Class : B.Tech.

- 4th Semester Admission Batch : 2018-19

Branch : Computer Science and Engineering and Civil Engineering
Sub. Code : RCS4D001 (CSE) and RCI4G002 (Civil)
Subject : Data Communication
Module-I (10 Hours)
• INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING: Standards
Organizations for Data Communications, Layered Network Architecture, Open Systems
Interconnection, Data Communications Circuits, Serial and parallel Data Transmission, Data
communications Networks, Alternate Protocol Suites.
• SIGNALS, NOISE, MODULATION, AND DEMODULATION: Signal Analysis, Electrical
Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Analog Modulation Systems, Information Capacity, Bits,
Bit Rate, Baud, and M-ary Encoding, Digital Modulation.
Module -II (08 Hours)
• METALLIC CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA: Metallic Transmission Lines, Transverse
Electromagnetic Waves, Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
• OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA: Advantages of Optical Fiber cables,
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables, Electromagnetic spectrum, Optical Fiber
Communications System Block Diagram, Optical Fiber construction, Propagation of Light
Through an Optical fiber Cable, Optical Fiber Modes and Classifications, Optical Fiber
Comparison, Losses in Optical Fiber Cables, Light sources, Light Detectors, Lasers.
Module-III (08 Hours)
• DIGITAL TRANSMISSION: Pulse Modulation, Pulse code Modulation, Dynamic Range,
Signal Voltage to- Quantization Noise Voltage Ratio, Linear Versus Nonlinear PCM Codes,
Companding, PCM Line Speed, Delta Modulation PCM and Differential PCM.
• MULTIPLEXING AND T CARRIERS: Time- Division Multiplexing, T1 Digital Carrier
System, Digital Line Encoding, T Carrier systems, Frequency- Division Multiplexing,
Wavelength- Division Multiplexing, Synchronous Optical Network.
Module-IV (09 Hours)
• WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS: Electromagnetic Polarization,
Electromagnetic Radiation, Optical Properties of Radio Waves, Terrestrial Propagation of
Electromagnetic Waves, Skip Distance, Free-Space Path Loss, Microwave Communications
Systems, Satellite Communications Systems.
Module-V (10 Hours)
• DATA COMMUNICATIONS CODES, ERROR CONTROL, AND DATA FORMATS: Data
Communications Character Codes, Bar Codes, Error Control, Error Detection and
Correction, Character Synchronization.
• DATA COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT: Digital Service Unit and Channel Service Unit,
Voice- Band Data Communication Modems, Bell Systems-Compatible Voice- Band
Modems, Voice- Band Modem Block Diagram, Voice- Band Modem Classifications,
Asynchronous Voice-Band Modems, Synchronous Voice-Band Modems, Modem synchronization, 56K
modems, Modem control : The A T Command Set, Cable Modems.
***************
 Module – I
Introduction
 When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or
remote.
 Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance. The telecommunication which includes,
telephony, telegraphy and television, means communication at a distance (tele is
Greek word for far distance).
 The word data refers to facts, concepts and instructions presented in the variety of
for such as numbers, text, bits and bytes.
 In computer, data are represented by binary information units produced and
consumed in the form of 0s and 1s.
 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a two devices such as
source and receiver, via some form of transmission devices.
 The device that transmits the data is known as source and the device that receives
the transmitted data is known as receiver.
Characteristics of Data Communication
The effectiveness of data communication system depends on the three fundamental
characteristics :
 Delivery : The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user.
 Accuracy : The system must deliver data accurately.
 Timeliness : The system must deliver data in timely manner in the same
order as they are produced.
Advantages of a Computer Network
 Helps us to connect with multiple computers together to send and receive
information when accessing the network.
 Helps us to share printers, scanners, and email.
 Helps us to share information at very fast speed
 Electronic communication is more efficient and less expensive than without the
network.
Disadvantages of using Computer Networks
 Investment for hardware and software can be costly for initial set-up
 If we don't take proper security precautions like file encryption, firewalls then
our data will be at risk.
 Some components of the network design may not last for many years, and it will
become useless or malfunction and need to be replaced.
 Requires time for constant administration
 Frequent server failure and issues of regular cable faults
Uses of Computer Networks
 Allows us to share resources such as printers, expensive software's and
database among network participants
  Provides fast and effective communication from one computer to another
computer
 Helps us to exchange data and information among users via a network.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example : Keyboards and traditional monitors
The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.

Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
Ex. : Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex
mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction.
Example : The telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Components of data communication system
A Communication system has following components:

1. Message : It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of

text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of
these.
2. Sender : The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video, camera & so on.
3. Receiver : The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be
computer, workstation, telephone and so on.
4. Medium : The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
5. Protocol : A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected
computer systems. You can establish a network connection using
either cable or wireless media.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness
in a catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
Internetworks
When two or more networks are connected, they become and internetwork. Individual
networks are jointed into internetworks by the use of internetworking devices. These
devices includes routers and gateways.
The term internet(lowercase i) is used to mean interconnection of networks and the
term Internet (Uppercase i) is a specific world wide network.
Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems.
An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.
For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what
is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
o Syntax : The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
o Semantics : The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
o Timing : The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver
and some data will be lost.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards
provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and
in international communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or
"by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
o De facto : Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto
standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
o De jure : Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body
are de jure standards.

Line Configuration or Type of Connection

Line configuration defines the attachment of communication devices to a link.
A link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to
another. There are two possible line configuration.
1. Point-to-Point
Point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
2. Multipoint
A Multipoint line configuration is one in which more that two specific devices share a
single link. Here, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporarily.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared line
configuration. If users must take turns, it is a time-shared line configuration.

Types of Network
There are various types of computer networks available. We can categorize them
according to their size as well as their purpose. The size of a network should be
expressed by the geographic area and number of computers, which are a part of their
networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of devices spread
across the world. Some of the most popular network types are:

PAN (Personal Area Network)

PAN is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a
computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and
the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a
single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.
LAN (Local Area Network) :
A LAN is a group of computer and
peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as
school, laboratory, home, and office
building. It is a widely useful
network for sharing resources like
files, printers, games, and other
application. It is a network which
consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several
buildings.

Characteristics of LAN
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring
and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
 We can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
 We can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 LAN offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the
initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does
not offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are
issues related to software setup and hardware failures
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN is another important computer
network that which is spread across
a large geographical area. WAN
network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN's using telephone
lines and radio waves. It is mostly
limited to an enterprise or an
organization.
Characteristics of LAN:
 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can
access to the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
Advantages of WAN
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business
offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into
client devices.
Disadvantage of WAN
 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians
and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use
of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of
multiple wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN is consisting of a computer
network across an entire city, college
campus, or a small region. This type
of network is large than a LAN,
which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the
type of configuration, this type of
network allows you to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.

Characteristics of MAN
 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Disadvantages of MAN
 We need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
Advantages of MAN
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access
to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Topology
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies
could be same or different in a same network.
Bus Topology
Here, all devices share single Both ends of the shared channel
communication line or cable. Bus have line terminator. The data is
topology may have problem while sent in only one direction and as
multiple hosts sending data at the soon as it reaches the extreme end,
same time. Therefore, Bus topology the terminator removes the data
either uses CSMA/CD technology or from the line.
recognizes one host as Bus Master
to solve the issue. It is one of the
simple forms of networking where a
failure of a device does not affect the
other devices. But failure of the
shared communication line can
make all other devices stop
functioning.
Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are only the hub. Star topology is not
connected to a central device, expensive as to connect one more
known as hub device, using a point- host, only one cable is required and
to-point connection. That is, there configuration is simple.
exists a point to point connection
between hosts and hub.
As in Bus topology, hub acts as
single point of failure. If hub fails,
connectivity of all hosts to all other
hosts fails. Every communication
between hosts, takes place through
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connection in the ring is a point of
connects to exactly two other failure. There are methods which
machines, creating a circular employ one more backup ring.
network structure. When one host
tries to communicate or send
message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels
through all intermediate hosts. To
connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator
may need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure
of the whole ring. Thus, every

Mesh Topology  Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have

Here, a host is connected to one or point-to-point connection to every
multiple hosts. This topology has other host. Hosts connect to each
hosts in point-to-point connection other in some arbitrarily fashion.
with every other host or may also This topology exists where we
have hosts which are in point-to- need to provide reliability to some
point connection to few hosts only. hosts out of all.
Hosts in Mesh topology also work as
relay for other hosts which do not
have direct point-to-point links.
Mesh technology comes into two
types:

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-

to-point connection to every other
host in the network. Thus for
every new host n(n-1)/2
connections are required. It
provides the most reliable
network structure among all
network topologies.
Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical topology, if the root goes down, then
Topology, this is the most common the entire network suffers even
form of network topology in use though it is not the single point of
presently. This topology divides the failure. Every connection serves as
network in to multiple levels/layers point of failure, failing of which
of network. Mainly in LANs, a divides the network into
network is bifurcated into three unreachable segment.
types of network devices. The
lowermost is access-layer where
computers are attached. The middle
layer is known as distribution layer,
which works as mediator between
upper layer and lower layer. The
highest layer is known as core layer,
and is central point of the network,
i.e. root of the tree from which all
nodes fork. All neighboring hosts
have point-to-point connection
between them. Similar to the Bus

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design topology networks. Internet is the
contains more than one topology is best example of largest Hybrid
said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology
topology inherits merits and
demerits of all the incorporating
topologies. The above picture
represents an arbitrarily hybrid
topology. The combining topologies
may contain attributes of Star, Ring,
Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies.
Most WANs are connected by means
of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star
The OSI Reference Model
The OSI model is shown in Fig. This model is based on a proposal developed by
the International Standards Organization (ISO). The model is called the ISO-OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication
with other systems. The OSI model has seven layers.

The Physical Layer:

The physical layer is concerned with mechanical and electrical specifications of
the interface and transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and
functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission
to occur.
The physical layer is concerned with the following :
 Physical characteristics  Line configuration
 Representation of bits  Physical topology
 Data rate  Transmission Mode
 Synchronization of bits
The Data Link Layer:
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility to
a reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It make the physical
layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer). It accomplishes this
task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames and
transmits the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms
correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.
Specific responsibilities of the data link layer include the following :
 Framing  Error Control
 Physical addressing  Access Control
 Flow control
The Network Layer:
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. This layer is responsible
for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet across multiple networks(links).
Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following :
 Logical addressing : This layer adds the header to the packet coming from
the upper layer include logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
 Routing : When independent network are connected together to create an
internetwork, the connecting devices(called routers or gateways) route the
packets to their final destination.
The Transport Layer:
The basic function of this layer is to accept data from above, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the
pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. It also determines what type of service
to provide to the session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. It is
a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the destination.
Specific responsibilities of the transport layer include the following :
 Service-point addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Flow control
 Error control
The Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control, token management
(preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same time),
and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following :
 Dialog controller (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit)
 Synchronization (check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue
from where they were after a crash)
The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and
allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records), to be defined and
exchanged.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following :
 Translation
 Encryption
 Compression
The Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
users to allow access to network resources. One widely-used application protocol is
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When
a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server
using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application protocols are
used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
Specific responsibilities of the application layer include the following :
 Network virtual terminal : It is a software which allows a user to log on to
a remote host.
 File transfer, access and management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access, manage and control files in a remote computer
 Mail services : This application provides e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services : This application provides distributed data sources and
access for global information.
Switching
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data
from sender to receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available
options is called switching. . A switched network is made up of a series of
interconnected nodes called switches.
Types of Switching Techniques
There are basically three types of switching methods are made available. Out of three
methods, circuit switching and packet switching are commonly used but the message
switching is used in the networking application.
 1) Circuit Switching 2) Packet Switching 3) Message Switching
Circuit Switching
 Here the network connection allows the electrical current and the associated voice
with it to flow in between the two respective users. The end to end communication
was established during the duration of call.
 When a dedicated path is established for data transmission between sender and
receiver, it is called circuit switching.
 In circuit switching the routing decision is made when the path is set up across
the given network. After the link has been sets in between the sender and the
receiver, a call request signal is sent to the receiver and acknowledged back to
ensure availability of dedicated path. This dedicated path is then used to send
data. then the information is forwarded continuously over the provided link.
 In Circuit Switching a dedicated link/path is established across the sender and
the receiver which is maintained for the entire duration of conversation.
The network for Circuit Switching is shown in figure.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
 Long set up time is required
 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen
 Line may be held up for a long time
Packet Switching
In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets and each of which
includes a header with source, destination and intermediate node address
information. Individual Packets in packet switching technique take different routes to
reach their respective destination.
 Advantages of Packet Switching
 They are used for performing data rate conversion.
 Efficient use of Network.
 It charges users only on the basis of duration of connectivity.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

 It has high installation cost.
 They require complex protocols for delivery.
 They are unsuitable for applications that can not afford delays in
communication like high quality voice calls.

Message Switching
 Each intermediate device receive the message and store it until the nest device is
ready to receive it and then this message is forwarded to the next device. For this
reason a message switching network is sometimes called as Store and Forward
Switching.
 Message switches can be programmed with the information about the most efficient
route as well as information regarding to the near switches that can be used for
forwarding the present message to their required destination.
 The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For this reasons this
switching is not recommended for real time applications like voice and video.

Advantages of Message Switching

 It has higher channel efficiency.
 It supports message lengths of unlimited size.
 It does not require physical connection between source and destination devices.
 Due to its storage mechanism, it is being used by police for criminal cases.

Disadvantages of Message Switching

 It does not establish dedicated path between the devices.
 It can lead to security issues if hacked by intruders.
 It requires large storage disks requirements to store long messages for long
duration.
 This switching type is not compatible for interactive applications such as voice
and video. This is due to longer message delivery time.
Data Transmission
There are two methods are used for transferring data between computers which are
given below:

Serial Transmission
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in bi-
direction. In this transmission one bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial
Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit.
10011001
Computer 1 Computer 2

Parallel Transmission
In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one
computer to another computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial
transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel transmission is used for short distance.
1
0
Computer 1 0 Computer 2
1
1
0
0
1

Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

In serial transmission, data(bit) flows in In Parallel Transmission, data flows in
bi-direction. multiple lines.
Serial Transmission is cost efficient. Parallel Transmission is not cost
efficient.
In serial transmission, one bit transferred In Parallel Transmission, eight bits
at one clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.
Serial Transmission is slow in Parallel Transmission is fast in
comparison of Parallel Transmission. comparison of Serial Transmission.

Generally, Serial Transmission is used for Generally, Parallel Transmission is used

long distance. for short distance.

Signals
Analog and Digital signals are the types of signals carrying information.

Analog Signals
The analog signals were used in many systems to produce signals to carry
information. These signals are continuous in both values and time. In short, all
signals that are natural or comes naturally are analog signals.
Digital Signals
Unlike analog signals, digital signals are not continuous but signals are discrete in
value and time. These signals are represented by binary numbers and consist of
different voltage values.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Signal

We know that the major difference between analog and a digital signal is that analog
signals are continuous signals, while digital signals are discrete signals.

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals

Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog Computers, optical drives, and other
electronic devices are few examples electronic devices

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform.

Suited for digital electronics like

Only be used in analog devices.
computers, mobiles and more.

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

 A signals that repeats its pattern over a period is called periodic signal i.e., a
signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is called periodic signal.
 A signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period is called aperiodic signal or
non periodic i.e., a signal which does not repeat itself after a specific interval of
time is called aperiodic signal.
 Both the Analog and Digital can be periodic or aperiodic. but in data
communication periodic analog sigals and aperiodic digital signals are used.
Periodic Signal Aperiodic Signal
A signal which repeats itself after a A signal which does not repeat itself
specific interval of time is called after a specific interval of time is called
periodic signal. aperiodic signal,
A signal that repeats is pattern over a A signal that does not repeats its
period is called periodic signal. pattern over a period is called aperiodic
signal or non periodic signal.
They can be represented by a They can not be represented by any
mathematical equation. mathematical equation.
Their value can be determined at any Their value can not be determined with
point of time. certainty at any given point of time.
They are deterministic signals. They are random signals.
Analog Signals
 Analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
 A simple analog signal or a sine wave, can not be changed into simpler signals.
 A composite analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
 Sine waves can be fully described by three characteristics : amplitude, period
or frequency and phase.

Amplitude
Amplitude refers to the height of the signal. The unit for amplitude depends on the
type of the signal. Volts refers to voltage, amperes refer to current and watts refer to
power.

Period and Frequency

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s. Note that period and frequency are
just one characteristic defined in two ways. Frequency and period are the inverse of
each other.
f= 1/T and T =1/f

Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz

(Hz), which is cycle per second. Units of period and frequency are shown in table.

Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
Phase is measured in degrees or radians(360 degree). A phase shift of 360 degrees
corresponds to a shift of half a period, and a phase shift of 90 degrees corresponds to
shift of a quarter of a period.
Encoding and Modulating
We must transform data into signals to send them from one place to another. Data or
information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use the
data, it must be in discrete digital form. Similar to data, signals can also be in analog
and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital
form.
Conversion Methods
 Digital/digital
 Analog/digital
 Digital/analog
 Analog/analog

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in
two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is
necessary whereas block coding is optional.
Line Coding : The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be
Line Coding. Digital data is found in binary format. It is represented (stored)
internally as series of 1s and 0s. Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which
represents digital data.

There are three types of line coding schemes available:

1. Unipolar 2. Polar 3. Bipolar
1. Unipolar Encoding : This schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In
this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no
voltage is transmitted.

2. Polar Encoding :
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.
Polar encoding is classifided into the following categories:
1. NRZ
 NRZ-L
 NRZ-I
2. RZ
3. Biphase
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
1. NRZ (NonReturn to Zero) : In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal is always
either positive or negative. Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative
value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L (NRZ Level) and NRZ-I (NRZ Inversion)
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I
changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.

Return to Zero (RZ) : Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a
bit ended and when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock
are not synchronized. Here, 0 is represented by negative-to-zero and 1 is represented
by positive-to-negative.

Biphase :
Here, we use three levels: positive, zero and negative. Biphase encoding is implement
in two different ways :
1. Manchester encoding : This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L.
Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes
phase when a different bit is encountered. Here, 0 is represented as positive-to-
negative and 1 is represented by negative-to-positive.
2. Differential Manchester encoding : This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ
and NRZ-I. It also transits at the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is
encountered. Here, 0 is represented by positive-to-negative and 1 is represented by
negative-to-positive. The first 1 bit is represented by the positive-to-negative and first
0 is represented by negative-to-positive and then when 1 is encountered it is
alternating.
Bipolar : Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. Zero
voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative
voltages. There are three types of bipolar encoding : AMI. B8ZS, HDB3
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A natural zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary
1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.

Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)

In B8ZS, if eight 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of two ways
based on the polarity of the previous 1. Here, 1 bit is represented by positive and 0
bit is represented by zero voltage.
Example : Using B8ZS, encode the bit stream 10000000000100. Assume that the
polarity of the first 1 is positive.

High Density Bipolar3 (HDB3)

In HDB3, if four 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of four
ways based on the polarity of the previous 1 and the number of 1s since last
substitution. Here, 1 bit is represented by positive and 0 bit is represented by zero
voltage.

Example : Using HDB3, encode the bit stream 10000000000100. Assume that the
number of 1s so far is odd and the first 1 is positive.
Digital to Analog Conversion
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier
signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The binary signal when modulated
gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the carrier output
when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth
efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due
to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier
signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for a
binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and
phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –

 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth
efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
Advantages of frequency shift Keying –
 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems
beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.

It is further categorized as follows:

1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of
phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the
two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is
used between binary 1 and binary 0. This modulation technique is used for long
distance wireless communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying
This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto one
single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses
phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate carrying capacity
compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently
as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
 It is a non coherent reference signal.
Analog to Analog Conversion –
Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal. It is a process by virtue of which a characteristic of
carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal. This modulation is generally needed when a bandpass channel is required.
Bandpass is a range of frequencies which are transmitted through a bandpass filter
which is a filter allowing specific frequencies to pass preventing signals at unwanted
frequencies. Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three ways:
 1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation

1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and frequency as
constant. The figure below shows the concept of amplitude modulation:

AM bandwidth:
The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the modulating
signal and covers a range centered on the carrier frequency.
Bandwidth= 2fm

2. FREQUENCY MODULATION –
The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and amplitude as
constant. The figure below shows the concept of frequency modulation:
FM bandwidth
1. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation and
modulating frequency.
2. For a narrow band Fm signal, bandwidth required is twice the maximum
frequency of the modulation, however for a wide band Fm signal the required
bandwidth can be very much larger, with detectable sidebands spreading out
over large amounts of the frequency spectrum.

3. PHASE MODULATION
The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping amplitude and
frequency as constant. The figure below shows the concept of frequency
modulation:

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase

modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. It is normally
implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along with a derivative. The
frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the input voltage
which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
PM bandwidth:
1. For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) and
exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor efficiency.
2. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is
approximately, 2 (h+1) Fm where h= modulation index.

M-ary Encoding
Thus, Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If
every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple signals
simultaneously over a single channel, all using different frequency ranges.
The word binary represents two-bits. M simply represents a digit that corresponds to
the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of
binary variables.
This is the type of digital modulation technique used for data transmission in which
instead of one-bit, two or more bits are transmitted at a time. As a single signal is
used for multiple bit transmission, the channel bandwidth is reduced.
M-ary Equation
If a digital signal is given under four conditions, such as voltage levels, frequencies,
phases and amplitude, then M = 4.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed
mathematically as
$$N = \log_{2}M$$
Where,
N is the number of bits necessary.
M is the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits.
The above equation can be re-arranged as −
$$2^{N} = M$$
For example, with two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible.

Types of M-ary Techniques

In general, (M-ary) multi-level modulation techniques are used in digital
communications as the digital inputs with more than two modulation levels allowed
on the transmitter’s input. Hence, these techniques are bandwidth efficient.
There are many different M-ary modulation techniques. Some of these techniques,
modulate one parameter of the carrier signal, such as amplitude, phase, and
frequency.

M-ary ASK
This is called M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK) or M-ary Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM).
The amplitude of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.
Representation of M-ary ASK
$$S_m(t) = A_mcos(2\pi f_ct)\:\:\:\:\:\:A_m\epsilon {(2m-1-M)\Delta ,m =
1,2....M}\:\:\:and\:\:\:0\leq t\leq T_s$$
This method is also used in PAM. Its implementation is simple. However, M-ary ASK
is susceptible to noise and distortion.

M-ary FSK
This is called as M-ary Frequency Shift Keying.
The frequency of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.

Representation of M-ary FSK

$$S_{i} (t) = \sqrt{\frac{2E_{s}}{T_{S}}} \cos\lgroup\frac{\Pi} {T_{s}}(n_{c} + i)t\rgroup
\:\:\:\:0\leq t\leq T_{s}\:\:\:and\:\:\:i = 1,2.....M$$
where $f_{c} = \frac{n_{c}}{2T_{s}}$ for some fixed integer n.
This is not susceptible to noise as much as ASK. The transmitted M number of
signals are equal in energy and duration. The signals are separated by
$\frac{1}{2T_s}$ Hz making the signals orthogonal to each other.
Since M signals are orthogonal, there is no crowding in the signal space. The
bandwidth efficiency of an M-ary FSK decreases and the power efficiency increases
with the increase in M.
M-ary PSK
This is called as M-ary Phase Shift Keying.
The phase of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.

Representation of M-ary PSK

$$S_{i}(t) = \sqrt{\frac{2E}{T}} \cos(w_{0}t + \emptyset_{i}t)\:\:\:\:0\leq t\leq
T_{s}\:\:\:and\:\:\:i = 1,2.....M$$
$$\emptyset_{i}t = \frac{2\Pi i} {M}\:\:\:where\:\:i = 1,2,3...\:...M$$
Here, the envelope is constant with more phase possibilities. This method was used
during the early days of space communication. It has better performance than ASK
and FSK. Minimal phase estimation error at the receiver.
The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK decreases and the power efficiency increases
with the increase in M. So far, we have discussed different modulation techniques.
The output of all these techniques is a binary sequence, represented as 1s and 0s.
This binary or digital information has many types and forms, which are discussed
further.
Noise
Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and
corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication
process, leads to the message getting altered. It is most likely to be entered at the
channel or the receiver.
The noise signal can be understood by taking a look at the following example.
Hence, it is understood that noise is some signal which has no pattern and no
constant frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures
are usually taken to reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
Most common examples of noise are −
 Hiss sound in radio receivers
 Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
 Flicker in television receivers, etc.

Types of Noise

The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it
shows or the relation it has with the receiver, etc.
There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is through some external
source while the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver section.

External Source

This noise is produced by the external sources which may occur in the medium or
channel of communication, usually. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The
best way is to avoid the noise from affecting the signal.
Examples

Most common examples of this type of noise are −

 Atmospheric noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere).
 Extra-terrestrial noise, such as solar noise and cosmic noise.
 Industrial noise.

Internal Source
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The
components in the circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of
noise. This noise is quantifiable. A proper receiver design may lower the effect of this
internal noise.

Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are −
 Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise).
 Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes).
 Transit-time noise (during transition).
 Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise which includes flicker, resistance
effect and mixer generated noise, etc.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

It is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power. The higher the value of SNR,
the greater will be the quality of the received output.
Signal-to-noise ratio at different points can be calculated by using the following
formulae −
$$Input \: SNR = (SNR)_I = \frac{Average \: power \: of \: modulating \:
signal}{Average \: power \: of \: noise \: at \: input}$$
$$Output \: SNR = (SNR)_O = \frac{Average \: power \: of \: demodulated \:
signal}{Average \: power \: of \: noise \: at \: output}$$
$$Channel \: SNR = (SNR)_C = \frac{Average \: power \: of \: modulated \:
signal}{Average \: power \: of \: noise \: in \: message \: bandwidth}$$
SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER
Transmission Impairment in Data Communication
In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which
tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –
 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with
increasing distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium.
This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the
attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two

signals or one signal at two different point.
 Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
 Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its
own propagation speed travelling through a medium. Every component arrive at
different time which leads to delay distortion. Therefore, they have different
phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
 Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is
called noise. There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk
noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These
devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving
antenna. Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra
signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire. Impulse noise is
a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines
SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER
Difference between Broadband and Baseband Transmission
Broadband system use modulation techniques to reduce the effect of noise in the
environment. Broadband transmission employs multiple channel unidirectional
transmission using combination of phase and amplitude modulation.
Baseband is a digital signal is transmitted on the medium using one of the signal
codes like NRZ, RZ Manchester biphase-M code etc. is called baseband transmission.
These are following differences between Broadband and Baseband transmission.
Baseband transmission – Broadband transmission –
1. Digital signalling. 1. Analog signalling.
2. FDM is not pssible. 2. Transmission of data is
3. Baseband is bi-directional unidirectional.
transmission. 3. Signal travelling distance is long.
4. Short distance signal travelling. 4. FDM is possible.
5. Entire bandwidth is for single signal 5. Simultaneous transmission of
transmission. multiple signals over different
6. Ex.: Ethernet is using Basebands for frequencies.
LAN. 6. Ex. : Used to transmit cable TV to
premises.
************************
 Module-II
Metallic Cable Transmission medium
It is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data transmission
system. It is included in the physical layer of the OSI protocol hierarchy. The
transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The
information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another
form. Transmission media can be generally categorized as either unguided or guided.

Metallic Transmission Lines

A transmission line is a metallic conductor system used to transfer electrical energy
from one point to another using electrical current flow. It is two or more electrical
conductors separated by a nonconductive insulator (dielectric). It can be of varied
lengths varying from few inches to several thousand miles. It can be used to
propagate dc or low frequency ac and also very high frequencies such as microwave
radio frequency signals.

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

The two basic kinds of waves are longitudinal and transverse. With longitudinal
waves, the displacement is in the direction of propagation. A surface wave or sound
waves can be said as examples of longitudinal waves. With transverse waves, the
direction or displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.

Propagation of electrical power along a transmission line occurs in the form of

transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. TEM waves propagates primarily in the non-
conductor that separates the two conductors of the transmission line. The electric
field(E) and magnetic field (H) are perpendicular to each other at all points. This is
referred to as space or quadrature. Electromagnetic waves that travel along a
transmission line from the source to the load are called incident waves and those
that travel the load back towards the source are called reflected waves.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as they propagate by varying

the electric and magnetic fields such that the two fields are perpendicular to
each other.
 Accelerated charges are responsible to produce electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves have constant velocity in vacuum and it is nearly
equal to 3×108ms−1 which is denoted by C = 1/ √μoϵo.
 Electromagnetic wave propagation does not require any material medium to
travel.
 The inherent characteristic of an electromagnetic wave is its frequency. Their
frequencies remain unchanged but its wavelength changes when the wave
travels from one medium to another.
 The refractive index of a material is given by:n = √μrϵr
 Electromagnetic wave follows the principle of superposition.
 The light vector (also known as the electric vector) is the reason for the optical
effects due to an electromagnetic wave.
 In an electromagnetic wave, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields are in
the same phase and their magnitudes have a constant ratio. The ratio of the
amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields is equal to the velocity of the
electromagnetic wave. C = E0/B0
 The energy is carried by the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic
waves are equal, i.e. the electric energy (uE) and the magnetic energy (uM) are
equal; uE = uM.
 There is a vector quantity S, called Poynting vector which represents the energy
transferred by electromagnetic waves per second per unit area.

→ → →
S = 1/μ E × B
Electromagnetic radiation from outer space has given us so much information about
the universe, its existence and the other celestial bodies.
Types of Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is
sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types.
1. Guided Media
(i) Twisted Pair Cable (ii) Coaxial Cable (iii) Optical Fibre Cable
2. Unguided Media
(i) Radio Waves (ii) Microwaves (iii) Infrared

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic
insulated copper wires twisted together to
form a single media. Out of these two
wires, only one carries actual signal and
another is used for ground reference. The
twists between wires are helpful in
reducing noise and crosstalk.
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Least expensive  Susceptible to external
 Easy to install interference
 High speed capacity  Lower capacity and performance in
comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to
attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used
in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Better performance at a higher  Comparatively difficult to install
data rate in comparison to UTP and manufacture
 Eliminates crosstalk  More expensive
 Comparatively faster  Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable These are widely used for cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. TV connections and LANs. It provide
The core wire lies in the center and it high bandwidth rates of up to 450
is made of solid conductor. The core is mbps. There are three categories of
enclosed in an insulating sheath. The coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV),
second wire is wrapped around over RG-58(Thin Ethernet), and RG-11
the sheath and that too in turn (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio
encased by insulator sheath. Government.
 Stiff copper wire as core and
 Insulating material surrounding the
core
 Closely woven braided mesh
of conducting material surrounding
the insulator
 Protective plastic sheath encasing
the wire
Advantages
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by plastic covering called the cladding.
Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are
called optical fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light
waves at the source, which is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre
cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled together in a protective
covering. Each fibre is made up of these three layers, starting with the innermost
layer −
 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive
index than the core
 Protective outer covering called buffer
Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper can have maximum segment length of
wires in telephone lines, internet 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.
communication and even cable TV
connections because transmitted data
can travel very long distances without
weakening. Single node fibre optic
cable can have maximum segment
length of 2 kms and bandwidth of up to
100 Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable

Advantages
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic
interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
 unidirectional, ie, will need
another fibre, if we need
bidirectional communication
Electromagnetic spectrum
The entire distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to frequency or
wavelength. Although all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a
vacuum, they do so at a wide range of frequencies, wavelengths, and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum comprises the span of all electromagnetic radiation
and consists of many sub ranges, commonly referred to as portions, such as visible
light or ultraviolet radiation. The various portions bear different names based on
differences in behaviour in the emission, transmission, and absorption of the
corresponding waves and also based on their different practical applications.
The entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the lowest to the highest frequency
(longest to shortest wavelength), includes all radio waves (e.g.,
commercial radio and television, microwaves, radar), infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Nearly all frequencies and wavelengths
of electromagnetic radiation can be used for spectroscopy.

Block diagram of Optical Fibre Communication System

The optical fiber consists of three main elements:

1. Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical
transmitter consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
o Driver circuit drives the light source.
o Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
o Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2. Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and
environmental protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each optical
fiber acts as an individual channel.
 o Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
o Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two
individual optical fibers.
o Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
o Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical
receiver and passes it to electronic circuit where it is reshaped and
amplified as it gets attenuated and distorted with increasing distance
because of scattering, absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this
signal is then again converted into optical signal by the optical
transmitter.
3. Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo
detector, amplifier and signal restorer.
o Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
o Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio
of the signal as there are chances of noise to be introduced in the signal
due to the use of photo detectors.
 For short distance communication only main elements are required.
Source- LED Fiber- Multimode step index fiber Detector- PIN detector
 For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need
for couplers, beam splitters, repeaters, optical amplifiers.
Source- LASER diode Fiber- single mode fiber
Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD)

Optical Fiber Modes and Classification

Generally optical fiber is classified into two categories based on: the number of modes,
and the refractive index. These are explained as following below.
1. On the basis of the Number of Modes:
It is classified into 2 types:
(a) Single-mode fiber
In single-mode fiber, only one type of ray of light can propagate through the
fiber. This type of fiber has a small core diameter (5um) and high cladding
diameter (70um) and the difference between the refractive index of core and
cladding is very small. There is no dispersion i.e. no degradation of the signal
during traveling through the fiber. The light is passed through it through a laser
diode.
(b) Multi-mode fiber
Multimode fiber allows a large number of modes for the light ray traveling
through it. The core diameter is generally (40um) and that of cladding is (70um).
The relative refractive index difference is also greater than single mode fiber.
There is signal degradation due to multimode dispersion. It is not suitable for
long-distance communication due to large dispersion and attenuation of the
signal.
2. On the basis of Refractive Index:
It is also classified into 2 types:
(a). Step-index optical fiber:
The refractive index of core is constant. The refractive index of the cladding is
also constant. The rays of light propagate through it in the form of meridional
rays which cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core-cladding
boundary.
(b). Graded index optical fiber:
In this type of fiber, the core has a non-uniform refractive index that gradually
decreases from the center towards the core-cladding interface. The cladding has
a uniform refractive index. The light rays propagate through it in the form of
skew rays or helical rays. it is not cross the fiber axis at any time.

Losses in optical fiber:

1. Absorption loss
2. Scattering loss
3. Dispersion loss
4. Radiation loss
5. Coupling loss

1. Absorption loss
Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication process of fiber.
Absorption loss results in dissipation of some optical power as hear in the fiber cable.
Although glass fibers are extremely pure, some impurities still remain as residue
after purification. The amount of absorption by these impurities depends on their
concentration and light wavelength.
a. Intrinsic absorption : Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by
electronic absorption bands. Basically, absorption occurs when a light particle
(photon) interacts with an electron and excites it to a higher energy level. The main
cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic vibration
frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration of
silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. Light energy is transferred from the electromagnetic field
to the bond.
b. Extrinsic absorption
Extrinsic absorption is much more significant than intrinsic caused by impurities
introduced into the fiber material during manufacture – Iron, nickel, and chromium
Caused by transition of metal ions to higher energy level. Modern fabrication
techniques can reduce impurity levels below 1 part in 1010. For some of the more
common metallic impurities in silica fibre the table shows the peak attenuation
wavelength and the attenuation caused by an impurity concentration of 1 in 109
2. Scattering loss
Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured.

 Linear Scattering Losses: Linear scattering occurs when optical energy is

transferred from the dominant mode of operation to adjacent modes. It is
proportional to the input optical power injected into the dominant mode. o
Linear scattering is divided into two categories: Mie scattering and Rayleigh
scattering.
 Non- Linear Scattering Losses: Scattering loss in a fiber also occurs due to
fiber non-linearity’s i.e. if the optical power at the output of the fiber does not
change proportionately with the power change at the input of the fiber, the
optical fiber is said to be operating in the non-linear mode.

3. Dispersion loss
Dispersion is a measure of the temporal spreading that occurs when a light pulse
propagates through an optical fiber. Dispersion is sometimes referred to as delay
distortion in the sense that the propagation time delay causes the pulse to broaden.

4. Radiation losses
Radiation losses also called bending losses, occur when the fibre is curved. There are
two types of radiation losses: Micro bending losses. Macro bending losses.
5. Coupling losses
In fiber optic system face some losses in communication, which losses accrued from
material, cable length, cable bend, couple the more no. of fiber optic cable, splicing
the fiber cable etc., in coupling loss, fiber coupler will act as a loss in that Fiber Optic
System. Fiber coupler used for couple two fiber cable. During this coupling process
some light signal was loss in that Fiber Optic System, which is known as coupling
loss.

Light Sources
Light is an electromagnetic radiation. A particular frequency of this radiation
(around 390-700 nm) is visible to the human eye. Everything that we see around us
is because of light. Light is a form of energy and like all energies, it is produced from
a source, which are called Light sources.

Types of light sources

There are countless sources of light but they can all be categorized under either of
the two following categories-
 Natural sources
 Artificial sources
Natural Light Sources
The universe is filled with objects that emit light. Some of the light from these
sources reach the earth. The following things in nature have the ability to emit light:

 The Sun is the major source of light for the earth. The sun is a massive ball of
fire, at the centre of which nuclear fusion produces massive energy. This
energy comes out as heat and light. The light from the sun is one of the major
factors behind the sustainability of life on earth.
 Every other star produces light too, but only a small or no amount of it reaches
the earth because of the huge distance.
 The moon provides light as well but it cannot produce light on its own. The
light that we get from the moon is the light reflected by it from the sun.
 Some living organisms have the ability to produce light too. It is called
bioluminescence. It is the effect of certain chemical reactions within the
organism. Fireflies, jellyfish, glow worm, certain deep sea plants and
microorganisms can be cited as examples.
 Certain other natural phenomena such as lightning and volcanic eruptions also
emit light.

Artificial Light Sources

Apart from the natural sources, light can be produced artificially too. The different
light sources produced artificially can be put under three broad categories-

 Incandescent Sources
When certain objects are heated to a high temperature, they begin to emit light.
Both infrared and visible light is produced in the process.
Example- Candle, incandescent lamp.

 Luminescent Sources
Light can be produced by accelerating charges in a luminescent material. One
common way of doing it is by passing current through the material.
Example- Fluorescent tube light, electric bulb

 Gas Discharge Sources

Passing electricity through certain gases at a very low pressure can produce light
too. Example – Neon lamp, Sodium lamp.

Light Detector
 A device used in an optical transmission system to detect an optical signal
generated by a light source and propagating through a medium.
 A light detector essentially is an optical receiver that is paired with an optical
transmitter, both of which are connected to electrically based devices or
systems.
 Photoelectric sensors use a beam of light to detect the presence or absence of
an object. It emits a light beam (visible or infrared) from its light-emitting
element.
 A reflective-type photoelectric sensor is used to detect the light beam reflected
from the target.
  Light sensors vary from those that respond to changes, collect current or hold
voltage depending on light levels. People use light sensors for motion lights,
robot intelligence and much more.
 Light sensors often detect light that's not visible to the human eye, like x-rays,
infrared and ultraviolet light.
Detector Response Time
τf is the time required for the detector output to vary between given percentages
(e.g. from 90% to 10%) of the initial value.
Laser
 Laser is an acronym for “light amplification by the stimulated emission of
radiation.”
 It is a device that stimulates atoms or molecules to emit light at particular
wavelengths and amplifies that light, typically producing a very narrow beam
of radiation.
 The emission generally covers an extremely limited range of visible, infrared,
or ultraviolet wavelengths.
 Many different types of lasers have been developed, with highly varied
characteristics.

 Helium-neon lasers were the first lasers with broad commercial applications.
Because they could be adjusted to generate a visible red beam instead of an
infrared beam, they found immediate use projecting straight lines for
alignment, surveying, construction, and irrigation.
 Soon eye surgeons were using pulses from ruby lasers to weld detached retinas
back in place without cutting into the eye.
 The first large-scale application for lasers was the laser scanner for automated
checkout in supermarkets, which was developed in the mid-1970s and became
common a few years later.
 Compact disc audio players and laser printers for personal computers soon
followed.
 Lasers have become standard tools in diverse applications.
 Laser pointers highlight presentation points in lecture halls, and laser target
designators guide smart bombs to their targets.
*****************
 Module – III
Analog to Digital Conversion
The following technique can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion:
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PAM)
The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:
1. Sampling 2. Quantization 3. Binary Encoding
Low pass filter :
The low pass filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input
analog signal to ensure that the input signal to sampler is free from the unwanted
frequency components. This is done to avoid aliasing of the message signal.
1. Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring
the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the
continuous signal into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods:
(i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses
from the analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot
be easily implemented.
(ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which
pulse have finite width equal to T. The result is a sequence of samples that retain
the shape of the analog signal.

(iii) Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be
easily obtained. In this sampling technique, the top of the samples remains
constant by using a circuit. This is the most common sampling method used.
Nyquist Theorem
One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency. According to the
Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling rate and given by:
Fs =2*hf
2. Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be
infinite with non-integral values between two limits.
The following are the steps in Quantization:
2. We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
3. We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L
4. The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
5. The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the
formula amplitude/d.
6. After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the
middle of each zone.
7. The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantised value and
normalised PAM value.
8. The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of
the graph.

3. Binary Encoding
The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each sample is
quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed
to an n bit code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used.

Dynamic range
Dynamic range describes the ratio of the softest sound to the loudest sound in a
musical instrument or piece of electronic equipment. This ratio is measured in
decibels (abbreviated as dB) units.

Dynamic range measurements are used in audio equipment to indicate a component's

maximum output signal and to rate a system's noise floor. As a reference point, the
dynamic range of human hearing, the difference between the softest sound we can
perceive and the loudest, is about 120 dB.
Signal Voltage to- Quantization Noise Voltage Ratio
SQNR, short for signal to quantization noise ratio, is a measure of the quality of the
quantization, or digital conversion of an analog signal. Defined as normalized signal
power divided by normalized quantization noise power. The SQNR in dB is
approximately equal to 6 times the number of bits of the analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).
Example : The maximum SQNR for 16 bits is approximately 96dB. The signal voltage
is a sinusoid signal variant from −V−V to +V+V, thus the RMS value is
Vrms=V2–√=2NΔV/22–√Vrms=V2=2NΔV/22
because 2V=2NΔV2V=2NΔV where ΔVΔV is quantization step.
Quantization noise is modeled as uniform random variable in
[−ΔV/2,+ΔV/2][−ΔV/2,+ΔV/2] thus its standard deviation is Vn=ΔV/12−−√Vn=ΔV/12.

SQRN is defined as SQNR=V2rmsV2nSQNR=Vrms2Vn2

SQNR−−−−−√=VrmsVn=2N32−−√SQNR=VrmsVn=2N32

SQNRdB=20log10(VrmsVn)=20log10(2N32−−√)=6.02N+1.76

Linear and Non Linear PCM Codes

 Linear Codes
The magnitude change between any two successive steps in uniform. With linear
codes, resolution for higher amplitude analog signals is the same for lower
amplitude signals.
 Non Linear Codes
The step size increases with the amplitude of the input signal.

Companding in PCM

The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which

means that it does both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which
compresses the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver.
The effects of noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique.
There are two types of Companding techniques.
A-law Companding Technique
 Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is
linear and there is no compression.
 A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
 A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
 A-law is used in many parts of the world.

µ-law Companding Technique

 Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve is
linear and there is no compression.
 µ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.
 µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
 µ-law is used in North America and Japan.
PCM Line speed
 Line speed can depend on the plan purchased from an internet service provider
(ISP). Even then, it may not be possible to get the highest available speed all
the time because of several factors.
 For example, while a highway may allow a maximum speed of 65 mph, it may
not always be possible to travel at that speed, especially if it has been snowing
hard or there is a traffic jam – it works the same way in the case of line speed.
 When the highest speed is affected, the resultant speed is known as the
throughput speed.
 The throughput speed is the actual download speed of an internet connection
as opposed to that stated in the internet plan.
 Throughput speed varies depending on the server load or whether the service is
being used at peak hours, for example.
 The best time to achieve the line speed may be during non-peak hours,
especially when the number of users of the internet service may be low.

Delta Modulation PCM

The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve
better sampling. If this sampling interval in a Differential PCM (DPCM) is reduced
considerably, the sample-to-sample amplitude difference is very small, as if the
difference is 1-bit quantization, then the step-size is very small i.e., Δ (delta).
The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and in which the
step size after quantization is of smaller value Δ, such a modulation is termed
as delta modulation.
Features of Delta Modulation
 An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of a signal correlation.
 The quantization design is simple.
 The input sequence is much higher than Nyquist rate.
 The quality is moderate.
 The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.
 The stair-case approximation of output waveform.
 The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ (delta).
 The bit rate can be decided by the user.

Delta Modulation
It is a simplified form of DPCM technique, also viewed as 1-bit DPCM scheme. As the
sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.
Delta Modulator
The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with
two summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator. A stair-
case approximated waveform will be the output of the delta modulator with the step-
size as delta (Δ). The output quality of the waveform is moderate.

Delta Demodulator
The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay circuit.
The predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the
demodulator.
Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the prominent one is noise elimination
for out-of-band signals. The step-size error that may occur at the transmitter is
called granular noise, which is eliminated here. If there is no noise present, then the
modulator output equals the demodulator input.
Following is the block diagram for delta demodulator.
Advantages of Delta Modulation
The delta modulation has certain advantages over PCM as under :
1. Since, the delta modulation transmits only one bit for one sample, therefore the
signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth is quite small for delta
modulation compared to PCM .
2. The transmitter and receiver implementation is very much simple for delta
modulation. There is no analog to digital converter required in delta modulation.

Disadvantages of Delta Modulation

The delta modulation has two major drawbacks as under :
1. Slope overload distortion
2. Granular or idle noise

Differential PCM
The samples that are highly correlated, when encoded by PCM technique, leave
redundant information behind. To process this redundant information and to have a
better output, it is a wise decision to take predicted sampled values, assumed from
its previous outputs and summarize them with the quantized values. Such a process
is named as Differential PCM technique.

DPCM Transmitter
The DPCM Transmitter consists of Quantizer and Predictor with two summer
circuits. Following is the block diagram of DPCM transmitter.
The signals at each point are named as −
 x(nTs)x(nTs) is the sampled input
 xˆ(nTs)x^(nTs) is the predicted sample
 e(nTs)e(nTs) is the difference of sampled input and predicted output, often
called as prediction error
 v(nTs)v(nTs) is the quantized output
 u(nTs)u(nTs) is the predictor input which is actually the summer output of the
predictor output and the quantizer output
The predictor produces the assumed samples from the previous outputs of the
transmitter circuit. The input to this predictor is the quantized versions of the input
signal x(nTs)x(nTs).
Quantizer Output is represented as −
v(nTs)=Q[e(nTs)]v(nTs)=Q[e(nTs)]
=e(nTs)+q(nTs)=e(nTs)+q(nTs)
Where q (nTs) is the quantization error
Predictor input is the sum of quantizer output and predictor output,
u(nTs)=xˆ(nTs)+v(nTs)u(nTs)=x^(nTs)+v(nTs)
u(nTs)=xˆ(nTs)+e(nTs)+q(nTs)u(nTs)=x^(nTs)+e(nTs)+q(nTs)
u(nTs)=x(nTs)+q(nTs)u(nTs)=x(nTs)+q(nTs)
The same predictor circuit is used in the decoder to reconstruct the original input.

DPCM Receiver
The block diagram of DPCM Receiver consists of a decoder, a predictor, and a
summer circuit. Following is the diagram of DPCM Receiver.

The notation of the signals is the same as the previous ones. In the absence of noise,
the encoded receiver input will be the same as the encoded transmitter output.
The predictor assumes a value, based on the previous outputs. The input given to
the decoder is processed and that output is summed up with the output of the
predictor, to obtain a better output.
Multiplexing
It is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link. Multiplexing is done using a device called
Multiplexer (MUX) that combine n input lines to generate one output line i.e. (many
to one). At the receiving end a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used that
separate signal into its component signals i.e. one input and several outputs (one to
many)

Categories of Multiplexing

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the
spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are
separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called Guard Bands (to prevent
overlapping). Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.
Figure 1 gives a conceptual view of FDM. Here, the transmission path is divided into
three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.
Advantages
o It does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver.
o Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is simpler and easy demodulation.
o Due to slow narrow band fading only one channel gets affected.
o It is used for analog signals.
o A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
Disadvantages
o It is suffers problem of cross-talk.
o It is used only when a few low speed channels are desired.
o Inter modulation distortion takes place.
Applications
 FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
 It is used to public telephones and in cable TV systems.
 AM frequency = 530 to 1700 kHz.
 FM frequency = 88 to 108 MHz.
 FDM is used in television broadcasting.
 First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as
well. In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot.
Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are
divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be
transmitted in given time slot.
In order to transmit a large number of signals from one location to other,
multiplexing is used.
In TDM, a number of channels are interleaved in time into a single digital system.
Each channel input is periodically sampled and assigned a certain time slot.
In TDM, the channel/link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of
time.
The Coder output is the string of binary digits representing channel 1, channel 2,
and so on. These channels are combined with framing bits for MUX/DEMUX
synchronization.

Fig. Time Division Multiplexing

The smallest group of bits containing at least one channel from each signal plus
framing bit is known as a frame.
The framing bits forms a repetitive pattern i.e. combine with channel bits within the
MUX. DEMUX then successfully recognize the contents of framing pattern to
distribute incoming bits to the proper channel.
  If a MUX assigns each channel a time slot equal to 1 bit, the arrangement is
known as bit interleaving.
 If a MUX assigns each channel a time slot equal to one word, the arrangement
is known as word interleaving.
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
It periodically generates the frame consisting of a constant number of time slots, each
time slot of constant length. A starting delimiter (flag) is used for frame
synchronisation which is needed to differentiate one frame from next frame. Because
of a flag, individual time slots can be identified by position within a frame.

Fig.
Advantages
1. An order is maintained.
2. No addressing information is required channel capacity should be large.
Disadvantages
1. High bitrate is required.
2. If no input signal is present at one channel since a fixed time Slot is assigned
to each channel, that time slot for that channel does not carry any information
and there is wastage of bandwidth.

2. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing

When data from different channels is not available at fixed predetermined rates
rather it is available at the rates which are statistically determined, then their
multiplexing is known as asynchronous time division multiplexing or statistical
time division multiplexing.
In this, data may send from a channel at any time and for different duration. In this
type of multiplexing, time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible. The clocks of
MUX and DEMUX are not synchronised whether the channel of incoming data is
identified by an address that included in the frame.
In asynchronous TDM, slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to any of the
channels that have data to send.
 Fig. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
Advantages
1. Code utilisation of communication channel.
2. TDM circuitry is not very complex.
3. Communication link of low capacity is used.
4. The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
5. Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
6. Intermediation distortion is absent.
Disadvantages
1. Frames have different sizes
2. Requires buffer
3. Address information is needed

Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)

WDM is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical
fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Below
figure gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer. Very narrow
bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At
the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

Here, we want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the
multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of
light sources are easily handled by a prism. As we know, a prism bends a beam of
light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency. Using this technique, a
multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A
demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.
Advantages of WDM
 WDM is a quite simple technique.
 The optical link provides greater bandwidth.
 It allows secured transmission of optical signal.
 This technique increases the signal carrying capacity of the system.
Disadvantages of WDM
 The presence of optical component increases the overall cost of the system.
 Proper wavelength spacing must be required otherwise it will lead to signal
interference.

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication
protocol, developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over
relatively large distances using optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data
streams are transferred at the same time over the optical fibre.
A single clock (Primary Reference Clock, PRC) handles the timing of transmission of
signals & equipments across the entire network. SONET is used to convert electrical
signal into optical signal so that it can travel longer distances. So, SONET is called a
Synchronous Network SONET is called a Synchronous Network.
SONET Network Elements

1. STS Multiplexer:
 Performs multipleximg of signals
 Converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. STS Demultiplexer:
 Performs demultiplexing of signals
 Converts optical signal to electrical signal
3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates it.
4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or
remove a signal.
SONET Layers

SONET includes four functional layers:

1. Path Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal from its optical source to its
optical destination.
 STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
2. Line Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
 STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provides Line layer functions.
3. Section Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.
 Each device of network provides section layer functions.
4. Photonic Layer:
 It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
 It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel (presence of
light = 1 and absence of light = 0).
Advantages of SONET
 Transmits data to large distances
 Low electromagnetic interference
 High data rates and large bandwidth

*******************
 MODULE – IV

Wireless Communications Systems (Unguided Media)

o It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. An
unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
1. Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:
o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

2. Microwaves
Microwaves are of two types:
o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

(i) Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission
antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6
GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer
distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any
malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain,
wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

(ii) Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known
height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
o The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and
it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth
station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

3. Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.

Electromagnetic Polarization
 As electromagnetic waves consist of an electric and a magnetic field vibrating at
right angles to each other it is necessary to adopt a convention to determine the
polarization of the signal. For this purpose the plane of the electric field is used.
 Polarization, also called wave polarization, is an expression of the orientation of
the lines of electric flux in an electromagnetic field ( EM field ).
 Polarization occurs when an electric field distorts the negative cloud of electrons
around positive atomic nuclei in a direction opposite the field. This slight
separation of charge makes one side of the atom as positive and the opposite side
as negative.
 Polarization can be constant -- that is, existing in a particular orientation at all
times, or it can rotate with each wave cycle.
 Polarization is important in wireless communications systems. The physical
orientation of a wireless antenna corresponds to the polarization of the radio
waves received or transmitted by that antenna.
 Thus, a vertical antenna receives and emits vertically polarized waves, and a
horizontal antenna receives or emits horizontally polarized waves.
 The best short-range communications is obtained when the transmitting and
receiving (source and destination) antennas have the same polarization.
 The least efficient short-range communications usually takes place when the two
antennas are at right angles (for example, one horizontal and one vertical).
 Over long distances, the atmosphere can cause the polarization of a radio wave to
fluctuate, so the distinction between horizontal and vertical becomes less
significant.
 Polarization involves creating division or causing a group or something to be
divided up into two opposing groups. An example of polarization is when a
controversial political figure causes the country to become sharply divided.
Effect of Polarization
 Polarization refers to an effect reducing the performance of batteries. This effect is
a displacement of electrode potential from the equilibrium value.
 Polarization affects the propagation of EM fields at infrared ( IR ), visible,
ultraviolet ( UV ), and even X-ray wavelength s.
 In ordinary visible light, there are numerous wave components at random
polarization angles. When such light is passed through a special filter, the filter
blocks all light except that having a certain polarization.
 When two polarizing filters are placed so a ray of light passes through them both,
the amount of light transmitted depends on the angle of the polarizing filters with
respect to each other.
 The most light is transmitted when the two filters are oriented so they polarize
light in the same direction. The least light is transmitted when the filters are
oriented at right angles to each other.
Types of Polarization
Following are the three types of polarization depending on the transverse and longitudinal
wave motion:
o Linear polarization
o Circular polarization
o Elliptical polarization
Linear Polarization
 Vertical and horizontal polarizations are the most straightforward forms and they
fall into a category known as linear polarization. Here the wave can be thought of
as vibrating in one plane, i.e. up and down, or side to side.
 This form of polarization is the most commonly used, and the most
straightforward.
Circular Polarization
 It can be visualized by imagining a signal propagating from an antenna that is
rotating.
 It can be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as
seen from the transmitting antenna.
 There are two linear components in the electric field of light that are perpendicular
to each other such that their amplitudes are equal, but the phase difference
is π/2. The propagation of occurring electric field will be in a circular motion.
Elliptical Polarization
 The electric field of light follows an elliptical propagation.
 The amplitude and phase difference between the two linear components are not
equal.
 This occurs when there is a combination of both linear and circular polarization.
 This can be visualized by imagining the tip of the electric field tracing out an
elliptically shaped corkscrew

Polarization Applications : Following are the applications of polarization:

 Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
 Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress analysis test.
 3D movies are produced and shown with the help of polarization.
 It is used for differentiating between transverse and longitudinal waves.
 Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation
 It is a form of energy that is all around us and takes many forms, such as radio
waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays.
 Sunlight is also a form of EM energy, but visible light is only a small portion of the
EM spectrum, which contains a broad range of electromagnetic wavelengths.
 A small part of electromagnetic radiation is the visible light that we can see with
our own eyes.
 The remaining parts of the electromagnetic spectrum cannot be seen but special
analytical equipment can be used to detect these forms of EMR.
 Electromagnetic radiation includes X-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared,
microwaves and radio waves.
 The frequencies and wavelengths of these are shown below. Click on the visible
light area to see an expansion of this range.
 Spectroscopic analysis makes use of different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum:
A. X-rays are produced when a stream of high-energy electrons hits a metal
target. X-rays have short wavelengths and high energy. They can pass through
thin solids and liquids. They can also pass through the body but are stopped
by bones. Exposure to too much X-radiation can damage the body's cells.
B. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps containing mercury
vapor or deuterium gas. We cannot see UV light. Overexposure causes
sunburn.
C. Visible light is produced by normal light bulbs. White light from the sun is a
mixture of all the different colors but we only ‘see’ the mixture instead of the
individual colors.
D. Infrared (IR) radiation is produced by hot objects such as a glowing metal wire
in a heater. We cannot see IR light but we can feel its effects as it warms our
skin.

The speed of light

 All of the different forms of electromagnetic radiation travel through space (a
vacuum) at a speed of 3 X 108 meters per second (ms-1).
 The speed of light through a material is less than this. It varies for different
substances.
 The speed of light in air is a little below 3 X 108 ms-1 and in water or glass it is
even lower.
 There are four main electromagnetic interactions:
o The force of attraction or repulsion between electric charges is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
o Magnetic poles come in pairs that attract and repel each other, much as
electric charges do.
o An electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field whose direction
depends on the direction of the current.
o A moving electric field produces a magnetic field, and vice versa.
Optical Properties of Radio Waves

o Electromagnetic waves are composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields at

right angles to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
o Electromagnetic waves differ in wavelength (or frequency). In an electro-negative
wave the electric field E(vector) and the Magnetic field B(vector) oscillate
perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to direction of
propagation of wave.
o Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves and show interference or diffraction.
o Electromagnetic waves may be polarized.
o Electromagnetic waves need no medium of propagation.
o The energy from the sun is received by the earth through electromagnetic waves.
o The wavelength (λ) and the frequency (v) of electromagnetic wave is related as

c = v λ = ω/k The S.I. unit of frequency is Hertz and wavelength is metre.

Relation Between Speed, Wavelength, and Frequency

o The speed of a wave is a product of its wavelength and frequency. Because all
electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed through space, a wave with a
shorter wavelength must have a higher frequency, and vice versa.
o This relationship is represented by the equation:
Speed = Wavelength × Frequency
o The equation for wave speed can be rewritten as:
Frequency=Speed Wavelength or Wavelength=Speed Frequency

Skip distance
The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a
radio signal is transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the
ionosphere, and been refracted back by the ionosphere.

The skip distance is dependent upon a variety of factors:

 Frequency: The frequency of operation has a major influence on the skip

distance that can be achieved. Typically as the frequency increases a lower angle of
radiation is needed to return the signals to Earth in a shorter distance. Also higher
frequencies tend to be reflected or refracted by higher layers or regions in the
ionosphere. This will mean that higher frequencies tend to lead to longer skip
distances.
 Ionospheric conditions: The ionospheric conditions play a major role in
governing the skip distance. Under some circumstances when ionization levels are
high it may be possible for signals to achieve very short skip distances.
 Angle of radiation: The angle of radiation from the transmitting antenna will
also have an impact on the skip distance. A lower angle of radiation will lead to
longer skip distances as a result of the geometry.

Free-Space Path Loss (FSPL)

Free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave
that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space, with no obstacles
nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. The FSPL appears in vacuum under ideally
conditions, e.g. a radio communication between satellites. It is a criterion for the
derivation of the radar equation too.
Calculation of free-space path loss
o If high-frequency energy is emitted by an isotropic radiator, than the energy
propagate uniformly in all directions.
o Areas with the same power density therefore form spheres ( A = 4πR² ) around the
radiator.
o The same amount of energy spreads out on an incremented spherical surface at
an incremented spherical radius.
o That means the power density on the surface of a sphere is inversely proportional
to the surface area A (or the square of the radius R) of the sphere.
o The expression for FSPL actually encapsulates two effects.
o Free-space power loss is proportional to the square of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver, and also proportional to the square of the frequency of
the radio signal.
Firstly, the spreading out of electromagnetic energy in free space is determined by
the inverse square law, i.e.
S= P1 (1)
4𝜋.R 2

 Pt = transmitted power [W]

 S = is the power per unit area at distance
 R = Distance transmitter - receiver [m]

The second effect is that of the receiving antenna's aperture, which describes how
well an antenna can pick up power from an incoming electromagnetic wave. For an
isotropic antenna, this is given by
P1 = S.λ2 (2)
4𝜋
 Pr = received power [W]
 S = nondirectional power density
 λ = transmitted wave length [m]
The total loss is given by the ratio:
FSPL = P1 = 4𝜋.R 2 = 4𝜋Rf 2 (3)
Pr λ c
 fr = transmitted frequency
 c = the speed of light
which can be found by combining the previous two expressions.

********************
 MODULE – V
Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Both Bit rate and Baud rate are generally used in data communication.
Bit rate is the transmission of number of bits per second. On the other hand, Baud
rate is defined as the number of signal units per second. The formula which relates
both bit rate and baud rate is given below:
Bit rate = Baud rate X the number of bit per baud

Sr. Bit Rate Baud Rate

No.
1. Bit rate is transmission of number Baud rate is number of signal units per
of bits per second. second.
2. It can be defined as per second It can be defined as per second number
travel number of bits. of changes
3. Bit rate focuses on computer Baud rate focuses on data
efficiency transmission.
4. Bit rate = Baud rate X the number Baud rate = Bit rate/the number of
of bits per baud bits per baud.

Error
Error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input
information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can
introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from one system to other. That means a
0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.

Detect and Correct Errors

To detect and correct the errors, additional bits are added to the data bits at the
time of transmission.
 The additional bits are called parity bits. They allow detection or correction of
the errors.
 The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.

Parity Checking of Error Detection

It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits
word is used as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message
bits. The parity of 8-bits transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.

Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the
parity bit should be even (2,4,6,....).

Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the
parity bit should be odd (1,3,5,....).
Use of Parity Bit
The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
 For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the
entire word is even. Shown in fig. (a).
 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire
word is odd. Shown in fig. (b).

Types Of Errors
Errors can be classified into two categories: Single-Bit Error and Burst Error

(i) Single-Bit Error

The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is
changed to 1.
Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight
wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-
bit is corrupted per byte.

(ii) Burst Error

The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.
The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.
Burst Errors are most likely to occur in Serial Data Transmission.
The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.
Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver
end is not identical to the message transmitted.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
o Longitudinal Redundancy (parity) Check (LRC)
o Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
o Checksum
o Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Longitudinal Redundancy (parity) Check (LRC)

o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is
appended at the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even.
Therefore, the total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the number
of 1s bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits and
compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even-
parity checking.

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

 Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple
parity check bit.
 Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along with
the data.
 At the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the
received data.
Checksum
A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.
It is divided into two parts:
Checksum Generator
A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the
data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by
using one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the
original data, known as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted across the
network.

The Sender follows the given steps:

 The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
 All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
 The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

Checksum Checker
A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming
data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together,
and then this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the
data is accepted otherwise data is rejected.
The Receiver follows the given steps:
 The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
 All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
 The sum is complemented.
 If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is di
scarded.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n
number is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as
division which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is
known as binary division. The remainder generated from this division is known
as CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original
data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will
treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that
was used to find the CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data
is accepted.
If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an
error. Therefore, the data is discarded.
Example : Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.

CRC Generator and the final string would be 11100111

o A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 which is sent across the network.
division. Firstly, three zeroes are
appended at the end of the data as the
length of the divisor is 4 and we know
that the length of the string 0s to be
appended is always one less than the
length of the divisor.
o Now, the string becomes 11100000, and
the resultant string is divided by the
divisor 1001.
o The remainder generated from the
binary division is known as CRC
remainder. The generated value of the
CRC remainder is 111.
o CRC remainder replaces the appended
string of 0s at the end of the data unit,

CRC Checker
o The functionality of the CRC checker
is similar to the CRC generator.
o When the string 11100111 is received
at the receiving end, then CRC
checker performs the modulo-2
division.
o A string is divided by the same
divisor, i.e., 1001.
o In this case, CRC checker generates
the remainder of zero. Therefore, the
data is accepted.

Error Correction
Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.
Error Correction can be handled in two ways:
o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests
the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting
code which automatically corrects the errors.
A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it. For correcting the
errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For example, If we want to
calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will determine which one of
seven bits is in error. To achieve this, we have to add some additional redundant bits.
Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total number of the data bits.
The number of redundant bits r can be calculated by using the formula:
2r>=d+r+1
The value of r is calculated by using the above formula. For example, if the value of d
is 4, then the possible smallest value that satisfies the above relation would be 3.

To determine the position of the bit which is in error, a technique developed by R.W.
Hamming is Hamming code which can be applied to any length of the data unit and
uses the relationship between data units and redundant units.

Hamming Code
Parity bits: The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the
total number of 1s is even or odd.
Even parity: To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the
value of the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the
value of the parity bit is 1.
Odd Parity: To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value
of parity bit is 1. If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0.

Algorithm of Hamming code:

o An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d+r.
o The location of each of the (d+r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
o The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,.....2k-1.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of the
parity bits determines the position of an error.
Relationship b/w Error position & binary number

Example :
Suppose the original data is 1010 which is to be sent.
Total number of data bits 'd' = 4
Number of redundant bits r : 2r >= d+r+1
2r>= 4+r+1
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation.
Total number of bits = d+r = 4+3 = 7;
Determining the position of the redundant bits
The number of redundant bits is 3. The three bits are represented by r1, r2, r4.
The position of the redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the power of 2.
Therefore, their corresponding positions are 1, 21, 22.
1. The position of r1 = 1
2. The position of r2 = 2
3. The position of r4 = 4
Representation of Data on the addition of parity bits:

Determining the Parity bits : Given notes with example

Data Communications Codes

• These are used to represent characters and symbols such as letters, digits and
punctuation marks.
• These are called character codes, character sets, symbol codes or character
languages.
• The relationship of bytes to characters is determined by a character code.
• Each time a user presses a key on a terminal/PC, a binary code is generated for the
corresponding character.
• Various character codes have been used in data communication including:
1. Morse, Baudot 2. EBCDIC, ASCII 3. Unicode
1. Baudot Code
The Baudot code (sometimes called the Telex code) was the first fixed-length
character code. One of first codes developed for machine to machine communication.
It uses 1’s and 0’s instead of dots and dashes and used for transmitting telex
messages (punch tape).
• Fixed character length (5-bits)
• 32 different codes
• increased capacity by using two codes for shifting
• 11111 (32) Shift to Lower (letters)
• 11011 (27) Shift to Upper (digits, punctuations)
 4 special codes for SP, CR, LF & blank
• Total = 26 + 26 + 4 = 56 different characters
International Baudot
• Added a 6th bit for parity
• Used to detect errors within a single character
2. ASCII Code
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
• 7-bit code developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• most popular data communication character code today.
• Allows for 128 different character representations (27).
• includes upper and lower case.
• lots of special characters (non-printable).
• generally used with an added parity bit.
• better binary ordering of characters than EBCDIC
 Extended ASCII uses 8 data bits and no parity
• Used for processing and storage of data.
• Allows for international characters.
• 8th bit stripped of for transmission of standard character set.

3. EBCDIC Code
• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
• 8-bit character code developed by IBM.
• used for data communication, processing and storage.
• extended earlier proprietary 6-bit BCD code.
• designed for backward compatibility or marketing.
• still in use today on some mainframes and legacy systems.
• Allows for 256 different character representations (28).
• includes upper and lower case.
• lots of special characters (non-printable).
• lots of blank (non-used codes).
• assigned to international characters in various versions
 used with/without parity (block transmissions).

SUMMARY OF CHARACTER CODES

Morse =._
Baudot = 5 bit (no parity)
Int. Baudot = 6 bit (5 data + 1 parity)
ASCII = 8 bit (7 data + 1 parity)
EBCDIC = 9 bit (8 data + 1 parity)
UNICODE = 16 bits (no parity)
Bar Code
UPC-A barcodes consist of 12 numbers. The first digit identifies the numbering
system. The next five digits identify the manufacturer, while the second five digits
identify the specific product. The last number is a check digit.
EAN-13 barcodes consist of 13 numbers.
UPC barcodes fall under the Global Trade Identification Number (GTIN) standard.
The 12 numbers at the bottom of a barcode are stored as 14-digit strings in a
database.

Steps to Use Online Barcode Maker

1. Select a barcode symbology. The default is Code 128.
2. Enter the text that want to insert to barcode.
3. Click “Create Barcode” to preview customized barcode.
4. Enter email address and select “Email Barcode” to receive an email with barcode.
Error Control
 Error control in data link layer is the process of detecting and correcting data
frames that have been corrupted or lost during transmission.
 In case of lost or corrupted frames, the receiver does not receive the correct data-
frame and sender is ignorant about the loss.
 Data link layer follows a technique to detect transit errors and take necessary
actions, which is retransmission of frames whenever error is detected or frame is
lost. The process is called Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ).
Phases in Error Control
The error control mechanism in data link layer involves the following phases:
 Detection of Error − Transmission error, if any, is detected by either the
sender or the receiver.
 Acknowledgment − acknowledgment may be positive or negative.
o Positive ACK − On receiving a correct frame, the receiver sends a
positive acknowledge.
o Negative ACK − On receiving a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, the
receiver sends a negative acknowledgment back to the sender.
  Retransmission − The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If
an acknowledgment of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive
before the timeout, or a negative acknowledgment is received, the sender
retransmits the frame.

Error Control Techniques

There are three main techniques for error control:
 Stop and Wait ARQ
 Go-Back-N ARQ
 Selective Repeat ARQ
Stop and Wait ARQ
This protocol involves the following transitions:
o A timeout counter is maintained by the sender, which is started when a frame is
sent.
o If the sender receives acknowledgment of the sent frame within time, the sender
is confirmed about successful delivery of the frame. It then transmits the next
frame in queue.
o If the sender does not receive the acknowledgment within time, the sender
assumes that either the frame or its acknowledgment is lost in transit. It then
retransmits the frame.
o If the sender receives a negative acknowledgment, the sender retransmits the
frame.
Go-Back-N ARQ
The working principle of this protocol is:
o The sender has buffers called sending window.
o The sender sends multiple frames based upon the sending-window size, without
receiving the acknowledgment of the previous ones.
o The receiver receives frames one by one. It keeps track of incoming frame’s
sequence number and sends the corresponding acknowledgment frames.
o After the sender has sent all the frames in window, it checks up to what
sequence number it has received positive acknowledgment.
o If the sender has received positive acknowledgment for all the frames, it sends
next set of frames.
o If sender receives NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular frame, it
retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.
Selective Repeat ARQ

o Both the sender and the receiver have buffers called sending window and
receiving window respectively.
o The sender sends multiple frames based upon the sending-window size, without
receiving the acknowledgment of the previous ones.
o The receiver also receives multiple frames within the receiving window size.
o The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence numbers, buffers the
frames in memory.
o It sends ACK for all successfully received frames and sends NACK for only
frames which are missing or damaged.
o The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.
Data Service Unit (DSU)
It is a digital communication device that works with a Channel Service Unit (CSU) to
connect a local area network (LAN) to an external communication carrier service or
a wide area network (WAN) link (such as a T1 line). Data Service Units (DSUs) provide
a modem-like interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) such as a router and
the CSU connected to the digital service line. DSUs also serve to electrically isolate
the telco’s digital telecommunication line from the networking equipment at the
customer premises.

For example, in T1 transmission technologies, the DSU converts network data frames
that are received from the router’s RS-232, RS-449, or V.35 serial transmission
interface into the standard DSX framing format, encoding scheme, and voltages of
the T1 line. The DSU also converts the unipolar networking signal into a bipolar
signal suitable for transmission over the digital line. The DSU is also responsible for
handling signal regeneration and for controlling timing errors for transmission over
the T1 line. DSUs usually provide other functions such as line conditioning of the T1
line, as well as remote diagnostic capabilities such as Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), which allows the telco central office (CO) to monitor the state of the
line at the customer premises.

Channel Service Unit (CSU)

These devices lie between the telephone company network and the customer network
at the demarcation point and are the local interfaces between the data terminal
equipment (DTE) at the customer premises and the telco’s digital communications
line (such as a T1 line).

Working of CSU/DSU
CSU/DSUs essentially function as the digital counterpart to analog modems. They
are typically external units that look similar to an external modem, but they can also
come in sizes that can be mounted in a rack. Unlike analog modems, CSU/DSUs do
not perform signal conversion because the signal at both ends is already digital.
CSU/DSUs package digital data into a format suitable for the particular digital
transmission line they are servicing, and buffer and rate-adapt digital signals going to
and from the telephone company network. CSU/DSUs ensure that data frames are
properly formed and timed for the telephone company network and provide a
protective barrier to electrical disturbances that can harm customer premises
equipment (CPE).

Digital lines usually terminate at customer premises with four-wire connections

having various connector types, including RJ-45, four-screw terminal blocks, and M-
block connectors (used for V.35 interfaces). The four-wire connection is joined to the
appropriate connector on the CSU/DSU. The CSU/DSU typically adjusts itself to the
line speed of the digital data service (DDS) line using an autosensing feature. The
customer’s CSU/DSU then connects directly to the customer’s router, and from there
connects to the customer’s network.

Modem
 The most common type of data communications equipment(DEC) is the data
communication modem. The word modem is a contraction derived from the words
modulator and demodulator.
 Telephone circuit were designed for transporting analog voice signals within a
bandwidth approximately 300Hz to 3000Hz. Telephone circuit included amplifiers
and other analog devices that could not propagate digital signals. Therefore,
voice-band data modems were designed to communicate with each other using
analog signals that occupied the same bandwidth used for standard voice
telephone communications.
 Data communications modem designed to operate over the limited bandwidth of
the public telephone network are called voice-band modems.
 Because digital information can not be transported directly over analog
transmission media, the primary purpose of a data communications modem is to
interface computers, computer networks and other digital terminal equipment to
analog communications facilities.
 In the transmitter(modulator) section of a modem, digital signals are encoded onto
an analog carrier. The digital signals modulate the carrier, producing digitally
modulated analog signals that are capable of being transported through the
analog communications media. Therefore, the output of a modem is an analog
signal that is carrying digital information.
 In the receiver section of a modem, digitally modulated analog signals are
demodulated. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. Therefore,
modem receivers (demodulators) simply extract digital information from digitally
modulated analog carriers.
 The below figure shows how a modem is used to facilitate the transmission of
digital data between DTEs over a POTs telephone circuit. At the transmit end, a
modem received discrete digital pulses from a DTE through a serial digital
interface (such as RS-232). The DCE converts the digital pulses to analog signals.
 A modem transmitter is a digital–to–analog converter(DAC). The analog signals
are then outputted onto an analog communications channel where they are
transported through the system to a distant receiver.
 At the destination end of a data communications system, a modem receives analog
signals from the communications channel and converts them to digital pulses. A
modem receiver is an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The demodulated digital
pulses are then outputted onto a serial digital interface and transported to the
DTE.

Bell System-Compatible Modems

 At one time, Bell System modems were virtually the only modems in existence.
This is because AT&T operating companies once owned 90% of the telephone
companies in the United States and the AT & T operating tariff allowed only
equipment manufactured by Western Electric Company(WECO) and furnished by
Bell System operating companies to be connected to AT & T telephone lines.
 The Cartefone decision began the interconnect industry, which has led to
competitive data communications offerings by a large number of independent
companies.
 The operating parameters for Bell System modems are the models from which the
international standards specified by the ITU-T evolved.
 Bell System modem specifications apply only to modems that existed in 1968.
Therefore, their specifications pertain only to modems operating at data
transmission rate of 9600 bps or less.
Modem Block Diagram
The below figure shows a simplified block diagram for a data communications
modem. The basic principle behind a modem transmitter is to convert information
received from the DTE in the form of binary digits (bits) to digitally modulated analog
signals. The reverse process is accomplished in the modem receiver. Only the
primary functional blocks of the transmitter and receiver are shown in figure.

The primary blocks of a modem are described as below :

1. Serial Interface Circuit : Interfaces the modem transmitter and receiver to the
serial interface. The transmit section accepts digital information from the serial
interface, converts it to the appropriate voltage levels, and then directs the
information to the modulator. The receive section receives digital information from
the demodulator circuit, converts it to the appropriate voltage levels, and then directs
the information to the serial interface.
2. Modulator Circuit : Receives digital information from the serial interface circuit.
The digital information modulates an analog carrier, producing a digitally modulated
analog signal. The modulator converts digital changes in the information to analog
changes in the carrier. The output from the modulator is directed to the transmit
band=pass filter and equalizer circuit.
3. Band-pass Filter and Equalizer Circuit : There are band-pass filter and equalizer
circuits in both the transmitter and receiver sections of the modem.
The transmit band-pass filter limits the bandwidth of the digitally modulated analog
signals to a bandwidth of the digitally modulated analog signals to a bandwidth
appropriate for transmission over a standard telephone circuit.
The receiver band-pass filter limits the bandwidth of the signals allowed to reach the
demodulator circuit, thus reducing noise and improving system performance.
4. Telco Interface Circuit : The primary functions of the telco interface circuit are to
math the impedance of the modem to the impedance of the telephone line and
regulate the amplitude of the transmit signal. The interface also provides electrical
isolation and serves as the separation point between subscriber equipment and
telephone company-provided equipment . The telco line can be two-wire or four-wire
and the modem can operate half or full duplex.
5. Demodulator Circuit : Receives modulated signals from the band-pass filter and
equalizer circuit and converts the digitally modulated analog signals to digital signals.
The output from the demodulator is directed to the serial interface circuit, where it is
passed on to the serial interface.
6. Carrier and Clock Generation Circuit : The carrier generation circuit produces
the analog carriers necessary for the modulation and demodulation processes. The
clock generation circuit generates the appropriate clock and timing signals required
for performing transmit and receive functions in an orderly and timely fashion.

Modem Classifications
Data communications modems can be generally classified as either Asynchronous or
Synchronous and use one of the following digital modulation schemes : ASK, FSK,
PSK or QAM.
Modems can be categorized as
 internal or external
 low speed, medium speed, high speed, or very high speed;
 wide band or voice band
 personal or commercial etc.
Regardless of how modems are classified, they all share a common goal, to convert
digital pulses to analog signals in the transmitter and analog signals to digital pulses
in the receiver.

Asynchronous Voice-Band Modems

 Asynchronous modems can be generally classified as low-speed voice-band
modems, as they are typically used to transport asynchronous data. Synchronous
data transported by asynchronous modems is called isochronous transmission.
 Asynchronous modems use modulation schemes such as ASK or FSK, and are as
telemetry and caller ID.
 To operate full-duplex with two-wire dial-up circuit, it is necessary to divide the
usable bandwidth of a voice-band circuit in half, creating two equal-capacity data
channels. A popular modem that does this is the Bell System 103- compatible
modem.
 The 103 modem is capable of full duplex operation over a two-wire telephone line
at bit rates up to 300 bps.
 With the 103 modem, there are two data channels, each with their own mark and
space frequencies.
 One data i.e., the lower half of the usable voice band. The mark and space
frequencies for the high-band channel are 2225Hz to 2025Hz respectively.
 Second data channel, called the high-band channel, occupies a bandwidth from
1650Hz to 3000 Hz i.e., the upper half of the usable voice band.
 A 103 modem operated at 300 baud and is capable of simultaneous transmission
and reception of 300 bps.

Synchronous Voice-Band Modems

 Synchronous modems use PSK or QAM to transport synchronous data at
transmission rates between 2400bps and 56,000 bps over standard voice-grade
telephone lines.
 The modulated carrier is transmitted to the distant modem, where a coherent
carrier is recovered and used to demodulate the data.
 The transmit clock is recovered from the data and used to clock the received data
into the DTE.
 PSK is commonly used in medium speed synchronous voice-band modems,
typically operating between 2400bps and 4800 bps.
 QPSK has a bandwidth efficiency of 2bps/Hz, therefore the baud rate and
minimum bandwidth for a 2400 bps synchronous modem are 1200 baud and
1200 Hz respectively.
 The standard 2400-bps synchronous modem is the Bell System 201C or
equivalent.
 The 201C modem uses 1600Hz carrier frequency and has an output spectrum
that extends from approximately 1000Hz to 2200Hz.
 The standard 4800bps synchronous modem is the Bell System 208A.
 The 208A modem also uses a 1600Hz carrier frequency but has an output
spectrum that extends from approximately 800Hz to 2400Hz.
 Both 201C and 208A are full-duplex modems designed to be used with four-wire
private-line circuits. Both operate over two-wire dial-up circuits but only in the
simplex mode.

Modem Synchronization
During the request-to-send/clear-to-send(RTS/CTS) delay, a transmit modem
outputs a special, internally generated bit pattern called a training sequence. This
bit pattern is used to synchronize (train) the receive modem at the distant end of the
communications channel. Depending on the type of modulation, transmission bit
rate and modem complexity, the training sequence accomplishes one or more of the
following functions :
1. Initializes the communications channel, which includes disabling echo and
establishing the gain of automatic gain control(AGC) devices.
2. Verifies continuity in the receive modem.
3. Initialize descrambler circuits in receive modem.
4. Initialize automatic equalizers in receive modem.
5. Synchronize the receive modem’s carrier to the transmit modem’s carrier.
6. Synchronize the receive modem’s clock to the transmit modem’s clock.

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