Chapter

p 8

Screws, Fasteners, and the Design of

Nonpermanent Joints

1
Machine design—what is it?
Subset of Mechanical design…which is
S b t off Engineering
Subset E i i d design…which
i hi h iis
Subset of Design….which is
Subset of the topic of Problem Solving

What is a machine? …a combination of

resistant bodies arranged so that by
their means the mechanical forces of
nature can be compelled to do work
accompanied by certain determinate
motions.
motions
Big picture
Mechanics
Change with
Timee not
o a Statics Dynamics time
factor
kinematics Kinetics

Motion and forces

motion
The Design Process

•Recognize
R i need/define
d/d fi problem
bl
•Create a solution/design
•Prepare
P model/prototype/solution
d l/ t t / l ti
•Test and evaluate
•Communicate
C i t d design
i
Important to review the
fundamentals of….
•Statics
•Dynamics
•Materials/material properties
•Mechanics of Materials
•Design of Mechanical Systems 1
•Dynamics of Machinery
Power Screws

„ Transmit angular motion to linear motion

„ Transmit large or produce large axial force
„ It is
i always
l d
desired
i d tto reduce
d number
b off
screws

6
Uses of Power Screws
„ Obtain high
g mechanical advantage g in order to
move large loads with a minimum effort. e.g
screw jack.
„ Generate large forces e.g tensile testing
machine, compactor
p p
press.
„ Obtain precise axial movements e.g. camera
calibration rigs.
g
Applications

„ Screw

Screw Jacks Toolmakers Clamp X-Y Precision Table

Advantages of power screws

„ Compact design and takes less space

„ Large load carrying capability
„ Simple to design and easy to manufacture
„ Can obtain a large mechanical advantage
„ Precise and accurate linear motion
„ Easy maintenance
„ Self-locking feature
Thread Standards and Definitions
„ The terminology of screw threads can be
defined as the following

Major diameter d, Minor diameter dr Mean dia or pitch diameter dp

Lead l,, distance the nut moves for one turn rotation

10
11
Single and Double threaded screws

Double
oub e threaded
eaded sc
screws
e saare
e sstronger
o ge aand
d moves
o es faster
as e

• A single-threaded screw is made by cutting a single helical groove on

the cylinder. For a single thread as in our figure, the lead is the same
as the pitch
pitch.
• A multiple-threaded product is one having two or more threads cut
beside each other. A multiple-threaded screw advances a nut more
rapidly than a single
single-threaded
threaded screw of the same pitch.
• Double-threaded screw has a lead equal to twice the pitch, a triple-
threaded screw has a lead equal to 3 times the pitch, and so on.
g is 60o
• The thread angle
• The crests of the thread may be either flat or rounded.
Screw Designations

„ United National Standard UNS

„ International Standard Organization ISO
„ UNC (Coarse thread): is the most common and recommended for ordinary
applications, where the screw is threaded into a softer material. It is used
for general assembly work.

„ UNF ((Fine thread):) is more resistant to loosening,g, because of its smaller

helix angle. Fine threads are widely employed in automotive, aircraft, and
other applications where vibrations are likely to occur.

„ Many tensile tests of threaded rods have shown that an unthreaded rod
having a diameter equal to the mean of the pitch diameter and minor
diameter will have the same tensile strengthg as the threaded rod. The area
of this unthreaded rod is called the tensile-stress area At of the thread rod.

„ Metric threads are specified by writing the diameter and pitch in

millimeters, in that order, thus M12X1.75 is a thread having a nominal
major diameter of 12mm and pitch of 1.75mm.

14
 S
Screw D i
Designations
ti

„ Class of screw, defines its fit, Class 1 fits have

widest tolerances, Class 2 is the most commonly
used
„ Class three for very precision application
„ Example:1in-12
p UNRF-2A-LH,, A for Ext. Thread
and B for Internal, R root radius
„ Metric M10x1.5 10 diameter mm major
diameter 1 5 pitch
diameter,1.5
Screw Classifications
Unified National Standard ISO (Metric)
h
ance Thrread Pitch

UNC –coarse coarse

UNF –fine fine
UNEF –extra
extra fine

Class 1 several levels

Tolera

Class 2
Class 3

d=12mm
d 12mm
fine
d=0.25” Class 2
metric
¼-20 UNF –2A M12 x 1.75
20 threads/in. external threads
p=1.75 mm/thread
The thread geometry of the metric M and MJ
profiles

17
18
19
Square and Acme threads

„ Are used for ppower screws

„ Acme screw is in widespread usage. They are sometimes
modified to a stub (end) form by making the thread shorter.
This results in a large minor diameter and slightly stronger
screw.
„ A square thread provides somewhat greater strength and
efficiency but is rarely used,
used due to difficulties in
manufacturing the 0o thread angle. The 5o thread angle of the
modified square thread partially overcomes this and some
other objections.
objections

20
Square and Acme Threads are used
for the power screw
Power Screw Types

„ Square
‰ strongest
‰ no radial load
‰ hard to manufacture
„ Acme
‰ 29° included angle
‰ easier
i tto manufacture
f t
‰ common choice for
loading in both directions
„ B tt
Buttress (contrafuerte)

‰ great strength
‰ only unidirectional loading
Mechanics of Power Screws

23
„ A square-threaded power screw with a single thread
having a mean diameter dm, a pitch p, a lead angle λ, and a
l ψ is
h li angle
helix i loaded
l d d by
b the
th axial
i l compressive
i force
f F
F.

24
The torque required to raise or to lower the load:

Lifting the load Lowering the load

„ First, imagine
g that a singleg thread of the screw is unrolled for
exactly a single turn
„ The base is the circumference of the mean-thread-diameter
circle and the height is the lead.

25
„ Figure (a) represents lifting the load and figure (b) represent
lowering the load.
„ The summation of all the unit axial forces acting upon the
normal thread area by F
„ To raise the load, a force PR acts to the right (Fig. a), and to
l
lower the
th load,
l d a force
f PL acts
t to
t the
th left
l ft (Fig.
(Fi b)
„ The friction force is the product of the coefficient of friction f
with the normal force N, and acts to oppose the motion

26
„ The system
y is in equilibrium
q under the action of these forces:
„ For raising the load

∑ FH = PR − N sin
i λ − fN cos λ = 0
∑ FV = F + fN sin λ − N cos λ = 0
„ For lowering the load

∑ FH = − PL − N sin
i λ + fN cos λ = 0
∑ FV = F − fN sin λ − N cos λ = 0

27
„ Solve each two equations for PR and PL, we have:
F (sin λ + f cos λ )
PR =
cos λ − f sin λ
F ( f cos λ − sin λ )
PL =
cos λ + f sini λ
„ Divide the numerator and the denominator of these equations by
cosλ and use the relation tanλ=l/πdm we then have respectively:
F [(l / πd m ) + f ]
PR =
1 − ( fl / πd m )
F [ f − (l / πd m )]
PL =
1 + ( ffl / πd m )

28
„ The torque
q then can be found byy multiply
p y the force byy the
mean radius dm/2. Therefore,

Fd m ⎛ l + πfd m ⎞
TR = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ πd m − ffl ⎠
Fd m ⎛ πfd m − l ⎞
TL = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ πd m + fl ⎠

29
The force and torque required to raise and lower
the load :

F [(l / πd m ) + f ] Fd m ⎛ l + πfd m ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟
PR = TR =
1 − ( fl / πd m ) 2 ⎝ πd m − fl ⎠
F [ f − (l / πd m )] Fd m ⎛ πfd m − l ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟
PL = TL =
1 + ( fl / πd m ) 2 ⎝ πd m + fl ⎠

30
‰ TR is the torque
q required
q for two ppurposes:
p to overcome
thread friction and to raise the load.
‰ TL is the torque required to lower the load. This torque
requires
i overcoming i a partt off the
th friction
f i ti ini lowering
l i the
th
load. If the lead is larger or the friction is low, the load will
lower itself by causing the screw to spin without any
external effort.
‰ In such cases TL is negative or zero in equation. So, if

TL > 0 ⇒ the screw is said to be self-locking

31
„ Condition for self-locking:
Fd m ⎛ πfd m − l ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ > 0
2 ⎝ πd m + fl ⎠
„ This leads to
l
f =
„ But πd m
l
tan λ =
πd m
„ Thus
f = tan λ
‰ This relation
Thi l ti states
t t that
th t self-locking
lf l ki is i obtained
bt i d whenever
h
the coefficient of thread friction is equal to or greater than
the tangent of the thread lead angle.
self-locking – screw cannot turn from load F
back-driving – screw can be turned from load F 32
Efficiency:
„ If we let the friction equal to zero then TR reduced to:
Fl ⎛ l + πfd m ⎞
To = TR =
Fd m
⎜⎜
2π
„ Thus, the efficiency can be written as
2 ⎝ πd m − fl ⎠
TR f =0 To Fl
e= = =
TR TR 2πTR

33
Acme and other threads:
„ The normal thread load is inclined to the axis because of the thread angle
2α and the lead angle λ.
„ g λ are small,, this inclination can be neglected
Since the lead angles g and onlyy
the effect of the thread angle α considered. See figure 8-7a.

34
„ Thus the friction term in the torque equation TR must be
divided by cosα, for raising the load, or for tightening a screw
or bolt, this yields
Fd m ⎛ l + πfd m sec α ⎞
TR = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ πd m − ffl sec α ⎠
„ This equation is an approximate equation because λ is
neglected.

• Acme thread is not as efficient as the square thread,

because of the additional friction due to the wedging action,
b t it is
but i often
ft preferred
f d because
b it is
i easier
i tot machine
hi

35
A third component of torque must be
applied in power screw applications
„ When it loaded axially,y, a thrust or collar bearingg must be
employed between the rotating and stationary members in
order to carry the axial component. See figure 8-7b.
„ If fc is
i a friction
f i ti off collar
ll friction,
f i ti then
th

Fff c d c
Tc =
2
„ For large
g collars,, the torque
q should probably
p y be computed
p in a
manner similar to that employed for disk clutches.

36
Stresses in Power Screws

„ Stresses in Threads
‰ Body Stresses
„ Axial
„ Torsion
‰ Thread Stresses
„ Bearing
„ Bending
‰ Buckling
Tensile Stress

F 4F
σ= = 2
A πd r
Torsional Stress
depends on friction at screw-nut interface
For screw and nut,
• if totally locked (rusted together), the screw experiences all of torque
• if frictionless, the screw experiences none of the torque

Tr 16 T
τ = =
J π d r3

For power screw,

• if low collar friction, the screw experiences nearly all of torque
• if high collar friction, the nut experiences most of the torque
Thread Stresses – Bearing

F 2F
σB = − =−
πd m nt p / 2 πd m nt p p/2

p/2
/2
Abearing=(p/2)(πdmnt)
Thread Stresses – Bending
, I = πd r ( p / 2 )
Fp 1
M = ,& c = p / 4
3

4 12 F

Mc 6F
σb = =
I πd r pnt p/2

p/2
/2

For both bearing and bending, F and nt are dependent on how well
load is shared among teeth, therefore
use Factual=0.38F and nt=1 (derived from experiments)
Thread Stresses – Transverse shear stresses

At top of tooth the transverse shear stress is zero

¾ The
Th Von Mi σ’ att the
V Mises th top
t off the
th roott “plane”
“ l ” isi found
f d by b
first identifying the orthogonal normal stresses and the shear
stresses.

42
Mohr’s Circle- Von Mises σ’ at the top of the root
“plane”
σ =
' 1
2
[(σ x
2 2 2
(
− σ y ) + (σ y − σ z ) + (σ z − σ x ) + 6 τ 2
xy +τ
F
2
yz +τ 2
zx )] 0 .5

6F 16T p/2
σx = τ xy = 3
πdr nt p πdr p/2
/2
σy = 0 τ yz = 0 z
y
4F
σz = − 2 τ xz = 0
πdr x
Buckling
K = radius of gyration

l l
SR = = (S R ) D = π 2E
k I Sy
use dr A
S R ≤ (S R ) D use Johnson
S R > (S R ) D use Euler

1 ⎛ S y SR ⎞
2
π 2 EI
PCR =
PCR
= S y − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
A E ⎝ 2π ⎠
l2
„ The engaged threads cannot share the load equally.
Some experiments show that the first engaged thread
carries 0.38 of the load, the second 0.25, the third
0 18 and the seventh is free of load.
0.18, load

„ IIn estimating
ti ti thread
th d stresses
t b the
by th equations
ti above,
b
substituting 0.38F for F and setting nt to 1 will give
the largest level of stresses in the thread thread-nut
nut
combination.

45
Example: 8-1
„ A square-thread power screw has a major diameter of 32mm
and a pitch of 4mm with double threads. The given data
i l d f = fc =0.08,
include 0 08 dc = 40mm,
40 andd F = 6.4kN
6 4kN per screw.
„ Determine:
1
1. The thread depth,
depth thread width,
width pitch diameter,
diameter minor
diameter, and lead.
2. The torque required to raise and lower the load
3. The efficiency during lifting the load
4. The body stresses, torsional and compressive
5. The bearing stress
6. The thread stress bending at the root, shear at the root, and
Von Mises stress

46
 Solution

1. Thread depth= p/2=4/2=2mm

Th d width=p/2=4/2=2mm
Thread idth /2 4/2 2
Pitch diameter dm=d-p/2=32-4/2=30mm
Minor diameter dr=d-p=32-4=28mm
d-p 32-4 28mm
Lead l=np=2(4)=8mm

47
Solution…

2. Usingg equation
q ((8-1)) and ((8-6),
), the torque
q required
q to turn
the screw against the load is:

Fd m ⎛ l + πfd m ⎞ Ff c d c
TR = ⎜⎜ ⎟ + = 15.94 + 10.24 = 26.18 N .m
2 ⎝ πd m − fl ⎠ 2

Using equation (8-2) and (8-6), the load-lowering torque is:

Fd m ⎛ l − πffd m ⎞ Fff c d c
TL = ⎜⎜ ⎟ + = −0.466 + 10.24 = 9.77 N .m
2 ⎝ πd m + fl ⎠ 2

48
3. The overall efficiency in raising the load is:

Fl 6.4(8)
e= = = 0.311
2πTR 2π ( 26.18)
4
4. The body shear stress τ due to torsional moment TR at the
outside of the screw body is:
16T
τ= = 6.07 MPa
πd r
3

The axial nominal normal stress σ is

4F
σ = − 2 = −10.39 MPa
πd r

49
Solution…

5. The bearingg stress is,, with one thread carrying

y g 0.38F

2(0.38 F )
σB = − = −12.9 MPa
πd m (1) p
6. The thread-root bending stress σb with one thread carrying
0 38F is
0.38F i

Mc 6F
σb = = = 41.5MPa
I πd r nt p

50
 σ x = 41.5MPa , τ xy = 0
σy =0 , τ yyz = 6.07 MPa
σ z = −10.39MPa , τ zx = 0

σ =
' 1
2
[(41.5 − 0) 2 2 2
(
+ (0 − (− 10.39 )) + (− 10.39 − 41.5) + 6 6.07 2
)]
0 .5
= 48.7 MPa

51
52
Threaded Fasteners
„ A standard hexagon-head bolt
‰ stress concentration occurs at the fillet & at the start of the threads
‰ Table A-29 gives the dimension for the standard hexagon-head bolt.

53
„ The diameter of the washer face is the same as the width across flats of the
hexagon
„ The threads length of metric bolts is
⎧ 2D + 6 L ≤ 125 D ≤ 48
⎪
LT = ⎨ 2 D + 12 125 < L ≤ 200
⎪2 D + 25 L > 200
All dimensions in mm
⎩
„ Ideal bolt length is one in which only one or two threads project from the
nut after it is tightened.
„ Bolt holes may have burrs and sharp edges after drilling. These could bite
into the fillet and increase stress concentration
concentration. Therefore,
Therefore washers must
always be used under the bolt head to prevent this.
„ Sometimes it is necessary to use washers under the nut too.

54
„ The ppurpose
p of a bolt is to clamp
p two or more pparts together.
g
„ The clamping load stretches or elongates the bolt;
‰ The load is obtained by twisting the nut until the bolt has

elongated almost to the elastic limit.

‰ If the nut does not loosen, this bolt tension remains as

preload or clamping force.

force

55
The head of a hexagon-lead cap
screw

56
„ It is thinner than that of
a hexagon
h h bolt.
heat b l
„ Table A-30, gives the
dimension for the
hexagon-lead cap
screw.
„ A variety of machine-
screw head styles are
shown if figure
g 8-11.

57
„ Several styles of hexagonal nuts are illustrated in fig 8-12. And their
dimensions are given in table A-28.
„ The material of the nut is selected carefully to match that of the bolt.
„ During tightening, the first thread of the nut tends to take the entire
load,, but yielding
y g occurs,, with some strengthening
g g due to the cold
work that takes place, and the load is eventually divided over about
3 nut threads. For this reason you should never reuse nuts; in fact, it
can be dangerous to do so.

58
Tension Connections-The fastener Stiffness

„ A section through
g a tension-loaded bolted jjoint is illustrated in
Figure 8-13.

Fig 8.13

59
„ The purpose of the bolt is to clamp the two or more parts
together.
„ Twisting the nut stretches the bolt to produce the clamping
force. This clamping force is called the Pretension or Bolt
Preload. It exists in the connection after the nut has been
pproperly
ope y tightened
g e ed noo matter e whether
w e e thee eexternal
e tensile
e s e load
o d
P is exerted or not.
„ Since the members are being clamped together, the clamping
force which produces tension in the bolt induces compression
in the members.
„ The spring constant, or stiffness constant, of an elastic member
such as a bolt, is the ratio between the force applied to the
member and the deflection produced by that force.
„ Thus, Fl
‰ The defection is defined by
δ=
EA
EA
‰ The spring rate k= 60
l
„ The grip
Th i LG off a connection
i is i the
h totall thickness
hi k off the
h
clamped material. In the fig 8-13, the grip is the sum of the
thicknesses of both members and both washers.
„ For Hexagon-head cap screws the effective grip is shown in
figure 8-14 and is given in table 8.7

Fig 8.14

61
62
„ The stiffness of the pportion of a bolt or screw within the
clamped zone will generally consist of two parts:
Unthreaded shank portion + threaded portion
„ The stiffness constant of the bolt is equivalent to the stiffness
of the two springs in series:

1 1 1 k1 k 2
= + ⇒ k=
k k1 k 2 k1 + k 2

63
„ Thus,, spring
p g rates of the threaded and unthreaded pportions of
the bolt in the clamped zone are respectively:

At E Ad E
kt = , kd =
lt ld
Where
Wh
At= tensile-stress area (table 8-1, 8-2)
lt= length of threaded portion of grip
Ad= major-diameter area of fastener
ld=length
g of unthreaded pportion in ggrip p

64
„ Substituting these stiffness, we get:
k d kt E
kb =
k d lt + k t l d
„ Where kb is the estimated effective stiffness of the bolt or cap
screw in the clamped zone.
„ For short fasteners,, the one in figure
g 8-14 the unthreaded area
is small and so the first of the expression kt is used to find kb.
„ For long fasteners, the threaded area is relatively small, and so
the
h secondd expression
i kd isi usedd to find
fi d kb.

65
Joins-Member stiffness (Tension
Connection-the Members)
„ In pprevious section,, we determined the stiffness of the fastener
in the clamped zone.
„ In this section, we will study the stiffness of the members in
th clamped
the l d zone.
„ There may be more than two members included in the grip of
tthee fastener.
aste e .
„ Thus, Total spring rate of the member:
1 1 1 1
= + + .... + 8 18
8.18
k m k1 k 2 ki

66
„ If one of the members is a soft gasket
g
⇒ kgasket < others members
„ Thus, we can neglect all stiffness and only the gasket stiffness
used.
„ If there is no gasket, the stiffness of the members is rather
difficult to obtain,
obtain except by experimentation,
experimentation because the
compression spreads out between the bolt head and the nut and
hence the area is not uniform.

67
„ Some cases in which this area can be determined can be shown
in Figure 8-15. Ito illustrates the general cone geometry using
a half-apex angle α.

68
„ The construction of an element of the cone of thickness dx
subjected to a compressive force P is:
Pdx
dδ =
EA
„ Thee area
a ea of
o the
t e element
e e e t iss
⎡⎛ D⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ⎤
2 2

(
A = π ro2 − ri 2 ) = π ⎢⎜ x tan α + ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦

„ Substituting the 2ed equation into the 1st and integrating the
equation
ti gives:
i
P t dx
δ=
πE ∫0 [x tan α + (D + d ) / 2][x tan α + (D − d ) / 2]

69
70
„ Using a table of integrals, the spring rate or the stiffness is:
P πEd tan α
k= =
δ ln
(2t tan α + D − d )(D + d )
(2t tan α + D + d )(D − d )
„ If the members of the joint have the same Young’s modulus E
with
ith symmetrical
t i l frusta
f t back
b k to
t back,
b k then
th they
th actt as two t
identical springs in series.
„ Thus,, from equation
q 8-18,, km=k/2,, and usingg the ggripp as l=2t
and dw as the diameter of the washer face, we find the spring
rate of the members to be:
πEd tan α
km =
(l tan α + d w − d )(d w + d )
2 ln
(l tan α + d w + d )(d w − d )

71
„ The diameter of the washer face is about 50 ppercent ggreater
than the fastener diameter for standard hexagon-head bolts and
cap screws. Thus we can simplify km equation by letting
=1 5d and if we use α=30o
dw=1.5d
0.5774πEd
km =
⎛ 0.5774l + 0.5d ⎞
2 ln⎜ 5
⎝ 0.5774l + 2.5d ⎠

72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Bolt Strength:
g
„ Table 8-11 list the classes and
specifications of most the standard
metric threaded fasteners.
„ The proof load of a bolt is the
maximum load (force) that a bolt can
withstand without acquiring a
permanent set. Proof strength is the
qquotient of the proof
p load and the
tensile-stress area.
„ Although proof strength and yield
strength
g have somethingg in common,,
the yield strength is usually the
higher of the two because it is band
on a 0.2 percent permanent
d f
deformation.
i
79
80
Tension Joints-The External Load
„ What happens when an external tensile load P is applied to a
b l d connection?
bolted i ?

„ The load P is tension,

tension and it causes the connection to stretch,
stretch
or elongate, through some distance δ.

„ It is assumed that the clamping force (the preload Fi) has been
correctly applied by tightening the nut before P is applied.

81
„ To determine what portion of the externally applied load is
carried by the bolt and what portion by the connected parts in
the assembly,
assembly we can first draw the free body diagram:
Pb+Fi
Pm-Fi

82
„ The Symbols that are going to be used are:
Fi = ppreload
P = external tensile load per bolt
Pb = portion of P taken by bolt
Pm = portion of P taken by members
Fb = Pb+Fi =resultant bolt load
Fm = Pm-F Fi =resultant
l load
l d on members b
C = fraction of external load P carried by bolt
1 C = fraction of external load P carried by members
1-C
N = Number of bolts in the joint ( if N bolts equally share the
total external load then P = Ptotal / N)

83
„ Applying
pp y g the condition of equilibrium
q for the forces

P = Pb + Pm (1)

„ Where
Pb is due to the increased bolt (tensile) force
Pm represents the decreased clamping (compression) force
between the members

84
„ The deformation of the bolt and the members are the same and
can be defined by:
Pb Pm
δ= and δ = (2)
kb km

„ Th compatibility
The tibilit condition
diti isi then:
th

Pm Pb
= (3)
k m kb

85
„ from ((1)) and ((3)) we have:
kb P
Pb = = CP
kb + k m (4)
Pm = P − Pb = (1 − C )P
Where C=kb / (kb+km) is called the stiffness constant of the
j i t
joint.

86
„ The total forces on the bolt and the members are:

Fb = Pb + Fi = CP + Fi Fm < 0 (5)
Fm = Pm − Fi = (1 − C )P − Fi Fm < 0
The results are valid only as long as some clamping load remains in
the members

„ The ratios C and 1-C are the coefficients of P in equation (5). It

describes the proportion of the external load taken by the bolt and by
the members respectively.

„ In all cases, the members take over %80 of the external load. Think
how important this when fatigue loading is present.

„ Making LG longer causes the members to take an even greater

percentage of the external load.

87
Torque Requirements (Relating Bolt Torque to
Bolt Tension)
„ The most important
p factor determiningg the preload
p in a bolt is
the torque required to tighten the bolt.

„ The torque may be applied manually by means of a wrench

that has a dial attachment indicating the magnitude of the
torque
to que being
be g enforced.
e o ced.

„ Pneumatic or air wrenches give more consistent results than a

manual torque wrench and are employed extensively.

88
„ An expression
p relatingg applied
pp torque
q to initial tension can be
obtained using the equation developed for power screws.
Observe that the load F of a screw is equivalent to Fi for a bolt
and that collar friction in the jack corresponds to friction on
the flat surface of the nut or under the screw head. Thus

Fi d m ⎛ l + πfd m sec α ⎞ Fi f c d c
T= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (6)
2 ⎝ πd m − fl sec α ⎠ 2

89
„ Since tanλ=l/πdm, we divide the numerator and denominator of the
first term by πdm and get
Fi d m ⎛ tan λ + f sec α ⎞ Fi f c d c
T= ⎜⎜ ⎟ + (7)
2 ⎝ 1 − f tan λ sec α ⎠ 2

„ The diameter of the washer face of a hexagonal nut is the same as

the width across flats and equal to 1.5 times the nominal size.
Therefore the mean collar diameter is dc = (d+1.5d)/2=1.25d.

„ Equation (7) can now be arranged to give:

⎡⎛ d m ⎞⎛ tan λ + f sec α ⎞ ⎤
T = ⎢⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ + 0.625 f c ⎥ Fi d = KFi d (8)
⎣⎝ 2d ⎠⎝ 1 − f tan λ sec α ⎠ ⎦
Where K is the torque coefficient

90
„ The coefficient of friction depends
p upon
p the surface
smoothness, accuracy, and degree of lubrication.

„ On the average, both f and fc are about 0.15.

„ For f = fc=0.15,
F 0 15 K=0.2,
K 0 2 no matter
tt what
h t size
i bolts
b lt are employed
l d
and no matter whether the threads are coarse or fine.

91
92
93
Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload

„ Equations
q ((5)) represent
p the forces in a bolted jjoint with
preload.
„ The tensile stress σb in the bolt can be found as:
CP Fi
σb = + = ( Sp ) / np (9)
At At
„ A means of ensuring a safe joint requires that the external load
be smaller than that needed to cause the jjoint separate.
p
Yielding factor of safety guarding against
static stress exceeding the proof strength

94
„ Let nLP be the value of external load that would cause bolt failure
and limiting value of σb be the proof strength Sp. Thus equation (9)
becomes:
CnL P Fi
+ = Sp (10)
At At
„ Thus the load factor nL is:
S p At − Fi (11)
nL =
CP
„ nL >1 in equation (11) ⇒ σb < Sp

95
„ Another means of ensuringg a safe jjoint is to require
q that the
external load be smaller than that needed to cause the joint to
separate.
„ If separation
ti does
d occur, then
th entire
ti external
t l load
l d will
ill be
b
imposed on the bolt.
„ Let
et P0 be the
t e value
va ue of
o the
t e external
e te a load
oad that
t at would
wou d cause joint
jo t
separation.
„ At separation Fm=0, thus from second equation in (5):

(1 − C )P0 − Fi =0 (12)

96
„ Let the factor of safetyy against
g jjoint separation
p be:
P0
n0 = (13)
P
„ Po External loads that would cause joint separation
„ Substituting P0=n0P in equation (12) we find
Fi
n0 =
P (1 − C )
(14)

Here n0 is a load factor guarding against joint separation and P

pp
is the maximum load applied to the jjoint.

97
„ The bolt
Th b l strengthh is
i the
h maini factor
f in
i the
h design
d i andd analysis
l i off
bolted connections. The proof load Fp is the load that a bolt can
carry without developing a permanent deformation.
„ For both static and fatigue loading that the following be used for
preload:
⎧ 0.75 F p reused connection s
F =
i ⎨ (15)
⎩0 .9 F p permanent connection s
„ Where Fp is the proof load, obtained from equation

FP = At S P (16)

„ Here Sp is the proof strength obtained from Tables (8-9 to 8-11). For
other material, an approximate value is SP=0.85Sy.

98
Gasketed Joints
„ Sometimes a sealing or gasketing material must be placed between
the parts connected.
„ G k t are made
Gaskets d off materials
t i l that
th t are soft
ft relative
l ti tot other
th joint
j i t
parts.
„ The gasket pressure p is found by dividing the force in the member
by the gasket area per bolt (N).
Fm
p=− (17)
Ag / N
„ For a load factor n, equation (11) can be written as:

Fm = (1 − C )nP − Fi (18)

99
„ Substituting (18) into (17) gives the gasket pressure as:

p=
N
[Fi − nP (1 − C )] (19)
Ag

„ Note: to maintain the uniformity of pressure,

pressure bolts should not
be spaced more than six bolt diameters apart. But to maintain
wrench clearance, bolts should be spaced at least three
diameters apart.
apart So,
So a rough rule for bolt spacing when the
bolts are arranged around a circle is
πD b (20)
3≤ ≤ 6
Nd
Where Db is the diameter of the bolt circle and N is the number
of bolts

100
Fatigue Loading
„ Most of the time, the type of fatigue loading encountered in
the analysis of bolted joints is one in which the externally
applied load fluctuates between zero and some maximum force
P.
„ This would be the situation in a pressure cylinder,
cylinder for example
where a pressure either exists or does not exist
„ For such cases:
Fmax=Fb and Fmin=Fi
„ Thus,
Fa=( Fmax - Fmin)/2=(Fb - Fi)/2

101
„ Dividing this by At yields the alternating component of the bolt
stress:
Fb − Fi (CP + Fi ) − Fi CP
σa = = = (21)
2 At 2 At 2 At
„ The mean stress is equal
q to the alternatingg component
p pplus the
minimum stress, σi = Fi / At
CP Fi
σm = + (22)
2 At At

„ On the designer’s
g fatigue
g diagram
g as shown in figure
g 8-20, the
load line is:

σm = σa +σi (23)

102
Goodman fatigue diagram The stress on the bolt starts from
the preload stress and increases
with a constant slope of 1.

Se(Sut −σi )
Sa =
Sutt +Se
Sm =Sa +σi

103
„ The strength
g components
p Sa and Sm of the fatigue
g failure locus.
Using Goodman failure criteria:
Sa Sm
+ =1 (24)
S e S ut
„ Substitute equation (23) with σ as S for into (24) we have:
S e (S ut −σ i )
Sa = (25)
S ut + S e
Sm = Sa + σ i

„ In this section,, Kf is applied

pp for both σa and σm

104
„ The factor of safetyy guarding
g g against
g fatigue
g is given
g byy

Sa 2 S e (S ut At − Fi )
nf = or n f = (26)
σa CP(S ut + S e )

„ When there is no preload, Fi = 0, C = 1, thus

2 S e S ut At
nf0 =
P(S ut + S e ) (27)

105
„ Preload is beneficial for resistingg fatigue
g when nf / nfo is g
greater
than unity. Thus,
Fi ≤ (1-C)SutAt

„ After solving equation of nf , you should also check the

possibility of yielding using the proof strength.
strength
Sp
np = ((28))
σm +σa

106
Example
„ As shown in figure is a cross-
section taken from a pressure
cylinder. A total of N bolts are to
be used
sed to resist a separating M16X2 class 8.8
force of 160 kN. The members
are of No. 25 cast iron. The bolt
is M16X2 class 8.8.
„ Find: 20 mm

1. The stiffnesses kb and km 20 mm

2. The stiffness constant of the
joint C
3. The minimum number of bolts
required using a factor of safety
2 andd accounting
i for
f theh fact
f thath
the bolts may be reused when
the joint is taken apart.
4
4. What is the new bolt preload

107
Solution: 1. Finding the stiffnesses kb and km

„ The stiffness of the bolt kb is:

F
From M16X2 ⇒ nominal i l major j diameter
di D = d = 16 mm,
Pitch P = 2 mm
From table A-31 with M16 ⇒ H = 14.8 mm for Regular g
Hexagonal head.
The total length of the bolt L = LG + H + (2 threads after the
nuts)
Thus,
L = 2(20) + 14.8 + 2(P) = 40+14.8+2(2) = 58.8 mm

From table A-17, choose L=60 mm

108
„ From equation 8-14 or table 8-7
LT = 2D + 6 = 2(16) + 6 = 38mm
38
ld =L-LT = 60-38 = 22mm
lt= LG-lld = 40-22
40 22 = 18mm
From table 8-1, At = 157 mm2
Ad = πD2/4 = π(16)
( )2/4 = 201.06 mm2
Bolt is steel ⇒ E=200GPa
„ Therefore, the stiffness of the bolt is:

Ad At E
kb = = 892.6 MN / m
Ad l t + At l d

109
„ From table A-24 for no. 25 cast iron we will use E =11.5 kpsi
p
= 11.5(6.88) = 79.12 MPa
Hence, the stiffness of the member km:
0.5774πEd
km = = 1271.12 MN / m
⎛ 0.5774l + 0.5d ⎞
2 ln⎜ 5 ⎟
⎝ 0.5774l + 2.5d ⎠

110
2. The stiffness constant of the joint C

kb
C= = 0.413
kb + k m

111
3. The number of bolts N
„ From table 8-11, for property class 8.8 and M16 ⇒ Sp = 600MPa
⇒ Fp = AtSp= ((157)(600)
)( ) = 94200N
„ For reused Fi=0.75Fp=0.75(94200) = 70650N
„ Therefore:
S p At − Fi(600)(157) − 70650
n=2= = ⇒ N = 5. 6
C ( P / N ) (0.413)(160000 / N )

„ Take N = 6 bolts ⇒ n = 2.14, which is greater than the required

value. So we choose six bolts use the recommended tightening
preload

112
4. The new bolt preload

„ For N = 6,, the new bolt preload

p can be calculated by:
y

Fi = S P At − nC (P / N ) = 33467 N

113
114
115
116
Example

„ An M30X3.5 ISO 8.8 bolt is used in a jjoint at recommended

preload and the joint is subject to a repeated tensile fatigue
load of P=80kN per bolt. The joint constant is C=0.33. Find
the load factors and the factor of safety guarding against a
fatigue failure based on the Goodman theory.

117
Solution

„ From table 88-11

„ D = d = 30 mm ⇒ P=3.5 mm, At = 561mm2
„ From table 8-11
„ For 8.8 class and M30X3.5 ⇒ Sp = 600 MPa, Sy = 660 MPa,
Sut = 830 MPa
„ From table 8-17
„ For ISO 8.8 ⇒ Se=129 MPa

118
 Sa
nf =
σa
S e (S ut − σ i )
Sa =
S ut + S e
Fi
σi =
At
Fi = 0.75 F p = 0.75(S p At ) = 0.75(600)(561) = 252450 N
252450
∴ σi = = 450 MPa
561 10 (
−6
)
129(830 − 450 )
∴ Sa = = 51.16 MPa
830 + 129
CP (0.33)(80000)
σa = =
2 At 2(561)(10 −6 )
51.16
nf = = 2.17
23.533

119
„ The load factor n and the factor of safetyy against
g joint
j
separation:

S p At − Fi (600)(561) − 252450
n= = = 3 .2
CP (0.33)(80000)
Fi 252450
n0 = = = 4.71
P (1 − C ) (80000)(1 − 0.33)

120
121
122
123
124
125
Shear Joints
„ Riveted and bolted jjoints loaded in sheer are treated exactlyy
alike in design and analysis.
„ In days when driving hot rivets was a common structural
j i i method,
joining th d the
th driving
d i i ensuredd that
th t the
th rivets
i t filled
fill d every
hole completely and, upon cooling, providing a clamping
preload. This kind of rivet pattern can shear a sheer load.

126
Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear:

„ In figure 9-24a is shown a riveted connection loaded in shear.

„ There are several various means by which this connection
might
i h fail:
f il

127
Failure by bending of the rivet or of the riveted
members
b att as shown
h in
i figure
fi 9 24 b
9-24-b.
„ The bendingg moment is approximately
pp y M = Ft/2,, where F is
the shearing force and t is the grip of the rivet, that is, the
total thickness of the connected parts. σ =Mc/I

128
Failure of the rivet by pure shear as shown in figure 9
24-c.
24
„ The shear stress can be calculated usingg the formula: τ = F/A.
Where A is the cross-sectional area of all the rivets in the
group. The diameter used in the design is the rivet diameter
not the hole.
hole

129
Rupture of one of the connected members or plates
b pure ttension.
by i Fi Figure 9-24-d
9 24 d
„ The formula σ = F/A, where A is the net area of the plate (the area
reduced
d d bby an amountt equall to t the
th area off all
ll the
th rivet
i t holes).
h l )
„ It is true that the use of a bolt with an initial preload and, sometimes,
a rivet will place the area around the hole in compression and thus to
nullify effects of stress concentration.
concentration
„ Unless definite steps are taken to ensure that the preload does not
relax, it’s on the conservative side to design as if the full stress-
concentration effect were presented.
p

130
Failure occurs by crushing of the rivet or plate as
shown
h iin fifig 9-24-e
9 24
„ It is usuallyy called a bearingg stress
„ The formula can be calculated using the formula, σ = F/A, where:
A = projected area for a single rivet is (t)(d)
t = the
h thickness
hi k off the
h thinnest
hi plate.
l
d = the rivet or bolt diameter.

131
Failure due to edge shearing, or tearing as shown in
fi 9-24-f
fig. 9 24 f andd g.
„ In structure ppractice this failure is avoided byy spacing
p g the
rivets at least 1 ½ diameters away from the edge.

132
„ In structure design
g it is customary
y to select in advance the
number of rivets and their diameters and spacing.

„ The strength is then determined for each method of failure.

„ If th
the calculated
l l t d strength
t th is
i nott satisfactory,
ti f t a change
h is
i made
d
in the diameter, spacing, or number of rivets used to bring the
strength in line with expected loading conditions.

133
134
135
136
137
138
Centroids of bolt groups
„ In figure 8.23 let A1 to A5 be the respective cross-sectional
areas of a groups of five pins, or hot-driven rivets, or tight-
filtering shoulder bolts.

139
„ Under this assumption
p the rotational pivot
p point
p lies at the
centroid of the cross-sectional area pattern of the pins, rivets,
or bolts.
„ U i static,
Using t ti the
th centroid
t id G can beb found
f d by:b
5 5
∑ Ai xi ∑ Ai yi
x= 1
and y= 1 (8-49)
5 5
∑ Ai ∑ Ai
1 1

140
Shear of bolts and rivets due to eccentric
loading
„ An example of eccentric loading of fasteners is shown in
figure 8-24

„ The beam is fastened to vertical numbers at the ends with

specially prepared load-sharing bolts.

„ The centers of the bolts at the left end of the beam are drawn
to a large scale in figure (8-24-c).

141
„ Point 0 represents the centroid of the group.
„ The result at forces acting on the pins with a net force and
moment equal and opposite to the reaction loads V1 and M1
acting
i at 0.
142
The total load taken by each bolt can be found
by the following 3 steps
1. Each bolt takes F′= V1/ n,,
Where n = number of bolts in the group.
F′ = direct load or primary shear.
2. The moment load or secondary shear:
‰ It is the additional load on each bolt due to the moment M.
‰ If rA, rB, rC, etc,
etc are the radial distances from the centroid to the center
of each bolt. Thus,

M = FA" rA + FB" rB + FC" rC + ... (1)

Where F” is the moment load

143
 ‰ Therefore
FA" FB" FC"
= = (2)
rA rB rC
‰ Solving equations (2) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain:

M 1 rn
F = 2
"
(8.50)
rA + rB2 + rC2 + ...
n

Where n refers to the particular bolt whose load is to be found

3
3. Find the resultant load of both vertical and moment loads

144
Example
„ As shown in figure a 15X200 mm rectangular steel bar
cantilevered
il d to a 250 mm steell channel
h l using
i four
f bolts.
b l On O
the basis of the external load of 16kN, find:
a) The resultant load on each bolt
b) The maximum bolt shear stress
c) The maximum bearing stress
d) The bending stress through bolts A and B.

145
 M16X2 bolts

10
15

F 16kN
F=16kN

C B

60
O
200
60
D A

75 75 50 300

146
Solution
„ By symmetric, the location of the centroid is located at point O.
„ The free body diagram shows that the shear reaction V would pass through
O and the moment reaction M would be about O.

147
„ V=16kN and M = (16)(0.425) = 6.8kN.m
The distance from the centroid to the center of each bolt is
r = ((60)2 + (75)2)0.5= 96mm
„ The primary shear load per bolt is
F `=V/n
V/ = 16/4 = 4kN
„ Since the distance between the bolts are equal, hence the
secondaryy shear forces can be calculated usingg equation
q 8-50:

Mr M 6800
F1" = = = = 17.71kN
4r 2
4r 4(0.096 )
‰ The primary and secondary shear forces are plotted also in the pervious figure.

148
a) The result load on each bolt can be found
using the parallelogram rule
„ Therefore,, the resultant load on each bolts are:

FA = FB =21.0 kN
FC = FD =13.8 kN

149
b) The maximum Load on each bolt

„ Bolts A and B carries the largest

g shear load, therefore our
calculation will be for bolts A and B
„ Where the shear acts on the bolt?
To answer this question
question, we need to find first the length of the
bolt:
L=LG + H + 2P
LG = 15+10 = 25mm
H: From table A-31, H=14.8mm,
P=2
∴ L = (15+10) + (14.8) + 2(2) = 43.8 mm
From table A-17, L= 45mm

150
„ From equation
q 8-14,, LT = 2D+6 = 2(16)+6
( ) = 38mm
„ ∴ the unthreaded length ld= L- LT = 45-38=7mm
„ ∴ the threaded length lt=LG-ld=25-7=18mm
„ You can see now that the unthreaded length is less than the
thickness of the plate (15 thickness). Therefore the shear stress
area is based on the threaded section and hence will be
represented by the miner diameter for the bolt: from table 8-1,
Ar =144mm2.
„ ∴ τ =F/Ar = 21000/144(10-6) = 145.83MPa

151
c) The maximum bearing stress:

„ From the figure

g we can see that the channel is thinner than the
bar, so the largest bearing stress is due to the pressing of the
bolt against the channel web:

F FA 21000
σb = = = = 131.25MPa
Ab td (10)(16)

152
d) The bending stress through bolts A and B.

M = 16(300 + 50) = 5600 N .m

( )
I = I bar − 2 I holes + d 2 A =
15(200) 3 ⎡15(16) 3 ⎤
− 2⎢ + (60) (15)(16)⎥ = 8.26(10 6 )mm 4
2

12 ⎣ 12 ⎦
Mc 5600(100)
σ= = 6
= 67.8MPa
I 8.26(10 )

153
Keys and Pins

„ Keys
y and pins
p are used on shafts to secure rotatingg elements,,
such as gears, pulleys, or other wheels.

„ Keys are used to enable the transmission of torque from the

shaft to the shaft-support element.

„ Pins are used for axial positioning and for the transfer of
torque or thrust or both.

154
Figure 8-28 shows a variety of keys and pins.

(a) Squre key; (b) Round key;

(c) and (d) Round pins;
((e)) Taper
p ppin;; (f) Split
p tubular spring
p g pin
p

155