CABALLERO, CLAIRYSSA MYN D.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY

BSN 1 – PENDER DECEMBER 01, 2022

DIGESTIVE: SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITY

Set A.

1. Name the organs of the alimentary tube, and describe the location of each. Name the accessory digestive organs, and
describe the location of each.

ALIMENTARY TUBE
 Mouth- Its external opening is located along the body’s midline inferior to the nose and superior to the chin.
 Most of the pharynx- right behind the nasal and the oral cavity. It can be considered as a proper part of the
throat and it is also a passage that is connecting the respiratory and the digestive system of the human body.
 Esophagus- begins at the throat (pharynx) and travels to the stomach, passing through the diaphragm en route.
 Stomach- between the esophagus and the small intestine; it is located in the anterior portion of the abdominal cavity
in most vertebrates.
 Small intestine- within the gastrointestinal tract. It is approximately 6.5m in the average person and assists in the
digestion and absorption of ingested food.
 Large intestine- begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is joined to the
end of the small intestine at the cecum, via the ileocecal valve.

ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

 Liver- right side of your body in the upper right abdomen below your ribcage.
 Gallbladder- behind the liver on the right side of the rib cage. It hits up against the under-surface of the liver.
 Pancreas- below and behind the stomach, in the curve of the duodenum, which is a part of the small intestine.

2. Explain the purpose of mechanical digestion, and give two examples. Explain the purpose of chemical digestion, and
give two examples.

Mechanical Digestion- is to physically breakdown large pieces of food that are ingested through the mouth. involves
physically breaking down food substances into smaller particles to more efficiently undergo chemical digestion.

 Mouth. mastication/chewing.
 Esophagus. peristalsis.

Chemical Digestion- to further degrade the molecular structure of the ingested compounds by digestive enzymes into a
form that is absorbable into the bloodstream.

 Saliva
 Gastric Juice.

3. Name the end products of digestion, and explain how each is absorbed in the small intestine
 Proteins –as amino acids.
 Fats - fatty acid and glycerol

4. Explain the function of teeth and tongue, salivary amylase, enamel of teeth, lysozyme, and water of saliva.
 Teeth - help to talk and chew the food properly.
 Tongue - helps to mix saliva.
 Salivary Amylase - convert the starch into sugars
  Enamel of teeth - to form a barrier that protects the underlying dental pulp and other vital tissues of the tooth
from physical, thermal, and chemical factors.
 Lysozyme - remove waste as well as destroying a cell after it has died, called autolysis.
 Water of saliva - maintaining mucosal integrity and indigestion through salivary enzymes, buffering,
remineralization, and lubrication

5. Describe the function of the pharynx, esophagus, and lower esophageal sphincter.
 Pharynx - the process of swallowing and it serves as a pathway for the movement of food from the mouth to
the esophagus.
 Esophagus - protects the heart and lungs. The esophagus carries food through this cavity, keeping it separate
and moving it through with muscular contractions.
 Lower esophageal sphincter – protect the esophagus from reflux of gastric contents.

6. Name and describe the four layers of the alimentary tube.

 The Mucosa - it provides a barrier against foreign particles, captures them in its sticky mucus and clears them
out. Immune cells and natural antibiotics in the mucus defend against pathogens, while the lubrication defends
against injury.
 Submucosa - The submucosa has subdivisions of connective tissue, lymph nodules, and nerve fibers. Its major
functions are nutrition and protection.
 External Muscle Layer - is a region of muscle in many organs in the vertebrate body, adjacent to the
submucosa. It is responsible for gut movement such as peristalsis. The Latin, tunica muscularis, may also be
used.
 Serosa - consists of a secretory epithelial layer and a thin connective tissue layer that reduce the friction from
muscle movements. The serous layer provides a partition between the internal organs and the abdominal
cavity.

7. State the two general functions of the stomach and the function of the pyloric sphincter. Explain the function of
pepsin, HCl, and mucus.
STOMACH
 To store food and release it to the intestines at a rate whereby the intestines can process it.
 Mixes the food and grinds it into a finely divided chyme that increases the surface area of the food in
preparation for digestion.

PYLORIC SPHINCTER

 Gateway between the stomach and the small intestine.

 Prevents partially digested food and digestive juices from reentering the stomach.

Pepsin - break down the proteins in the food.

HCI - For acidifying stomach content Hydrochloric acid is the main component of the gastric juices produced in the
stomach and it maintains the stomach pH of 1 to 2 by acidifying the stomach contents.

Mucus - Lubricate the food you’ve eaten to begin the process of digestion Protect your internal organs from
potential damage caused by things you’ve consumed or the acid inside of the stomach.

8. Describe the general functions of the small intestine, and name the three parts. Describe the structures
that increase the surface area of the small intestine.
 The intestine absorbs the nutrients and water from the food that we eat.
 The small intestine is divided into three parts: Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum.
  The interior walls of the small intestine are tightly wrinkled into projections called circular folds that greatly
increase their surface area. Microscopic examination of the mucosa reveals that the mucosal cells are organized
into finger-like projections known as villi, which further increase the surface area.

9. Explain how the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas contribute to digestion.

 Liver - continually produces bile. This is a chemical that helps turn fats into energy that your body uses. Bile is
necessary for the digestive process. Your liver also creates albumin. This is a blood protein that helps carry
hormones, drugs, and fatty acids throughout your body.
 Gallbladder – Its main function is to store bile. Bile helps your digestive system break down fats. Bile is a mixture
of mainly cholesterol, bilirubin and bile salts.
 Pancreas - produces enzymes as soon as food reaches the stomach. These enzymes travel through a series of
ducts until they reach the main pancreatic duct.

10. Describe the internal structure of a villus, and explain how its structure is related to absorption.
 It carries a central core which is further made up of one vein, one artery, a muscle strand, a lymphatic capillary
(lacteal) which is located centrally, and connective tissue that provides structures with support.
 Villi are specialized for absorption in the small intestine as they have a thin wall, one cell thick, which enables a
shorter diffusion path. They have a large surface area so there will be more efficient absorption of fatty acids and
glycerol into the blood stream.

11. Name the parts of the large intestine, and describe the function of the ileocecal valve.
 Large Intestine consists of the cecum (including the appendix), colon (the longest part), rectum, and anal canal.
The four sections of the colon are: the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon.
These sections turn at the colic flexures.
 The primary functions of the ileocecal valve are to separate ileal and colonic contents, thereby minimizing
bacterial colonization of the small intestine, and to regulate emptying of ileal contents into the colon.

12. Describe the functions of the colon and of the normal flora of the colon.  
 Colon - It helps the body absorb water and nutrients from food before excreting the waste. It is made up of
muscle and located just below the stomach.
 Normal flora of the colon - digestion of substrates, production of vitamins, stimulation of cell maturation,
stimulation of the immune system, aid in intestinal transit and colonization resistance.

13. With respect to the defecation reflex, explain the stimulus, the part of the CNS directly involved, the effector muscle,
the function of the internal anal sphincter, and the voluntary control possible.
 Stimulus - The stretching of the rectal wall acts as stimulus for the defecation reflex. The stretch receptors
present in the smooth muscle layer of the rectum will generate sensory impulses. The generated sensory
impulses will travel to the sacral spinal cord.
 The external anal sphincter is skeletal muscle that is controlled by somatic nerve supply from the Inferior anal
branch of the Pudendal nerve (S2,3,4), which allows conscious control of defecation. When the rectum is
distended the recto sphincteric reflex is initiated and relaxes the internal sphincter.
 The internal sphincter is part of the inner surface of the canal; it is composed of concentric layers of circular
muscle tissue and is not under voluntary control.
 Voluntary control - Voluntary respiration is under conscious control. It is controlled via the motor cortex in the
cerebrum, which receives inputs from the limbic system and hypothalamus.

14. Name the vitamins and minerals stored in the liver. Name the fixed macrophages of the liver, and explain their
function.
  Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are stored in the liver. Vitamin B12 is also stored in the liver to be used when
the body needs it. The liver can store vitamin A and vitamin B12 for four years, but it can only store enough
vitamin D for four months.
 Liver macrophages mainly consist of liver-resident phagocytes, or Kupffer cells (KCs), and bone marrow-derived
recruited monocytes.
 comprise a significant number of the non-hepatocytes and act as a hepatic immune sentinel to remove or alert the
immune system about the presence of harmful pathogens (8, 9).
15. Describe how the liver regulates blood glucose level. Explain the purpose of the processes of deamination and
transamination. 
 The liver communicates closely with the pancreas, which secretes insulin and glucagon, the two major hormones
involved in blood glucose regulation. Insulin acts to lower blood glucose by allowing sugar to enter cells.
 Transamination, a chemical reaction that transfers an amino group to a ketoacid to form new amino acids. This
pathway is responsible for the deamination of most amino acids. This is one of the major degradation pathways
which convert essential amino acids to non-essential amino acids.

16. Name the plasma proteins produced by the liver, and state the function of each.  
 Albumins - create and maintain osmotic pressure; transport insoluble molecules
 Globulins - participate in immune system
 Fibrinogen - Blood coagulation
 Regulatory proteins - Regulation of gene expression
 Clotting Factors - Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

17. Name the substances excreted by the liver into bile. 

 The major components of bile are bilirubin, bile salts, cholesterol, and phospholipids.

Set B.

1. Many people with GERD take proton-pump inhibitors, medications that reduce stomach acid. Why should these
people be especially careful about what they eat or drink?

-Some people who have GERD find that certain foods or drinks trigger symptoms or make symptoms worse. What you
eat can have a big effect on GERD. There’s a long list of foods that you may want to stay away from, including chocolate,
onions, acidic foods, and red meat. But other foods may help or at least not make it worse.

2. The colon does not have villi as part of its mucosa. Explain why villi are not necessary.

-The colon does not have villi as part of its mucosa villi are not necessary because functions of the colon which is called
large intestine are mainly related for absorption and elimination digestion will not take place in the colon and then it
offers much less surface area for the absorption of peptides and proteins there is no use of villi so villi are not necessary
here.
3. Food remains in the stomach for several hours. Passage of food through the small intestine also requires several hours.
These two organs have very different shapes. Explain why they are able to retain food for so long, for efficient digestion
and absorption.

- The small intestine is so long because it needs a maximum amount of surface area to increase digestion and nutrient
absorption.It is about 6.7 to 7.6 meters (22 to 25 feet) long, highly convoluted, and contained in the central and lower
abdominal cavity ; the numerous finger like projections called villi along with micro-villi increase the surface

4. Diarrhea can be unpleasant, but does have a purpose. Explain, and state the disadvantages as well.

- Diarrhea plays a crucial role in clearing the bacteria that is found in the intestines at the beginning of an infection.
When a virus like E. coli strikes, two molecules in the intestine work together to enable pathogen clearance before the
infection causes too much damage.

- Diarrhea can cause dehydration, which can be life-threatening if untreated. Dehydration is particularly dangerous in
children, older adults and those with weakened immune systems.

5. Explain how a spinal cord transection at the level of T10 will affect the defecation reflex.

- The T10 dermatome generally aligns with the belly button and will affect sensation at the lower trunk between the 9
th and 11 th dermatomes.

6. You have seen the word enteric (or entero) several times in this chapter. What does it mean? Define each of these:
enteric bacilli, enterovirus, Enterococcus.

- Enteric: refers to the small intestine; therefore, enteric coatings resist breakdown of medication before it reaches the
small intestine.

- Enteric Bacilli: A broad term for bacilli present in the intestinal tract. Included are gram-negative non–spore-forming
facultatively anaerobic bacilli such as Escherichia, Shigella, Salmonella, Klebsiella, and Yersinia. They may be present in the
intestines of vertebrates as normal flora or pathogens.

- Enterovirus: any of a group of RNA viruses which typically occur in the gastrointestinal tract, sometimes spreading to
the central nervous system or other parts of the body.

- Enterococcus: is a large genus of lactic acid bacteria of the phylum Bacillota. Enterococci are gram-positive cocci that
often occur in pairs (diplococci) or short chains, and are difficult to distinguish from streptococci on physical
characteristics alone.

7. The word symbiosis indicates two different kinds of living things, and literally means “together-life.” Our own
alimentary tube is a perfect example. Explain, and state the advantages to each living thing.

-Alimentary tube is a perfect example of the word symbiosis because differs broadly in living beings, yet is only found
in organisms that are bilaterally symmetrical. The advantages are carrying food and other nutrition throughout various
organs of the digestive system as well as allowing waste to leave from the body.