance
equations.

- LF study is performed at steady state stable conditions where total generation must equal
total load + total losses.

- The objectives of LF study are to calculate: bus voltages, branches current and power flow,
system losses, reactive power of voltage control devices, and setting of control devices
such as load tap changers.

- Load flow study is a basic study to determine the steady state operating conditions to be
checked against limits. It is used with other power system studies such as planning and future
expansion, security assessment, and transient stability.
 INJECTED POWER AT A BUS
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
𝐼1 𝑌11 … 𝑌1𝑖 … 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1 i
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ 𝐼𝑖
𝑛: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖1 … 𝑌𝑖𝑖 … 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ 𝑉𝑖
𝐼𝑛 𝑌𝑛1 … 𝑌𝑛𝑖 … 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛
Injected current at bus i, i.e. Ii = IGi - IDi
𝑛

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖1 𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑖2 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛 = ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗

𝑗=1
Injected complex power at bus i, i.e. Si = SGi - SDi
𝑛

𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗ 𝑆𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑖∗ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗

𝑗=1

𝑉 = 𝑉 ∠𝛿 𝑌 = 𝑌 ∠𝜃 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
 INJECTED POWER AT A BUS

𝑛 𝑛

𝑆𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 ∠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖

𝑗=1 𝑗=1

𝑛 𝑛

𝑃𝑖 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )

𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖

𝑛 𝑛

𝑄𝑖 = − ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 − ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )

𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖
 BUSES CLASSIFICATION
It is noticed from injected power equations that each bus has four variables: 𝑉𝑖 , 𝛿𝑖 , 𝑃𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑖
and two equations.

According to bus data, buses can be classified as:

Bus type Known Unknown

Load bus (PQ) 𝑃, 𝑄 𝑉 ,𝛿
Voltage controlled 𝑃, 𝑉 𝑄, 𝛿
bus (PV)
Slack bus 𝑉 ,𝛿 𝑃, 𝑄

Before solving the LF problem, system losses are unknown and at the same time power balan
ce should be achieved. Therefore, the bus with largest generating station is picked as the slack
bus. Its output power is calculated after solving the LF problem. Since power flow is depende
nt on angles difference, the slack bus is chosen as the reference bus, its angle is zero.
 BUSES CLASSIFICATION

The equations used to update the estimates differ for each of three bus types.
1. Load bus (PQ bus) – All buses not voltage controlled
• Real and reactive power (P and Q) are specified
• Bus voltage magnitude and phase angle (V and ) will be calculated
• Real and reactive powers supplied to a power system are defined to be positive
• Powers consumed from the system are defined to be negative.
2. Voltage controlled bus(PV bus) –
• Voltage and real power supplied are specified
• Bus phase angle () will be calculated during iteration
• Reactive power will be calculated after the case’s solution is found
 BUSES CLASSIFICATION
3. Slack bus (swing bus) –
• Special generator bus serving as the reference bus for the power system.
• Voltage is fixed – both magnitude and phase (for instance, 10˚ pu).
• Real and reactive powers are uncontrolled – supplies whatever real or reactive
power is necessary to make the power flows in the system balance.
 DATA REQUIRED FOR LF STUDY
Data required to perform LF study are the bus and line data.
Bus data include: bus name or number, bus type and its known variables, in addition to limits of
equipment and on controlling devices such as maximum and minimum VArs limits on
generators.
Line data include: Starting and ending buses, resistance, reactance, shunt capacitance, tap
setting if applicable, and equipment limits and ratings.

LF problem is nonlinear algebraic problem and is solved using iterative numerical methods
such as Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods. However, for very simple networks
the exact mathematical solution may be found.
 Information from power-flow studies
The basic information contained in the load-flow output is:
• All bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles w.r.t the slack bus.
• All bus active and reactive power injections.
• All line sending- and receiving-end complex power flows.
• Individual line losses can be deduced by subtracting receiving-end complex Power
from sending-end complex power.
• Total system losses – deduced by summing complex power at all loads and
generators and subtracting the totals.
• The most important information obtained from the load-flow is the system voltage
profile.
• A power-flow program can be set up to provide alerts if the voltage at any given
bus exceeds, for instance, 5% of the nominal value
• If │V│ varies greatly over the system, large reactive flows will result; this, in turn, will
lead to increased real power losses and, in extreme cases, an increased likelihood
of voltage collapse.
• When a particular bus has an unacceptably low voltage, the usual practice is to
install capacitor banks in order to provide reactive compensation to the load.
 EXAMPLE
Find the exact values of 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2
Solution 1
𝑗0.1 𝑃𝐿2 = 1 𝑝𝑢
−𝑗10 𝑗10 ~
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑉1 = 1∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑄𝐿2 = 0.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑗10 −𝑗10
𝑃2 = 𝑉2 2 𝐺22 + 𝑉2 𝑌21 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃21 + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2
−1 = 10 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝛿2 = 10 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿2 1

𝑄2 = − 𝑉2 2 𝐵22 − 𝑉2 𝑌21 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃21 + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2

−0.5 = 10 𝑉2 2 − 10 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 − 𝛿2 = 10 𝑉2 2 − 10 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿2 2

2 2 2
1 + 0.5 + 10 𝑉2 = 100 𝑉2 𝑉2 4 − 0.9 𝑉2 2 + 0.0125 = 0
𝑉2 = 0.94117 𝑝𝑢 𝑉2 = 0.11878 𝑝𝑢 refused
𝛿2 = −6.1𝑜
𝑆1∗ = 𝑉1∗ 𝑌11 𝑉1 + 𝑌12 𝑉2 = −𝑗10 + 𝑗10 × 0.9411∠ − 6.1 = 1 − 𝑗0.6415 𝑝𝑢
 GAUSS-SEIDEL (GS) METHOD

With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our equation in an implicit form: x = g(x)
To iterate we first make an initial guess of x (0) ,
and then iteratively solve x (𝑘+1) = 𝑔(𝑥 (𝑘) ) until we find a "fixed point", xො , such that xො
= 𝑔(ොx). 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑛

𝑆𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 = 𝑉𝑖∗ 𝑌𝑖1 𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑖2 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛

𝑗=1
𝑛
1 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ
𝑉𝑖 = − ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗
𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖∗
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖 x (0) x (1) 𝑋

𝑖−1 𝑛
(𝑘+1) 1 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
𝑉𝑖 = ∗(𝑘)
− ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉
𝑗 − ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉
𝑗
𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉
𝑖 𝑗=1 𝑗=𝑖+1
 EXAMPLE
A 100 MW, 50 MVAr load is connected to a generator through a line with z = 0.02 + j0.06
p.u. and line charging of 5 Mvar on each end (100 MVA base). Also, there is a 25 MVAr
capacitor at bus 2. If the generator voltage is 1.0 p.u., what is V2? Use GS method.
1
2
Solution 1 𝑦=
0.02 + 𝑗0.06
= 5 − 𝑗15
𝑃𝐿2 = 1 𝑝𝑢
5 − 𝑗14.95 −5 + 𝑗15 ~
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑄𝐿2 = 0.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑉1 = 1∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑗0.05 𝑗0.05
−5 + 𝑗15 5 − 𝑗14.7
(0) 𝑗0.25
First iteration 𝑉2 = 1∠0
(1) 1 𝑃2,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄2,𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉 2
𝑉2 = ∗(0)
− 𝑌21 𝑉1
𝑌22 𝑉 𝑄𝑐 0.25
2
𝑌𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶 = = = 0.25 𝑝𝑢
(1) 1 −1 + 𝑗0.5 𝑉2 1
𝑉2 = − −5 + 𝑗15 × 1∠0
5 − 𝑗14.7 1∠0

(1)
𝑉2 = 0.9687∠ − 3.3628𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
Second iteration
(2) 1 −1 + 𝑗0.5
𝑉2 = − −5 + 𝑗15 × 1∠0
5 − 𝑗14.7 0.9687∠3.3628
(2)
𝑉2 = 0.9640∠ − 3.2865𝑜 𝑝𝑢
(3) (4)
𝑉2 = 𝑉2 = 0.9638∠ − 3.307𝑜 𝑝𝑢

𝑆1∗ = 𝑉1∗ 𝑌11 𝑉1 + 𝑌12 𝑉2 = 5 − 𝑗14.95 + (−5 + 𝑗15) × 0.9638∠ − 3.307𝑜 = 1.023 − 𝑗0.239 𝑝𝑢

1 2
𝑃𝑔1 = 1.023 𝑝𝑢 1.023 1 𝑃𝐿2 = 1 𝑝𝑢
𝑄𝑔1 = 0.239 𝑝𝑢 0.2213
0.289 𝑄𝐿2 = 0.5 𝑝𝑢
0.05 𝑝𝑢 0.0464

𝑄𝑐 = 0.2322 𝑝𝑢 = 23.2 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑅

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 1∠0 − 0.9638∠ − 3.307𝑜

𝐼𝑇𝐿 = = = 1.063∠ − 15.78𝑜 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.0226 𝑝𝑢
𝑧 0.02 + 𝑗0.06
𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.067 𝑝𝑢
 EXAMPLE
A 100 MW, 50 MVAr load is connected to a generator through a line with z = 0.02 + j0.06
p.u. and line charging of 5 MVAr on each end (100 MVA base). If the generator voltage is
1.0 p.u. and 𝑉2 = 1 , what is the required reactive power of the capacitor bank? Use GS
method. 1
1 𝑦= = 5 − 𝑗15 2
0.02 + 𝑗0.06 𝑃𝐿2 = 1 𝑝𝑢
Solution
5 − 𝑗14.95 −5 + 𝑗15 ~
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑜 𝑄𝐿2 = 0.5 𝑝𝑢
−5 + 𝑗15 5 − 𝑗14.95 𝑉1 = 1∠0 𝑝𝑢 𝑗0.05 𝑗0.05
(0) 𝑄𝐶
First iteration 𝑉2 = 1∠0
𝑆2∗ = 𝑉2∗ 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 = −5 + 𝑗15 + (5 − 𝑗14.95) = 𝑗0.05 𝑝𝑢 𝑄2 = −0.05

(1) 1 −1 + 𝑗0.05
𝑉2 = − −5 + 𝑗15 × 1∠0
5 − 𝑗14.95 1∠0
(1)
𝑉2 = 0.9817∠ − 3.5133𝑜 𝑝𝑢
(1)
𝑉2,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1∠ − 3.5133𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
Second iteration 𝑆2∗ = 𝑉2∗ 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 = −0.9098 − 𝑗0.2846 𝑝𝑢 𝑄2 = 0.2846

(2) 1 −1 − 𝑗0.2846
𝑉2 = − −5 + 𝑗15 × 1∠0
5 − 𝑗14.95 1∠3.5133
(2) (2)
𝑉2 = 0.9982∠ − 3.82476𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑉2,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1∠ − 3.82476𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Third iteration
𝑆2∗ = 𝑉2∗ 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 = −0.9894 − 𝑗0.3169344 𝑝𝑢 𝑄2 = 0.3169344

(3) 1 −1 − 𝑗0.3169344
𝑉2 = − −5 + 𝑗15 × 1∠0
5 − 𝑗14.95 1∠3.82476
(3) (3)
𝑉2 = 0.999787∠ − 3.861167𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑉2,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1∠ − 3.861167𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Fourth iteration
𝑆2∗ = −0.99873 − 𝑗0.320743 𝑝𝑢 𝑄2 = 0.320743
(4)
𝑉2 = 0.99997∠ − 3.86552𝑜 𝑝𝑢 (4)
𝑉2,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1∠ − 3.86552𝑜 𝑝𝑢

𝑄2 ≈ 0.32 𝑝𝑢 = 𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄𝑐 − 0.5 𝑄𝑐 = 0.82 𝑝𝑢

 Generator Reactive Power Limits

⚫ The reactive power output of generators varies to maintain the terminal voltage;
on a real generator this is done by the exciter.
⚫ To maintain higher voltages requires more reactive power.
⚫ Generators have reactive power limits, which are dependent upon the generator's
MW output.
⚫ These limits must be considered during the power flow solution.

⚫ During power flow once a solution is obtained check to make generator reactive
power output is within its limits.
⚫ If the reactive power is outside of the limits, fix Q at the max or min value, and
resolve treating the generator as a PQ bus this is know as "type-switching“.
⚫ Rule of thumb: to raise system voltage we need to supply more VArs
 Accelerated GS Convergence

To accelerate convergence, acceleration factor 𝛼 is introduced, i. e

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑐 (𝑛+1) = 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑐 (𝑛) + 𝛼(𝑉 (𝑛+1) − 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑐 (𝑛) )

With 𝛼 = 1 this is identical to standard GS. Larger values of 𝛼 may result in faster
convergence.
Gauss-Seidel Advantages
- Each iteration is relatively fast (computational order is proportional to number
of branches + number of buses in the system
- Relatively easy to program with less memory.
Gauss-Seidel Disadvantages
- Tends to converge relatively slowly, although this can be improved with acceleration
- Has tendency to miss solutions, particularly on large systems.
- Tends to diverge on cases with negative branch reactances (common with compensated
lines)
EXAMPLE
2
1
Perform one iterations of GS method 𝑃𝐿2 = 4 𝑝𝑢
10 − 𝑗20
Use accelerating factor of 1.1 ~
𝑄𝐿2 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
20 − 𝑗50 −10 + 𝑗20 −10 + 𝑗30 10 − 𝑗30 16 − 𝑗32
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = −10 + 𝑗20 26 − 𝑗52 −16 + 𝑗32 3
𝑉3 = 1.04 𝑝𝑢
−10 + 𝑗30 −16 + 𝑗32 26 − 𝑗62
~ 𝑃𝑔3 = 2 𝑝𝑢
First iteration
(0) (0)
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0, 𝑉2 = 1∠0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 1.04∠0

(1) 1 𝑃2,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄2,𝑠𝑐ℎ (0)

𝑉2 = ∗(0)
− 𝑌21 𝑉1 − 𝑌23 𝑉3
𝑌22 𝑉 2
(1) 1 −4 + 𝑗2.5
𝑉2 = − −10 + 𝑗20 × 1.05∠0 − −16 + 𝑗32 × 1.04∠0
26 − 𝑗52 1∠0
(1)
𝑉2 = 0.9755∠ − 2.4856𝑜 𝑝𝑢
(1) (0) (1) (0)
𝑉2,𝑎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉2 + 𝛼 𝑉2 − 𝑉2 = 0.97315∠ − 2.7409𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
1 0
𝑄3 = −𝐼𝑀 𝑉3∗ 𝑌31 𝑉1 + 𝑌32 𝑉2,𝑎𝑐𝑐 + 𝑌32 𝑉3
= −𝐼𝑀 1.04 1.05 × (−10 + 𝑗30)+0.97315∠ − 2.7409𝑜 × ( − 16 + 𝑗32) + 1.04 × (26 − 𝑗62) = 1.17532 𝑝𝑢

(1) 1 𝑃3,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄3,𝑠𝑐ℎ (1)

𝑉3 = ∗(0)
− 𝑌31 𝑉1 − 𝑌32 𝑉2,𝑎𝑐𝑐
𝑌33 𝑉 3

(1) 1 2−𝑗1.17532
𝑉3 = − −10 + 𝑗30 × 1.05∠0 − −16 + 𝑗32 × 0.97315∠ − 2.7409𝑜 = 1.03684 ∠ − 0.4159𝑜
26−𝑗62 1.04∠0

(1) (0) (1) (0)

𝑉3,𝑎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉3 + 𝛼 𝑉3 − 𝑉3 = 1.03653∠ − 0.4615𝑜 𝑝𝑢

(1)
𝑉3,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1.04∠ − 0.4614𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Lines power flow
After 5 iterations in previous example,
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑉2 = 0.9717∠ −2.6957𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑉3 = 1.04∠ −0.4983𝑜 𝑝𝑢

𝐼12 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 10 − 𝑗20 = 2.048∠ −33.5036𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝐼13 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 10 − 𝑗30 = 0.4273∠ −29.5483𝑜 𝑝𝑢

𝐼21 = −𝑉1 + 𝑉2 10 − 𝑗20 = 2.048∠146.4963𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝐼31 = −𝑉1 + 𝑉3 10 − 𝑗30 = 0.4273∠150.4516𝑜 𝑝𝑢

∗
∗
𝑆12 = 𝑉1 𝐼12 = 1.7931 + 𝑗1.187 𝑝𝑢 𝑆13 = 𝑉1 𝐼13 = 0.3903 + 𝑗0.2212 𝑝𝑢
∗
∗
𝑆21 = 𝑉2 𝐼21 = −1.7092 − 𝑗1.0192 𝑝𝑢 𝑆31 = 𝑉3 𝐼31 = −0.3884 − 𝑗0.2158 𝑝𝑢

𝐼23 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 16 − 𝑗32 = 2.8059∠ −35.5709𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑆1∗ = 𝑉1∗ 𝑌11 𝑉1 + 𝑌12 𝑉2 + 𝑌13 𝑉3 = 2.1834 − 𝑗1.4083 𝑝𝑢
𝐼32 = −𝑉2 + 𝑉3 16 − 𝑗32 = 2.8059∠144.4291𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑆1 = 2.1834 + 𝑗1.4083 𝑝𝑢
∗
𝑆23 = 𝑉2 𝐼23 = 2.3883 + 𝑗1.6768 𝑝𝑢 𝑄3 = −𝐼𝑀 𝑉3∗ 𝑌31 𝑉1 + 𝑌32 𝑉2 + 𝑌33 𝑉3 = 1.4461 𝑝𝑢
∗
𝑆32 = 𝑉3 𝐼32 = −2.2899 − 𝑗1.48 𝑝𝑢
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 = 0.1834 + 𝑗0.3693 𝑝𝑢
Lines power flow
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢 𝑉2 = 0.9717∠ −2.6957𝑜 𝑝𝑢
𝑃𝑔1 = 2.1834 𝑝𝑢 1
2
1.7931 1.7092 𝑃𝐿2 = 4 𝑝𝑢
~ 1.187 1.0192
𝑄𝐿2 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑄𝑔1 = 1.4083 𝑝𝑢

3
𝑉3 = 1.04∠ −0.4983𝑜 𝑝𝑢
𝑄𝑔3 = 1.461 𝑝𝑢 ~ 𝑃𝑔3 = 2 𝑝𝑢
Homework
Write a computer program to solve the previous example. Assume a maximum no. of iterations
of 20 and accuracy of 1 × 10−6 . Use accelerating factor of 1, 1.1, and 1.6 and compare between
these cases. Your report should include the code and the output results (bus voltages, line flows
and total system losses).

Due date is 20 April 2021. Copied reports will attain zero degree.
 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
The most widely used method for solving nonlinear algebraic equations. It depends on Taylor
expansion about an initial point.

If 𝑥 (0) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Δ𝑥 (0) is a deviation from the solution of f(x) = C, then

0
𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 (0) )
𝑑𝑓(𝑥 0 ) 1 𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑥 (0) )
2
= 𝑓(𝑥 0 ) + Δ𝑥 (0) + 2 Δ𝑥 (0) + higher order terms= C
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Ignoring second order and high order terms.,

0 𝑑𝑓 𝑥 0 0
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
Δ𝑥 ≅C
C−𝑓(𝑥 0 ) ∆𝑓(𝑥 0 )
Δ𝑥 (0) = 𝑑𝑓(𝑥 0 )
=
𝑓`(𝑥 0 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑥 (1) = 𝑥 (0) + ∆𝑥 (0)

 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
• When close to the solution the error decreases quite quickly -- method has
quadratic convergence. In most case few iterations are enough for accurate
solution
• f(x(n)) is known as the mismatch, which we would like to drive to zero.
• Stopping criteria is when  f(x(n))< 
• Results are dependent upon the initial guess.
• A solution’s region of attraction (ROA) is the set of initial guesses that converge
to the particular solution. The ROA is often hard to determine
• It has better capability to handle large scale and ill conditioned power systems.
• One or two iterations of GS may be used to initiate NR method rather than the flat
start.
• Computational burden is encountered with NR method since it depends on
equation derivative to calculate the Jacobian matrix.
 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
𝑛 𝑛

𝑃𝑖 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )

𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖
𝑛 𝑛

𝑄𝑖 = − ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 − ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )

𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖
The first objective of NR method is to calculate voltage magnitude and angle at all
buses. However, those of slack bus are known and voltage magnitude of PV buses
are also known. Therefore, the state variable of NR methods are:

𝛿2 𝑡𝑜 𝛿𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑄 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠

(0) 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖

𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝛿2 + ⋯ + ∆𝛿𝑛 + ∆𝑉2 + ⋯ + ∆𝑉 = 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝑛
(0) 𝜕𝑄𝑖 𝜕𝑄𝑖 𝜕𝑄𝑖 𝜕𝑄𝑖
𝑄𝑖 + ∆𝛿2 + ⋯ + ∆𝛿𝑛 + ∆𝑉2 + ⋯ + ∆𝑉 = 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉𝑛 𝑛
 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2
… 𝑉2 … 𝑉𝑛
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕 𝑉𝑛 ∆𝛿2
∆𝑃2 ⋮ 𝐽11 ⋮ ⋮ 𝐽12 ⋮ ⋮
⋮ 𝜕𝑃𝑛 𝜕𝑃𝑛 𝜕𝑃𝑛 𝜕𝑃𝑛 ∆𝛿𝑛
… 𝑉2 … 𝑉𝑛
∆𝑃𝑛 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕 𝑉𝑛 ∆ 𝑉2
=
∆𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝑉2
PQ buses ⋮ … 𝑉2 … 𝑉𝑛 ⋮
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕 𝑉𝑛
NL ∆𝑄𝑛 ∆ 𝑉𝑛
⋮ 𝐽21 ⋮ ⋮ 𝐽22 ⋮
𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄𝑛 𝜕𝑄𝑛 𝑉𝑛
… 𝑉2 … 𝑉𝑛
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕 𝑉𝑛

Jacobian matrix
∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐

∆𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐

 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method

𝐽11 𝑛
𝜕𝑃𝑖
Diagonal elements = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖
𝜕𝛿𝑖
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖

𝜕𝑃𝑖
Off-diagonal elements = − 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝛿𝑗

𝐽21 𝑛
𝜕𝑄𝑖
Diagonal elements = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖
𝜕𝛿𝑖
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖

𝜕𝑄𝑖
Off-diagonal elements = − 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝛿𝑗
 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method

𝐽12 𝑛
𝜕𝑃𝑖
Diagonal elements 𝑉𝑖 = 2 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖
𝜕 𝑉𝑖
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖

𝜕𝑃𝑖
Off-diagonal elements 𝑉𝑗 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕 𝑉𝑗

𝐽22 𝑛
𝜕𝑄𝑖
Diagonal elements 𝑉𝑖 = −2 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 − ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖
𝜕 𝑉𝑖
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖

𝜕𝑄𝑖
Off-diagonal elements 𝑉𝑗 = − 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕 𝑉𝑗
EXAMPLE
2
1
Perform one iterations of NR method 𝑃𝐿2 = 4 𝑝𝑢
10 − 𝑗20
~
𝑄𝐿2 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
20 − 𝑗50 −10 + 𝑗20 −10 + 𝑗30 10 − 𝑗30 16 − 𝑗32
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = −10 + 𝑗20 26 − 𝑗52 −16 + 𝑗32 3
𝑉3 = 1.04 𝑝𝑢
−10 + 𝑗30 −16 + 𝑗32 26 − 𝑗62
~ 𝑃𝑔3 = 2 𝑝𝑢
First iteration
(0) (0)
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0, 𝑉2 = 1∠0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 1.04∠0
(0) (0)
𝑆2∗ = 𝑉2∗ 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 + 𝑌23 𝑉3 = 1.05 × −10 + 𝑗20 + 26 − 𝑗52 + 1.04 × −16 + 𝑗32 = −1.14 + 𝑗2.28 𝑝𝑢

𝑃2 = −1.14 𝑝𝑢 𝑄2 = −2.28 𝑝𝑢

(0) (0)
𝑆3∗ = 𝑉3∗ 𝑌31 𝑉1 + 𝑌32 𝑉2 + 𝑌33 𝑉3 = 1.04 × 1.05 × −10 + 𝑗30 + −16 + 𝑗32 + 1.04 × (26 − 𝑗62) = 0.5616 − 𝑗1.0192 𝑝𝑢

𝑃3 = 0.5616𝑝𝑢 𝑄3 = 1.0192 𝑝𝑢
Solution 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2
𝑉2
𝐽11 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2 ∆𝛿2
∆𝑃2 ∆𝛿3
𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑃3
= −𝑄2 − 𝑉2 2 𝐵22 = 2.28 + 52 = 54.28 ∆𝑃3 = 𝑉2
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2 ∆ 𝑉2
∆𝑄2
𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝑉2
= −𝑄3 − 𝑉3 2 𝐵33 = −1.0192 + 1.042 × 62 = 66.04 𝑉2
𝜕𝛿3 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2
𝜕𝑃2
= − 𝑉2 𝐵23 𝑉3 = −1.04 × 32 = −33.28
𝜕𝛿3
𝜕𝑃3
= − 𝑉3 𝐵32 𝑉2 = −1.04 × 32 = −33.28
𝜕𝛿2

𝐽22

𝜕𝑄2
𝑉2 = 𝑄2 − 𝑉2 2 𝐵22 = −2.28 + 52 = 49.72
𝜕 𝑉2
Solution 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2
𝑉2
𝐽12 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2 ∆𝛿2
∆𝑃2 ∆𝛿3
𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑃3
𝑉2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑉2 2 𝐺22 = −1.14 + 26 = 24.86 ∆𝑃3 = 𝑉2
𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2 ∆ 𝑉2
∆𝑄2
𝜕𝑃3 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝑉2
𝑉2 = 𝑉2 𝐺23 𝑉3 = 1.04 × −16 = −16.64 𝑉2
𝜕 𝑉2 𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝛿3 𝜕 𝑉2
𝐽21
𝜕𝑄2
= 𝑃2 − 𝑉2 2 𝐺22 = −1.14 − 26 = −27.14
𝜕𝛿2
𝜕𝑄2
= − 𝑉2 𝐺23 𝑉3 = −1.04 × −16 = 16.64
𝜕𝛿3
∆𝛿2
𝑀𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ −2.86 54.28 −33.28 24.86 ∆𝛿3
1.4384 = −33.28 66.04 −16.64 ∆ 𝑉
∆𝑃2 = ∆𝑃2.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑃2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = −4 + 1.14 = −2.86 𝑝𝑢 2
−0.22 −27.14 16.64 49.72
𝑉2
∆𝑃3 = ∆𝑃3.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑃3,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 2 − 0.5616 = 1.4384𝑝𝑢

∆𝑄2 = ∆𝑄2.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑄2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = −2.5 + 2.28 = −0.22 𝑝𝑢

Solution ∆𝛿2
−2.86 54.28 −33.28 24.86 ∆𝛿3
1.4384 = −33.28 66.04 −16.64 ∆ 𝑉
2
−0.22 −27.14 16.64 49.72
𝑉2
(1)
∆𝛿2 = −0.0453 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −2.5954𝑜 = 𝛿2
(1)
∆𝛿3 = −0.0077 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −0.4422𝑜 = 𝛿3

∆ 𝑉2 1
= −0.0265 → 𝑉2 = 0.9735 𝑝𝑢
𝑉2
 Regulating Transformers
Regulating transformers can be used to control the real and reactive power flows in a circuit.
They are transformer designed for small adjustments of voltage rather than large changes in
voltage levels.

Regulating transformer for Regulating transformer for

control of voltage magnitude control of phase angle
 Regulating Transformers
1: 𝑡 ∠𝛼
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗ = −(𝑡𝑉𝑖 )𝐼𝑗∗ 𝐼𝑖 𝑦 𝐼𝑗
𝐼𝑖 = −𝐼𝑗 𝑡 ∗
𝑉𝑖 Ideal transformer 𝑉𝑗
𝐼𝑗 = 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑡𝑉𝑖 𝑦 = −𝑡𝑦𝑉𝑖 + 𝑦𝑉𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑡 ∠𝛼
𝐼𝑖 = −𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑡𝑉𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 𝑦𝑉𝑖 − 𝑡 ∗ 𝑦𝑉𝑗

𝐼𝑖 𝑡 2𝑦 −𝑡 ∗ 𝑦 𝑉𝑖
𝐼𝑗 = −𝑡𝑦 𝑦 𝑉𝑗

Ybus is not symmetrical with phase shifting transformers

 Decoupled load flow
High voltage equipment have reactance mush higher than their resistance. In addition to
that, angle difference between buses voltage is usually small. The aforementioned results
in a decoupling phenomenon in power systems. It means that active power is much related
to angle difference more than voltage magnitude. While reactive power is much related to
voltage magnitude more than angle difference.

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
≫ 𝑉 𝑉 ≫
𝜕𝛿 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝛿
∆𝛿
∆𝑃 𝐽 0
= 11 ∆𝑉
∆𝑄 0 𝐽22
𝑉

∆𝑃 = 𝐽11 ∆𝛿 ∆𝑉
∆𝑄 = 𝐽22
𝑉
 Fast decoupled load flow ∆𝑉
∆𝑃 = 𝐽11 ∆𝛿 ∆𝑄 = 𝐽22
𝑉
• 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ≫ 𝐺, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) ≅ 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) ≅ 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖
𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) ≫ 𝐺𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
• 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 ≫ 𝑄𝑖 , since 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 represents the reactive power flow if all branches connected
to bus i are shorted from their ends.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐽11 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽22
Diagonal elements
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑄𝑖
= − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖 ≅ − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖
𝜕𝛿𝑖 𝜕 𝑉𝑖

Off-diagonal elements
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑄𝑖
= 𝑗 = − 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 = − 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 + 𝐺𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ≅ − 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝐵𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝛿𝑗 𝜕 𝑉𝑗
 Fast decoupled load flow
∆𝑃2
∆𝑃2 − 𝑉2 2 𝐵22 … − 𝑉2 𝑉𝑛 𝐵2𝑛 ∆𝛿2 𝑉2 −𝐵22 … −𝐵2𝑛 ∆𝛿2 ∆𝑃
⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ = 𝐵`∆𝛿
∆𝑃𝑛 − 𝑉𝑛 𝑉2 𝐵𝑛2 … − 𝑉𝑛 2 𝐵𝑛𝑛 ∆𝛿𝑛 ∆𝑃𝑛 𝑉
−𝐵𝑛2 … −𝐵𝑛𝑛 ∆𝛿𝑛
𝑉𝑛

∆𝑄2
∆ 𝑉2
𝑉2 −𝐵22 … −𝐵2𝑛 ∆ 𝑉2
∆𝑄2 − 𝑉2 2 𝐵22 … − 𝑉2 𝑉𝑛 𝐵2𝑛 𝑉2 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ∆𝑄
⋮ = = 𝐵``∆ 𝑉
⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ∆𝑄𝑛 𝑉
−𝐵𝑛2 … −𝐵𝑛𝑛 ∆ 𝑉𝑛
∆𝑄𝑛 − 𝑉𝑛 𝑉2 𝐵𝑛2 … − 𝑉𝑛 2 𝐵𝑛𝑛 ∆ 𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝑛

• 𝐵` 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑢𝑠.

• 𝐵`` 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑉 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠.

• 𝐵𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝐵` 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵`` 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠
EXAMPLE
2
1
Perform one iterations of fast decoupled 𝑃𝐿2 = 4 𝑝𝑢
10 − 𝑗20
load flow method ~
𝑄𝐿2 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢
Solution
20 − 𝑗50 −10 + 𝑗20 −10 + 𝑗30 10 − 𝑗30 16 − 𝑗32
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = −10 + 𝑗20 26 − 𝑗52 −16 + 𝑗32 3
𝑉3 = 1.04 𝑝𝑢
−10 + 𝑗30 −16 + 𝑗32 26 − 𝑗62
~ 𝑃𝑔3 = 2 𝑝𝑢
First iteration
(0) (0)
𝑉1 = 1.05∠0, 𝑉2 = 1∠0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 1.04∠0
𝑃2 = 𝑉2 2 𝐺22 + 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝐺21 + 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝐺23 = 26 + 1.05 × −10 + 1.05 × 1.04 × (−16) = −1.14 𝑝𝑢

𝑃3 = 𝑉3 2 𝐺33 + 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝐺31 + 𝑉3 𝑉3 𝐺32 = 1.042 × 26 + 1.05 × 1.04 × −10 + 1.04 × −16 = 0.561 𝑝𝑢

∆𝑃2 = ∆𝑃2.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑃2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = −4 + 1.14 = −2.86 𝑝𝑢

∆𝑃3 = ∆𝑃3.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑃3,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 2 − 0.5616 = 1.4384𝑝𝑢

Solution −2.86
52 −32 ∆𝛿2
1 =
−32 62 ∆𝛿3
−32

∆𝛿2 = −0.0605 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −3.4655𝑜 ∆𝛿3 = −0.0089 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −0.5106𝑜

𝑆2∗ = 𝑉2∗ 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 + 𝑌23 𝑉3

= 1∠3.4655𝑜 × 1.05 × −10 + 𝑗20 + 1∠ −3.4655𝑜 × 26 − 𝑗52 + 1.04∠ − 0.5106𝑜 × −16 + 𝑗32
= −4.086 + 𝑗0.7048 𝑝𝑢

𝑄2 = −0.7048

∆𝑄2 = ∆𝑄2.𝑠𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑄2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = −2.5 + 0.7048 = −1.7951 𝑝𝑢

−1.7951
= 52 ∆ 𝑉2
1

−1.7951
∆ 𝑉2 = = −0.03452 𝑉2 = 1 − 0.03452 = 0.96547
52
 DC load flow
• 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤.
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 1 𝑝𝑢.
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝐶 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,
the method is called DC method.
• Resistances and shunt elements are ignored.
0 𝑛 𝑛 0
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐺𝑖𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 ) = ෍ 𝐺𝑖𝑗 cos 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 − 𝐵𝑖𝑗 sin 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑃𝑖 = ෍ −𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖 ෍ 𝐵𝑖𝑗 − ෍ 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑗

𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖

𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝑃𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖 ෍ −෍ 𝛿
𝑥𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖𝑗 𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖
 𝑛
DC load flow 1 −1
𝑛
෍ …
𝑥2𝑗 𝑥2𝑛
1 1 1 𝑗=1
𝑃2 = 𝛿2 ෍ − 𝛿3 − ⋯ − 𝛿 𝑃2 𝑗≠2 𝛿2
𝑥2𝑗 𝑥23 𝑥2𝑛 𝑛 ⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑗=1 𝑛
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑃𝑛 −1 1 𝛿𝑛
… ෍
𝑥𝑛2 𝑥𝑛𝑗
𝑗=1
EXAMPLE 𝑗≠𝑛
2
1
Perform DC load flow method 0.02 + 𝑗0.04
𝑃𝐿2 = 4 𝑝𝑢
Solution ~
𝑄𝐿2 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
1 1 −1 𝑉1 = 1.05∠0𝑜 𝑝𝑢
+ 𝛿2
−4
= 0.04 0.025 0.025
2 −1 1 1 𝛿𝑛 0.0125 + 𝑗0.025
+ 0.01 + 𝑗0.03
0.025 0.03 0.025
−4 65 −40 𝛿2 3
𝑉3 = 1.04 𝑝𝑢
=
2 −40 73.33 𝛿𝑛
~ 𝑃𝑔3 = 2 𝑝𝑢
𝛿2 = −0.0674 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = − 3.8599 0 𝛿3 = −0.0095 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = − 0.54280
𝛿1 − 𝛿2 0 + 0.0674 𝛿1 − 𝛿3 0 + 0.0095
𝑃12 = = = 1.685 𝑝𝑢 𝑃13 = = = 0.3166 𝑝𝑢
𝑥12 0.04 𝑥13 0.03
𝛿3 − 𝛿2 −0.0095 + 0.0674
𝑃32 = = = 2.316 𝑝𝑢
𝑥32 0.025