MOHAN S.

REDDY

CORE PYTHON
Introduction to PYTHON:
 Python is a simple, easy to learn, powerful, high level and object-oriented
programming language.
 Python is an interpreted scripting language also.
 Python was developed by Guido Van Rossum and Released in 1991.
 Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted
programming language.
 It supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop
applications.
 It is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level data
structures.
 Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language
which makes it attractive for Application Development.
 Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object
oriented, and functional or procedural programming styles.

 We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it

is dynamically typed so we can write a=10 to assign an integer value in an
integer variable.
Features of PYTHON:

1. Easy to Learn and Use

 Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level

programming language.

2. Expressive Language

 Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable

and readable.

1
 MOHAN S.REDDY

3. Interpreted Language

 Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by

line at a time. This makes debugging easy and it’s suitable for beginners.

4. Cross-platform Language

 Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix
and Macintosh etc. So, we can say that Python is a portable language.

5 .Free and Open Source

 Python language is freely available at official web

address.www.python.org/downloads.
 The source-code is also available. Therefore it is open source.

6. Object-Oriented Language

 Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and

objects come into existence.

7. Extensible

 It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the
code and thus it can be used further in our python code.

8. Large Standard Library

 Python has a large and broad library and provides rich set of module and
functions for rapid application development.

9. GUI Programming Support

 Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

10. Integrated

 It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, and Java etc.

2
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Versions of PYTHON:

 Python 0.9.0 - February 20, 1991

o Python 0.9.1 - February, 1991
o Python 0.9.2 - Autumn, 1991
o Python 0.9.4 - December 24, 1991
o Python 0.9.5 - January 2, 1992
o Python 0.9.6 - April 6, 1992
o Python 0.9.8 - January 9, 1993
o Python 0.9.9 - July 29, 1993
 Python 1.0 - January 1994
o Python 1.2 - April 10, 1995
o Python 1.3 - October 12, 1995
o Python 1.4 - October 25, 1996
o Python 1.5 - December 31, 1997
o Python 1.6 - September 5, 2000
 Python 2.0 - October 16, 2000
o Python 2.1 - April 15, 2001
o Python 2.2 - December 21, 2001
o Python 2.3 - July 29, 2003
o Python 2.4 - November 30, 2004
o Python 2.5 - September 19, 2006
o Python 2.6 - October 1, 2008
o Python 2.7 - July 4, 2010
 Python 3.0 - December 3, 2008
o Python 3.1 - June 27, 2009
o Python 3.2 - February 20, 2011
o Python 3.3 - September 29, 2012
o Python 3.4 - March 16, 2014
o Python 3.5 - September 13, 2015
o Python 3.6 - December 23, 2016
o Python 3.7 - June 27, 2018
o Python 3.8- Oct 14,2019

3
 MOHAN S.REDDY

o Python 3.9 –Oct 5,2020

o Current Stable version is 3.10.4

History of PYTHON:

 The implementation of Python was started in the December 1989 by Guido

Van Rossum at National Research Institute in Netherland.
 In February 1991, van Rossum published the code.
 In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like: lambda, map,
filter, and reduce.
 Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage
collection system.
 On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was
designed to rectify fundamental flaw of the language.
 ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python
language which was capable of Exception Handling and interfacing with
Amoeba Operating System.
 Python is influenced by following programming languages:

 ABC language.
 Modula-3

 Using Python we can Develop the Following Applications

 Web Applications
 Desktop GUI Applications
 Network Programming
 Gaming Applications
 Data Analysis Applications
 Console Based Applications
 Business Applications
 Audio and Video Based Applications

4
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Steps to install python for windows

Go to Google
|
Type: python download for windows
|
Click on Python.org
|
Click on Download python 3.10.0
|
It will be download python 3.10.0.Exe
|
Open Python 3.10.0.Exe
|
Activate the Checkbox Add Python path
|
Click on Install now
|
Click on Next, Next, Install

5
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Different Ways to Execute Python Code

 Using Interactive Mode

 Using Script Mode

 Using Python IDLE

 Using Pycharm Editor

Interpreter vs. Compiler:

Interpreter Compiler
1. It will check line by line and 1. It will check Whole program at a
executes time
2. It gives the result line by line 2. It gives whole output at a time
3. If any error occurs interpreter 3.It Checks all statements in the
stops Hence it shows only one error program and show all errors in
program

4. It will not generate executable file 4. If no errors in the program then it

generates executable file
5. It always executes only source 5. It executes exe file
code
Ex: C,C++,C#,Java
Ex: Html,Perl,Javascript,Python

Python Indentation:

 Most of the programming languages like C, C++, Java use braces { } to

define a block of code, but Python uses indentation.

6
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 A code block (body of a function, loop etc.) starts with indentation and ends
with the first un- indented line. The amount of indentation is up to you, but
it must be consistent throughout that block.

 Generally four whitespaces are used for indentation and is preferred over
tabs. Here is an example.

a=10
if a==10:
print("true")

 The indentation in Python makes the code look neat and clean.
 Indentation can be ignored in line continuation.
 But it makes the code more readable.

Python Comments:
 Comments are very important while writing a program.

 Python Interpreter ignores comment.

 Python supports two types of comments:
Single line comment:
 In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must
start with (#)
Multi line comment:
 If we have comments that extend multiple lines, one way of doing it is to
use hash (#) in the beginning of each line.

 Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.

Identifiers:
 A Name in python program is called identifier.

 It can be a class name or function name or variable name.

 Rules to define identifier:

7
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Alphabet symbols(either lowercase or uppercase)

 Digits(0 to 9)

 Underscore symbol(_)

 Identifier should not start with digit.

 Identifiers are case sensitive

 We cannot use keywords as Identifier.

 If Identifier starts with Underscore then it is private.
Python Variables:

 Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also

known as identifier and used to hold value.
 In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because python is a
dynamically typed.
 Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to
begin with a letter or an underscore.
 It is recommended to use lowercase letters for variable name.

Multiple Assignments:
 Python allows us to assign a value to multiple variables in a single
statement which is also known as multiple assignment

 We can apply multiple assignments in two ways either by assigning a single

value to multiple variables or assigning multiple values to multiple
variables.

 Assigning single value to multiple variables

Ex1:

a=b=c=10
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

8
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex2:

a=b=c=10
print(a,b,c,sep=",")

 Assigning multiple values to multiple variables

Ex1:

a,b,c=10,20,30
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

Ex2:
a,b,c=10,20,30
print(a,end=",")
print(b,end=",")
print(c)

 The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appears.

Python Keywords:
 Python Keywords are special reserved words which convey a special
meaning to the interpreter.

 Each keyword have a special meaning and a specific operation. These

keywords can't be used as variable. Following is the List of Python
Keywords.

Ex to get keyword list:

import keyword
print(keyword.kwlist)

9
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Output:

['False', 'None', 'True', ' peg_parser ', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await',
'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for',
'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass',
'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']

Python Data Types:

 Data type represent the type of data present inside a variable.

 Every value in Python has a data type.

 In python not required to specify the type explicitly.

 Based on value, the type will be assigned automatically.

 Python is Dynamically Typed Language

Python contain the following Data types:

1. None

2. Numeric

3. List

4. Tuple

5. Set

6. String

7. Range

8. Dictionary or Mapping

9. Bytes

10.Bytearray

11.Frozenset

10
 MOHAN S.REDDY

None:

 When we have a variable which is not assigned any value is called None.
 Normally in any language the keyword can be use null, but in python we
use None.

Ex:

a=None
print(a)
print(type(a))

Numeric: It classified Four Types

1. Int

2. Float

3. Complex

4. Bool

Examples:

a=10
print(a)
print(type(a))

a=10.9
print(a)
print(type(a))

Ex to convert from int to float:

11
 MOHAN S.REDDY

a=10
print(a)
print(type(a))

b=float(a)
print(b)
print(type(b))

Ex to convert from float to int:

a=10.8
print(a)
print(type(a))

b=int(a)
print(b)
print(type(b))

Program to accept input from user:

name=input("Enter your name:")

print("your name is:",name)

Program to accept integer values from user:

a=input("Enter Num1:")
b=input("Enter Num2:")
print("result is:",a+b)

Note: by default the values entered by user at runtime will be treated as string

a=input("Enter Num1:")
print(type(a))
b=input("Enter Num2:")
print(type(b))
print("result is:",a+b)

12
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Note: we have to convert from string to integer

a=input("Enter Num1:")
print(type(a))
x=int(a)
b=input("Enter Num2:")
print(type(b))
y=int(b)
print("result is:",x+y)

Complex Data Type: A complex number is in the form of real and imaginary

Ex: a+bj

10+20j

a and b are integers or float values

Ex:

a=9
b=8
c=complex(a,b)
print(c)
print(type(c))
print(c.real)
print(c.imag)

 Note: Complex data type has some inbuilt attributes to retrieve the real
part and imaginary part.
 We can use complex type generally in scientific Applications and electrical
engineering Applications.

Bool:

13
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 We can use this data type to represent Boolean values.

 The only allowed values for this data type are: True and False
 Internally Python represents True as 1 and False as 0

Ex:

a=5
b=6
c=a<b
print(c)
print(type(c))
print(int(c))
print(int(True))
print(int(False))
print(True+True)
print(4+True)

String:

 str represents String data type.

 A string is a sequence of characters enclosed within single quotes or double
quotes.
 String can be create by using '' or "" or ''' ''' or """ """
 Triple quotes can be used for multiline string.
 String is immutable, that can’t be modifying directly.

Ex:

s="durgasoft"
print(s)
print(type(s))

s='durga\'s'
print(s)

s='''durgasoft
hyderabad
14
 MOHAN S.REDDY

maitrivanam'''
print(s)

s="""durgasoft
hyderabad
maitrivanam"""
print(s)

List:

 List is ordered collection of elements.

 We can create list by using [].
 List will allow duplicate elements.
 List will allow different data type elements
 List is mutable, once we create a list that can be modified.

Ex:

l= [10,10,"durga",23.4,20,'A']
print(l)
print(type(l))

Tuple:

 Tuple is ordered collection of elements same as list.

 We can create tuple by using () but brackets are optional.
 Tuple will allow duplicate elements.
 Tuple will allow different data type elements
 Tuple is immutable, once we create a tuple that cannot be modified.
 Creating a tuple with one element is bit different, to create a tuple with one
element ,after element we have to give comma(,)

Ex1:

t=(10,10,"durga",23.4,20,'A')
print(t)
15
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(type(t))

Ex2:

t=(10,)
print(t)
print(type(t))

Set:

 Set is unordered collection of unique elements.

 We can create by using {}
 Set will allow different data type elements.
 Set will not allow duplicate elements.
 Set is mutable, we can modify the set.
 To create an empty set then we use set() function.

Ex1:

s=set()
print(s)
print(type(s))

Ex2:

s={10,"sai",12.4,'A',10}
print(s)
print(type(s))

Dict:

 Dict is a collection of items.

 In dict each item can be a pair i.e. key and value.
 We can create dict by using {}

16
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 In dict keys are immutable and must be unique.

 In dict values are mutable and no need to be unique.
 In dict keys and values can be of any data type.
 In dict keys cannot be modified but values can be modified.

Ex1:

d={}
print(d)
print(type(d))

Ex2:

d={1:"sai",2:"mohan",'a':'apple',3:34.5,1:"moha
n"}
print(d)
print(type(d))

Range:

 Range is used to generate range of values.

 By default range starts from 0
 Range is immutable; we cannot change the range values.

Ex:

r=range(10)
print(r)
print(type(r))

r=range(list(10))
print(r)

r=range(list(2,20,2))
print(r)

17
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Python Operators:
 Operator is a symbol which is used to perform required operations. 
 5+2=7, here +, = are operators and 5, 2 are operands. 
 Python supports the following operators 
1. Arithmetic
2. Relational
3. Assignment
4. Logical
5. Membership
6. Identity
7. Bitwise

Arithmetic Operators:

 Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations like

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Operator Description

// It perform floor division

+ It perform Addition

- It Perform subtraction

* It Perform Multiplication

/ It Perform Division

% Return remainder after division

** Perform Exponent or Power

Operator

Ex:

18
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(2+3)
print(4-1)
print(5*2)
print(5**2)
print(5/2)
print(5//2)
print(5%2)

Relational Operators:

 Relational operators are used for comparing the values. It either returns
True or False according to the condition. These operators are also known as
Comparison Operators.

Operator Description

< Less than

> Greater than

<= Less than or equal to

>= Greater than or equal to

== Equal to

!= Not Equal to

Ex:

print(3<4)
print(4>5)
print(4<=4)
print(5>=5)
print(3==3)
print(3!=3)

19
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Assignment Operators:

 Assignment Operators are used to assigning values to variables.

Operator Description

= Assignment

/= Divide and Assign

+= Add and Assign

-= Subtract and Assign

*= Multiply and Assign

%= Modulus and Assign

**= Exponent and Assign

//= Floor division and Assign

Ex:

a=5
print(a)
a+=2
print(a)
a-=2
print(a)
a*=2
print(a)
a/=2
print(a)
a//=2
print(a)
20
 MOHAN S.REDDY

a=5
print(a)
a**=2
print(a)
a%=2
print(a)

Logical Operators:

 Logical operators are used on conditional statements and perform logical

operations.

Operator Description

And Logical AND(When both conditions

are true output will be true)

Or Logical or(if any one condition is true

output will be true).

Not i.e Reverse , complement the

condition

Ex:

print(2<3 and 4<5)

print(2<3 and 4>5)

print(2<3 or 4>5)
print(2<3 or 1<2)
print(1>2 or 2>3)

print(not(2<3))
print(not(1>2))

21
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Membership Operators:

 Membership operators are used to test if a given value or object is present

in sequence or not.

Operator Description

In Return true if variable is available in

sequence , else false.

Not in Return true if variable is not

available in sequence, else false.

Ex:

lst=[2,3,4,5]
print(2 in lst)
print(100 in lst)
print(100 not in lst)
print(2 not in lst)

Identity Operators:

 These operators are used to check whether the variables or objects are
having same identity or different identity.

Operator Description

Is Return true if identity of two

operands are same, else false.

Is not Return true if identity of two

operands are not same, else false.

22
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:

a=2
b=2
print(a is b)
print(a is not b)

a=2
b=3
print(a is b)
print(a is not b)

Id ( ):

 It is a built-in function which is used to find memory address of variables or

any object in python.
 id () will return unique integer value.

Ex:

a=2
b=2

print(id(a))
print(id(b))
print(id(a)==id(b))

a=2
b=3

print(id(a))
print(id(b))

a='mohan'
b='Mohan'

23
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(id(a))
print(id(b))

print(id(a)==id(b))

Bitwise Operators:

 In Python, bitwise operators are used to performing bitwise calculations

on integers.
 The integers are first converted into binary and then operations are
performed on bit by bit, hence the name bitwise operators. Then the
result is returned in decimal format.

1. Bitwise AND (&)

2. Bitwise OR (|)

3. Bitwise XOR (^)

4. Bitwise NOT (~)

5. Left shift (<<)

6. Right shift (>>)

24
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:

a=9
b=5
print(bin(a))
print(bin(b))
print(bin(a&b))
print(a&b)
print(a|b)
print(a^b)
print(~a) #~a=-(a+1)
print(a<<2)
print(a>>2)

Control Flow Statements:

 Flow control describes the order in which statements will be executed
at runtime.

25
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Control flow statements divided into 3 parts.

1. Conditional statements
2. Iterative statements
3. Transfer statements

Conditional statements:

 If
 If else
 Nested if
 elif

if :

Syntax: if condition:
Statements
 If condition is true then statements will be executed.

Ex:

i=100
if i==100:
print("true")

if else:

Syntax: if condition:
Statements
else:
Statements
 If condition is false then statements of else block will be executed.
 Else will execute only if the condition is false.

Ex:
26
 MOHAN S.REDDY

i=100
if i==100:
print("true")
else:
print("false")

Ex: program to check the given number is even or odd

i=int(input("Enter a number:"))
if i%2==0:
print(i,"is even")
else:
print(i,"is odd")

Ex: program to find biggest of two numbers

i=int(input("Enter num1:"))
j=int(input("Enter num2:"))
if i>j:
print(i,"is big")
else:
print(j,"is big")

Ex: program to check the given number is in between 1 and 100

n=int(input("Enter number:"))
if n>=1 and n<=100:
print("The number",n,"is in between 1 to
100")
else:
print("The number", n, "is not in between 1
to 100")

nested if:
27
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Syntax: if condition:
Statements
else:
if condition:
Statements
else:
Statements

Ex:

i=int(input("Enter num1:"))
j=int(input("Enter num2:"))
if i>j:
print(i,"is greater than",j)
else:
if i<j:
print(i,"is less than ",j)
else:
print(i,"is equal to",j)

elif:

Syntax: if condition1:
Statements
elif condition2:
Statements
elif condition3:
Statements
else:
Statements

Ex: program to find biggest of three numbers

28
 MOHAN S.REDDY

i=int(input("Enter num1:"))
j=int(input("Enter num2:"))
k=int(input("Enter num3:"))

if i>j and i>k:

print("Biggest number is:",i)
elif j>k:
print("Biggest number is:",j)
else:
print("Biggest number is:",k)

Ex:

n=int(input("Enter number:"))
if n==1:
print("ONE")
elif n==2:
print("TWO")
elif n==3:
print("THREE")
elif n==4:
print("FOUR")
else:
print("Invalid number")
Ex:

n=int(input("Enter number:"))
if n==1:
print("ONE")
else:
if n==2:
print("TWO")
else:
if n==3:
print("THREE")
else:

29
 MOHAN S.REDDY

if n==4:
print("FOUR")
else:
print("Invalid number")

Iterative statements:

 If we want to execute a group of statements multiple times then we should

go for iterative statements.
 For loop
 While loop

For loop:

 For loop is used to iterate the elements of collection or sequence what the
order they appear.

Syntax: for variable in sequence:

Statements
Ex:

l=[10,20,30,40,50,60]
for i in l:
#print(i)
print(i,end=' ')
Ex:

for i in [10,"sai",23.4,50,'A']:
print(i,type(i))

Ex:

for i in range(10):
print(i)

30
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex: program to display even numbers from 0 to 20

for i in range(21):
if i%2==0:
print(i)

Ex: program to display sum of first n numbers

n=int(input("Enter number:"))
sum=0
for i in range(n+1):
sum=sum+i
print("sum of first",n,"numbers:",sum)

Nested for loop:

 A for loop which is having one more for loop within it is called nested for
loop.
 A for loop inside another for loop is called nested for loop.

Syntax: for variable in sequence:

Statements
for variable in sequence:
Statements

Note: For every iteration of outer loop, inner loop should finish its all iterations
then only the outer loop starts with its next iteration.

Ex:

numlsit=[1,2,3]
charlist=['a','b']

for n in numlsit:
print(n)

31
 MOHAN S.REDDY

for c in charlist:
print(c)
While loop:

 If we want to execute a group of statements iteratively until some

condition false, then we should go for while loop.

Syntax: while condition:

Statements

Ex:

i=1
while i<=10:
print(i)
i+=1
Ex: program to display sum of first n numbers

n=int(input("Enter number:"))
sum=0
i=1
while i<=n:
sum=sum+i
i+=1
print("Sum of first",n,"numbers is:",sum)

Ex: Infinite loop

i=0
while True:
i+=1
print("Hello",i)

Transfer statements:

 Transfer statements alter the way a program gets executed. These

statements are often used in loop statements.

32
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Break
 Continue
 Pass

Break:

 We can use this inside loops to stop the execution based on condition.

Ex:

for i in range(10):
if i==5:
break
print(i)
Ex:
i=1
while i<=10:
print(i)
i = i + 1
if i == 5:
break

Continue:

 We can use this to skip the current iteration and continue with next
iteration.

Ex:

for i in range(10):
if i==5:
continue
print(i)

Ex:

33
 MOHAN S.REDDY

for i in range(10):
if i==5 or i==7:
continue
print(i)

Ex:

i=1
while i<=10:
print(i)
i+=1
if i==5:
i+=1
continue

Pass:

 It is a keyword in python.
 If we want to define the empty block then we use pass keyword.

Ex:
i=10
if i==10:
pass
else:
pass
Ex:
for i in range(10):
pass

Working with String functions:

 To get complete string functions

Ex:

34
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(dir(str))

 To get complete string functions and its description

Ex:
help(str)

 String indexing and slicing

 String is zero based index, string index starts with 0
 String supports positive and negative index
 Positive index is from left to right and starts with 0
 Negative index from right to left and starts with -1
 String slice means to get some part of the string
 Slice operator [:]

Ex:
# -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
# d u r g a s o f t
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

s="hyderabad"
print(s[0])
print(s[-1])
print(s[8])
print(s[12])#index error:string index out of
range

s="hyderbad"
print(s[2:7])
print(s[:6])
print(s[1:])
print(s[:])
print(s[0:9:1])
print(s[::-1])
35
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s[7:1]) #empty string

print(s[-1:-5])
print(s[-5:-1])

 String Concatenation and Multiplication

 Adding two or more strings into a single string is called string concatenation
 For string concatenation we use + operator
 To display given string into no of times then we use multiplication for this we
use * operator.

Ex:
s1="durga"
s2="soft"

36
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s1+s2)
print(s1+" "+s2)
print("mohan"+" "+"kumar")

print(s1*3)
print((s1+" ")*3)
print(("mohan"+" ")*3)

 String Split and Max Split

 Using split function we can split or divide the string based on separator
 Separator can be anything like space, comma, character and word.
 Max split is the optional parameter and it is used to decide the no of splits.
 By default split function will return the result as list.

Ex:
#s="d u r g a s o f t"
s="python is very easy and it is oop and it is
interpreter"
print(s)
s1=s.split(" ",3)
print(s1)
print(type(s1))

for i in s1:
print(i)

 String capitalize and title

 Capitalize method is used to return a new string starting letter as capital
 Apart from starting letter any other letters are capital then will turn into
lower case.
 Title method is used to return a new string, every word starting letter as
capital.
 Apart from starting letter of word any other letters are capital then will turn
into lower case.

Ex:
s="pyThon is vEry eaSy"
37
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s)
s1=s.capitalize()
print(s1)
#or
print(s.capitalize())
print(s.title())

 String upper and lower

 Upper method is used to convert a string from lower case to upper case
 Lower method is used to convert a string from upper case to lower case

Ex:
s="durgasoft"
print(s)

38
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s.upper())

s="DURGASOFT"
print(s)
print(s.lower())

 String count
 Count method is used to count the no of occurrences of substring which is
present in given string.

Ex:

s="python is very easy and it is oop and it is

interpreter"
substring="is"
print(s.count(substring))
print(s.count("and"))
print(s.count("is"))
print(s.count("x"))
print(s.count(" "))
print(s.count('a'))

 String replace
 Replace method is used to replace the string.
 As we know that string is immutable, so that after replace the string better to
Store a new string into a separate variable.

Ex:
s="my name is durga"
print(s)
s1=s.replace("durga","mohan")
print(s1)
#or
#print(s.replace("durga","mohan"))

 String join
 Join method is used to concatenate a string
39
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Join method will return a string.

Ex:
print(",".join("MOHAN"))
print(" ".join(["sai","mohan","raj","durga"]))

 String reverse
 Using reversed method of join, we can reverse the string.

40
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:
print(" ".join(reversed("SAI")))
#or
s="SAI"
print(s[::-1])

 String sort
 There is no sort method in string
 Use the list sort for sorting string.

Ex:
s="python is very easy"
print(s)
s1=s.split(" ")
print(s1)
print(type(s1))
s1.sort()
print(s1)
s1.sort(reverse=True)
print(s1)

 String swap case

 Swap case method is used to swap the cases of string
 That means lowercase to uppercase and uppercase to lowercase conversion.

Ex:
s="DuRgAsOfT"
print(s)
print(s.swapcase())

 String strip, lstrip, rstrip

• strip returns a copy of the string with both leading and trailing
characters removed.
• lstrip returns a copy of the string with leading characters removed.

41
 MOHAN S.REDDY

• rstrip returns a copy of the string with trailing characters removed.

Ex:
s=" durga "
print(s)
print(s.strip(" "))

s="adurga"
print(s)
print(s.strip('a'))

42
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s.lstrip('a'))
print(s.rstrip('a'))

 String length

 Len is a built-in function and it is used to find length of the string.

Ex:
print(len("durga soft"))

 String find , index ,rindex

 Find method is used to find the substring of given string

 If substring found then it will return the index of the substring else it will
return -1.

 Index method is used to find the substring of given string.

 If substring found then it will return the index of the substring else it will give
value error.

 rindex method is used to get highest index of the substring

Ex:
s="python is very easy and it is oop and it is
interpreter"

print(s.find("is"))
print(s.find("x"))
print(s.index("is"))
#print(s.index("x"))
print(s.rindex("is"))

 String max, min

 Max function is used to find the maximum character of string based on ASCII.
 Min function is used to find the minimum character of string based on ASCII.
 To find ASCII value of any character in python then we use ord() function.
43
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Ex: print(ord(‘A’))

Ex:
s="durgasoft"
print(max(s))
print(min(s))
s="DURGASOFT"
print(max(s))
print(min(s))

 String partition
• Splits the string at the first occurrence of the separator and returns a
tuple.

Ex:
s="python is very easy and it is oop"
s1=s.partition("is")

44
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(s1)
print(type(s1))

 String startswith , endswith

• returns True if a string starts with the given prefix otherwise returns
False
• returns True if a string ends with the given suffix otherwise returns
False

Ex:

s="durgasoft"
print(s.startswith('a'))
print(s.startswith('D'))
print(s.startswith('d'))
print(s.endswith('T'))
print(s.endswith('t')

 String isdigit ,isalpha, isalnum

• Returns True if all characters in the string are digits, Otherwise, It
returns False.
• Returns True if all characters in the string are alphabets Otherwise, It
returns False.
• Returns true if all the characters in a given string are alpha or numeric
or alphanumeric otherwise false.

Ex:

s="12345"
print(s.isdigit())
s="12345a"
print(s.isdigit())

s="abcd"
print(s.isalpha())
s='abcd12'
print(s.isalpha())

45
 MOHAN S.REDDY

s="abcd"
print(s.isalnum())
s="1234"
print(s.isalnum())
s="123abc"
print(s.isalnum())
s="$%#%"
print(s.isalnum())

46
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Working with List functions:

 List index
 List is zero based index, string index starts with 0
 List supports positive and negative index
 Positive index is from left to right and starts with 0
 Negative index from right to left and starts with -1

Ex:
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
l=[10,20,"sai",30,40,"durga",'A',23.4,50,60]
print(l[1])
print(l[-1])
print(l[-4])
#print(l[10])#Index Error: list index out of
range
print(l[1:6])

#nested list
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
# 0 1 2
l=[10,20,"sai",[30,40,"durga"],'A',23.4,50,60]
print(l[3])
print(l[3][1])
print(l[-5][-2])

 List slice
 List slice means to get some part of the list
 Slice operator [:]

Ex:
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
l=[10,20,"sai",30,40,"durga",'A',23.4,50,60]

47
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(l[1:5])
print(l[:4])
print(l[1:])
print(l[:])

 Adding elements to the List : insert, append, extend

 List is mutable object; we can change or modify elements.
 Insert method is used to insert the value at particular index.
 Already available value on that index will change its position.
 Append and extend methods are used to add the values to the list.
 The difference between append and extend methods is, append is used to
Add only one element whereas extend method is used to add multiple values,
But append and extend methods will add values by default at the end of the
list.

Ex:
l=[2,3,4]
print(l)
l[1]=33# 1 is index and 33 is value

48
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(l)

l=[2,3,4]
print(l)
l.insert(1,33)# 1 is index and 33 is value
print(l)

l=[2,3,4]
print(l)
l.append(33)
l.extend([45,67,89,"sai"])
print(l)

 Delete elements from the List : remove, pop, clear, del

 Remove method is used to remove element from the list based on provided
element.
 Pop method is used to remove element from the list based on the index.
 Clear method is used to make a list as empty.
 Del is a keyword and it is used to delete entire the list.

Ex:
l=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(l)
l.remove(20)
#l.remove(33) #ValueError: list.remove(x): x
not in list

l=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(l)
l.pop(2)
l.clear()

del l
print(l)

 List concatenation and multiplication

 Adding two or more lists into a single list is called list concatenation
49
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 For list concatenation we use + operator

 To display given list into no of times then we use multiplication for this we
use * operator.

Ex:
l1=["sai","durga","ram"]
l2=[10,20,30]
print(l1+l2)
print(l1*3)

50
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 List sort
 Sort method is used to display the list values ascending or descending order.
 By default sort method will display the list elements in ascending order.
 to display descending order then we use reverse = True.

Ex:
l=[2,6,9,4,3,5,7,1]
print(l)
l.sort()
print(l)
l.sort(reverse=True)
print(l)

 List copy
• Shallow Copy reflects changes made to the new/copied object in the
original object.
• Deep copy doesn’t reflect changes made to the new/copied object in
the original object.
• Shallow copy is faster. Deep copy is comparatively slower.

Ex:
l1=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(l1)

#l2=l1
l2=l1.copy()

l1[1]=33
print(l1)
print(l2)

print(id(l1))
print(id(l2))

 List count and index

51
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Count method is used to count the no of occurrences from list.

 Index method is used to find the index of list element.

Ex:
l=[10,20,30,10,20,10,10,20,10,20]
print(l.count(10))
print(l.count(100))
print(l.index(30))

 List creation by accepting values at runtime

Ex:

52
 MOHAN S.REDDY

l=[]

item1=int(input("Enter int vlaue:"))

item2=input("Enter string value:")
item3=float(input("Enter float value:"))

'''l.append(item1)
l.append(item2)
l.append(item3)'''

l.extend([item1,item2,item3])

print(l)

 List creation by accepting values at runtime

Ex:

l=[]

n=int(input("Enter length of the list:"))

for i in range(n):
x=int(input("Enter a value:"))
l.append(x)
print(l)

 List creation using range

Ex:

print(list(range(10)))
print(list(range(2,20)))
print(list(range(2,21,3)))#start,stop,step

53
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Working with tuple functions:

Ex:

t=(10,20,30)
print(t)
print(type(t))
#t[1]=33 #TypeError: 'tuple' object does not
support item assignment
del t
print(t)

 Tuple membership test

 Membership test is used to check whether the value is present in tuple or
not.

Ex:
print(10 in t)
print(100 in t)
print(100 not in t)

 Tuple Len, max, min, sum

 Len is used to find the length of the tuple.
 Max is used to find max value from tuple
 Min is used to find min value from tuple.
 Sum is used to find sum of all elements from tuple.
 Max, Min, Sum can only apply on numbers.

Ex:

t=(10,20,-34,23.4,50)
print(len(t))
print(max(t))
print(min(t))
print(sum(t))
print(sum(t,4))

54
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Converting a string into tuple

Ex:

s="durgasoft"
print(s)
print(type(s))

t=tuple(s)

55
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(t)
print(type(t))

 Converting a List into tuple

Ex:

l=[10,20,30,40]
print(l)
print(type(l))

t=tuple(l)
print(t)
print(type(t))

 Tuple packing and unpacking

 Packing is the process of assigning variable values to tuple
 Unpacking is the process of assigning tuple values to the variables.

Ex:

#packing
a=10
b=20
c=30

t=a,b,c
print(t)
print(type(t))

#unpacking
t=(100,200,300)

a,b,c=t
print("a=",a)
print("b=",b)
print("c=",c)
56
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Working with set functions:

 Creating a set

Ex:

s=set()
print(s)
print(type(s))

 Add and update methods of set

 Add method is used to add single value to the set
 Update method is used to add multiple values to the set.

Ex:

s={10,20,30,"sai",45.7,10}
print(s)

s.add(33)
print(s)

s.update([44,55,78,"durga"])
print(s)

 Discard, Remove, Clear methods of set

 Discard and Remove methods are used to delete the values from set.
 If the element is present on set, both methods will work fine.
 If the element is not present then discard will return none whereas remove
method will give a key error.
 Clear method is used to make an empty set.
 Del is used to delete the set .

Ex:

s={10,20,30,40,50}
print(s)
57
 MOHAN S.REDDY

#s.discard(10)
#s.remove(10)
s1=s.discard(100) #none
print(s1)
#s.remove(100) #KeyError: 100
s.clear()
print(s)

 Deleting a set

58
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:

s={10,20,30,40,50}
print(s)
del s
print(s) #NameError: name 's' is not defined

 Set operators : union, intersection, difference, symmetric difference

 Union will return unique values from both the sets
 Intersection will return the common values from both the sets.
 Difference will return values from first set which are not present on the
second set.
 Symmetric difference will return unique values except common values from
both sets.

Ex:

A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={4,5,6,7,8}

print(A|B)
print(A.union(B))

print(A&B)
print(A.intersection(B))

print(A-B)
print(A.difference(B))
print(B-A)

print(A^B)
print(A.symmetric_difference(B))

 Set Len, max, min, sum

 Len is used to find the length of the tuple.
 Max is used to find max value from tuple
 Min is used to find min value from tuple.
59
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Sum is used to find sum of all elements from tuple.

 Max, Min, Sum can only apply on numbers.

Ex:

s={10,34.5,-45,89,99}
print(len(s))
print(max(s))
print(min(s))
print(sum(s))
print(sum(s,9))

60
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Set membership test

 Membership test is used to check whether the values are present in set or
not.

Ex:

s={10,34.5,-45,89,99}
print(10 in s)
print(9 in s)
print(99 not in s)

Working with dict functions:

 Creating a dict

Ex:

d={}
print(d)
print(type(d))

d={"eid":1234,"ename":"sai"}
print(d)

 Access value from dict

 To access values from dictionary then we use keys.

 If key not present then we will get key error

 We can also pass key by using get function; if the key is not present then it
will return none.

Ex:

d={"eid":1234,"ename":"sai"}
print(d)

print(d["ename"])
61
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(d.get("ename"))

#print(d["age"])#KeyError: 'age'
print(d.get("age")) #none

 Change the value from dict

 To change the value from dict then we use key.

Ex:

62
 MOHAN S.REDDY

d={"eid":123,"ename":"sai"}
print(d)

d["ename"]="mohan"
print(d)

d["age"]=37
print(d)

 Deleting a dict
 Del key word is used to delete entire the dict.

Ex:
d={"eid":123,"ename":"sai"}
print(d)
del d["ename"]
print(d)
#del d
#print(d) #NameError: name 'd' is not defined

 Dict copy
 To copy the elements from one dict to another then we use copy method.
 Copy method is used to make a deep copy.

Ex:

d={1:"sai",2:"mohan",3:"raja"}
print(d)

#d1=d
d1=d.copy()
print(d1)

d[1]="durga"
63
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(d)
print(d1)

64
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(id(d1))
print(id(d))

 Dict items, values, keys functions

 To get all items from dict then we use items() function.
 To get all values from dict then we use values() function
 To get all keys from dict then we use keys() function.

Ex:

d={1:"sai",2:"mohan",3:"raja"}
print(d)
print(d.items())
print(d.keys())
print(d.values())

 Dict len and membership test

 Len is used to find the length of the dict.
 Note: in dict membership test is only applicable for keys

Ex:

d={1:"sai",2:"mohan",3:"raja"}
print(1 in d)
print("sai" in d)
print(len(d))

 Dict pop and pop item methods

 Using pop method we can delete the particular item based on key.
 Using pop item method we can delete obituary item than means last item
from the dict.
 Pop and pop item methods will return that which is going to delete from dict. 

Ex:

d={1:"sai",2:"mohan",3:"durga"}
print(d)
65
 MOHAN S.REDDY

#print(d.pop(1))
#print(d)

print(d.popitem())
print(d)

66
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Working with bytes and byte array:

 Bytes represent byte numbers just like an array.

 The only allowed values for bytes are 0 to 255.
 Bytes is immutable, we cannot change byte values once we create.
 Byte array represent byte numbers just like an array.
 The only allowed values for byte array is 0 to 255.
 Byte array is mutable; we can change byte array values once we create.

Ex:

x=[10,20,30,40,255]
print(x)
print(type(x))

#b=bytes(x)
b=bytearray(x)
print(b)
print(type(b))
'''print(b[0])
print(b[1])
print(b[2])
print(b[3])'''

b[1]=33
for i in b:
print(i)

Working with frozen set:

 Set and frozen set is almost same but only the difference is ,set is mutable
Whereas frozen set is immutable.
 We cannot change frozen set once create it.

Ex:

67
 MOHAN S.REDDY

s={10,20,30,40}
print(s)
print(type(s))
s.add(34)
print(s)

fs=frozenset(s)
print(fs)
print(type(fs))

fs.add(45) #AttributeError: 'frozenset' object

has no attribute 'add'
print(fs)

Python Functions:

 If a group of statements is repeatedly required then it is not recommended

to write these statements every time separately.
 We have to define these statements as a single unit and we can call that
unit any number of times based on our requirement without rewriting. This
unit is nothing but function.
 Function is a group of related statements that perform a specific task.
 Functions help break our program into smaller and modular chunks.
 As our program grows larger and larger, functions make it more organized
and manageable.
 Furthermore, it avoids repetition and makes code reusable
 The main advantage of functions is code Reusability.
 Functions will provide improve readability of the program.

Python supports 2 types of functions

 Built in Functions
 User Defined Functions

1. Built in Functions:

68
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 The functions which are coming along with Python software automatically
are called built in functions or pre-defined functions
Ex: print (), id (), type () etc.

2. User Defined Functions:

 The functions which are developed by programmer explicitly according to

their requirements are called user defined functions.

Syntax to create user defined functions:

Syntax :

def function_name(parameters) :

""" doc string"""

Statements…

return value

 Keyword def marks the start of function header.

 A function name to uniquely identify it. Function naming follows the
same rules of writing identifiers in Python.
 Parameters (arguments) through which we pass values to a function.
They are optional.
 A colon (:) to mark the end of function header.
 Optional documentation string (docstring) to describe what the
function does.
 One or more valid python statements that make up the function body.
Statements must have same indentation level (usually 4 spaces).
 An optional return statement to return a value from the function.

 Creating a function

Ex:

69
 MOHAN S.REDDY

#creating a function
def f1():
for i in range(10):
print("Hello")

#calling a function
f1()
f1()

Parameters:

 Parameters are inputs to the function. If a function contains parameters,

then at the time of calling, compulsory we should provide parameter
values otherwise we will get error.
 Create a function to find square of given number

Ex:

def square(n):
print("square is:",n*n)

#square()#TypeError: square() missing 1

required positional argument: 'n'
square(3)
square(5)
 Create a function to find whether given number is even or odd

Ex:

def iseven(n):
if n%2==0:
print(n,"is even")
else:
print(n,"is odd")
70
 MOHAN S.REDDY

iseven(10)
iseven(n=int(input("Enter a number:")))

 Create a function to find biggest of two numbers

Ex:

def biggest(a,b):
if a>b:
print(a,"is big")
else:
print(b,"is big")

biggest(23,45)

 Create a function to find biggest of three numbers

Ex:

def biggest(a,b,c):
if a>b and a>c:
print(a,"is big")
elif b>c:
print(b,"is big")
else:
print(c,"is big")

biggest(2,3,4)
biggest(4,3,2)
biggest(3,4,2)
biggest(4,2,3)

 Create a function to find sum of two numbers

71
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:
def sum(a,b):
print("sum is:",a+b)

sum(10,20)
sum(23.4,56.7)
sum(a=int(input("Enter
Num1:")),b=int(input("Enter Num2:")))

Return Statement:

 Function can take input values as parameters and executes

business logic, and returns output to the caller with return
statement.

 Create a function to find sum of two numbers and return the result

Ex:

def add(a,b):
#print("sum is:",a+b)
return a+b

r=add(10,20)
print("sum is:",r)

 In python a function can return multiple values

Ex:

def sum_sub(a,b):
sum=a+b
sub=a-b
return sum,sub

x,y=sum_sub(20,10)

72
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print("sum is:",x)
print("sub is:",y)

 Program for arithmetic operations using functions

Ex:

def add(x, y):

return x + y
def subtract(x, y):
return x - y
def multiply(x, y):
return x * y
def divide(x, y):
return x / y
print("Select operation.")
print("1.Add")
print("2.Subtract")
print("3.Multiply")
print("4.Divide")
# input from the user
choice = input("Enter choice(1/2/3/4):")
num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
if choice == '1':
print(num1,"+",num2,"=", add(num1,num2))
elif choice == '2':
print(num1,"-",num2,"=",
subtract(num1,num2))
elif choice == '3':
print(num1,"*",num2,"=",
multiply(num1,num2))
elif choice == '4':
print(num1,"/",num2,"=", divide(num1,num2))
else:
print("Invalid input")

73
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Function Variables:
 Python supports 2 types of variables
1. Local variables
2. Global variables

Local Variables:
 The variables which are declared inside a function are called local
variables.
 Local variables are available only for the function in which we declared
it, from outside of function we cannot access.
Ex:
def f1():
a=10
print(a)
#print(b)#NameError: name 'b' is not
defined

def f2():
b=20
print(b)
#print(a)#NameError: name 'a' is not
defined

f1()
f2()

Global Variables:
 The variables which are declared outside of function are called global
variables. These variables can be accessed in all functions of that
module or program.
Ex:

a=10 #global variable

def f1():
print(a)

74
 MOHAN S.REDDY

def f2():
print(a)

f1()
f2()

global keyword:

 We can use global keyword for the following 2 purposes:

1. To declare global variable inside function
2. To make global variable available to the function so that we
can perform required modifications

Ex:

a=10

def f1():
global a
a=99
print(a)

def f2():
print(a)

f1()
f2()
Ex:

def f1():
global a
a=99
print(a)

def f2():
print(a)

75
 MOHAN S.REDDY

f1()
f2()

Note: If global variable and local variable is having the same name then
we can access global variable inside a function as follows.

Ex:

a=10

def f1():
a=20
print(a)
print(globals()['a'])

def f2():
print(a)

f1()
f2()

Types of arguments:

def f1(a,b):
print(a+b)

f1(10,20)

 a, b are formal arguments whereas 10,20 are actual arguments

 There are 4 types are actual arguments are allowed in Python.

1. positional arguments
2. keyword arguments
3. default arguments
4. Variable length arguments

76
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Positional arguments:

 The arguments which are passed to a function in correct positional order is

called positional arguments.
 The number of arguments and position of arguments must be matched. If
we change the order then result may be changed.
 If we change the number of arguments then we will get error.

Ex:

def sub(a,b):
print("sub is:",a-b)

sub(20,10)
sub(10,20)
sub(10,20,30) #TypeError: sub() takes 2
positional arguments but 3 were given

Keyword arguments:

 The arguments which are passed to a function by using a keyword or

parameter name are called keyword arguments.
 Here the order of arguments is not important but number of arguments
must be matched.
Ex:

def f1(name,msg):
print("Hello:",name,msg)

#keyword arguments
f1(name="mohan",msg="Good morning")
f1(msg="Good morning",name="mohan")
#positional arguments
f1("mohan","Good morning")
f1("Good morning","mohan")

77
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Note: We can use both positional and keyword arguments simultaneously.

But first we have to take positional arguments and then keyword arguments;
otherwise we will get syntax error.

Ex:

def f1(name,msg):
print("Hello:",name,msg)

#keyword arguments
f1(name="mohan",msg="Good morning")
f1(msg="Good morning",name="mohan")
#we can use one positional and one keyword
arguments
#but make sure that positional arguments should
be first then after keyword arguments
f1("mohan",msg="Good morning")
#f1(name="mohan","Good morning") #SyntaxError:
positional argument follows keyword argument

Default arguments:

 Sometimes we can provide default values for our positional arguments

Ex:

def f1(cource="python"):
print("course is:",cource)

f1("c")
f1()

 If we are not passing any course then only default value will be considered
 After default arguments we should not take non default arguments

78
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Ex:

#def f1(cource="python",name): #SyntaxError:

non-default argument follows default argument
def f1(name,cource="python"):
print(name,"course is:",cource)

f1("sai","c")
f1("mohan")
f1("ram")

Variable length arguments:

 Sometimes we can pass variable number of arguments to our function,

such type of arguments are called variable length arguments.
 We can declare a variable length argument with * symbol as follows
Ex: def f1(*n):
 We can call this function by passing any number of arguments including
zero number.
 Internally all these values represented in the form of tuple.

Ex:

def f1(*a):
print(a)

f1()
f1(10)
f1(10,20)
f1(10,20,30)
Ex:

def add(*n):
s = 0
for i in n:
s=s+i
79
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print("sum is:",s)

add(10,20)
add(2,3,4)
add(2,3,4,5,6,7)
add(10,20,30,40,50,60,70)

What is *args and **kwargs in python:

 *args allows us to pass no of argument values to the function.

 *args will store the values in tuple collection
 The name *args is optional we can use any name like *n or *x
 *args is same as variable length arguments.

Ex:

def add(*args):
s = 0
for i in args:
s=s+i
print("sum is:",s)

add(10,20)
add(2,3,4)
add(2,3,4,5,6,7)
add(10,20,30,40,50,60,70)

 **kwargs allows us to pass no of keyword argument values to the function.

 **kwargs will store the values in dict collection
 The name **kwargs is optional we can use any name like **n or **x

Ex:

def f1(**kwargs):
print(kwargs)
for k,v in kwargs.items():
80
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(k,"=",v)

f1(a=10,b=20,c=30)
f1(eid=1234,ename="sai",eaddress="hyd",esal=450
00)

Positional only arguments:

 If we declare a function for accepting only positional arguments then that

function will work only with positional arguments.
 If we pass keyword arguments then it will give error

Ex:

def add(a,b,/):
print("sum is:",a+b)

add(10,20)
#add(a=10,b=20) #TypeError: add() got some
positional-only a

Keyword only arguments:

 If we declare a function for accepting only keyword arguments then that

function will work only with keyword arguments.
 If we pass positional arguments then it will give error

Ex:

def add(*,a,b):
print("sum is:",a+b)

#add(10,20) #TypeError: add() takes 0

positional arguments but 2 were given
add(a=10,b=20)

81
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Function Aliasing:

 For the existing function we can give another name, which is nothing but
function aliasing.
 If we delete a name of the function still we can call a function with alias
name.

Ex:

def f1():
print("Hello")

f2=f1
#del f1
f2()
print(id(f1))
print(id(f2))

Nested Function:

 A Function which contains one more Functions within it is known as

Nested Function.
Ex:

def f1():
print("hello")

def f2():
print("Hai")

def f3():
print("welcome")

f3()

f2()

82
 MOHAN S.REDDY

f1()

Ex:

def multi(a):
def mul(b):
def mu(c):
return a*b*c
return mu
return mul
y=multi(10)(20)(2)
print(y)

Recursive Function:

 A function that calls itself is known as Recursive Function.

 We can reduce length of the code and improves readability.
 We can solve complex problems very easily.
 Factorial is a recursive function which calls every time itself.
 factorial(n)= n*factorial(n-1)

factorial(3) =3*factorial(2)
=3*2*factorial(1)
=3*2*1*factorial(0)
=3*2*1*1
=6
Ex:

def factorial(n):
if n==0:
result=1
else:
result=n*factorial(n-1)
return result
print("Factorial of 4 is:",factorial(4))
print("Factorial of 5 is:",factorial(5))

83
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Anonymous or Lambda Functions:

 Sometimes we can declare a function without any name, such type of

nameless functions is called anonymous functions or lambda functions.
 The main purpose of anonymous function is just for instant use (for one
time usage).
 Using lambda we can write concise code.
 Using lambda we can reduce the length of the code.
 Using lambda we can write mostly single line expressions.
 Using lambda we can improve readability of program.
 We can define lambda function by using lambda keyword

Syntax: lambda argument_list : expression

 lambda function to find square of given number

s=lambda n:n*n
print(s(4))

 lambda function to find sum of two numbers

s=lambda a,b:a+b
print(s(10,20))

 lambda function to find biggest of two numbers

s=lambda a,b:a if a>b else b

print(s(34,56))

 lambda function to find biggest of three numbers

s=lambda a,b,c:a if a>b and a>c else b if b>c

else c
print(s(2,3,4))

 lambda function to find a number is even or odd

84
 MOHAN S.REDDY

s=lambda n:"is even" if n%2==0 else "is odd"

print(s(5))
print(s(8))

 Sometimes we can pass a function as an argument to other function in this

situation lambda is best choice.
 In python some functions will expect other function as an argument in this
situation lambda is best choice.
 We can use lambda functions very commonly with filter(),map() and
reduce() functions, because these functions expect other function as
argument.

Filter ():

 This function is used to filter the values from given sequence based on
condition.
 syntax: filter(function, sequence)
 here first parameter function is for conditional check
 here second parameter sequence can be a list or tuple or set

Ex:

#without lambda
def iseven(x):
if x%2==0:
return True
else:
return False

L=[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
L1=list(filter(iseven,L))
print(L1)
Ex:

#with lambda
L=[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

85
 MOHAN S.REDDY

L1=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==0,L))
print(L1)

Map ():

 for every element present in sequence, apply some condition and

Return the new sequence of elements for this purpose we use map
function.
 syntax: filter(function, sequence)
 here first parameter function is for conditional check
 here second parameter sequence can be a list or tuple or set

Ex:

#without lambda
def dbl(x):
return 2*x

L=[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
L1=list(map(dbl,L))
print(L1)
Ex:

#with lambda
L=[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
L1=list(map(lambda x:2*x,L))
print(L1)

 We can apply map () function on multiple lists also, but make sure all list
should have same length.

Ex:

L1=[2,3,4,5,7]
L2=[5,6,7,8,9]
L3=list(map(lambda x,y:x+y,L1,L2))
print(L3)

86
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Reduce ():

 Reduce () function reduces sequence of elements into a single element by

applying the specified function.
 syntax: filter(function, sequence)
 Reduce () function present in functools module and hence we should write
import statement.

Ex:

#without lambda
from functools import reduce

def f1(x,y):
return x+y

L=[10,20,30,40,50,60,70]
result=reduce(f1,L)
print(result)

Ex:

#without lambda
from functools import reduce
L=[10,20,30,40,50,60,70]
result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,L)
print(result)

Modules in Python:

 A group of functions, variables and classes saved to a file, which is nothing

but module.
 Every Python file (.py) acts as a module.
 Module is for reusability of the program code into other program.
 Once we write logic in one program that logic we can use into any other
program by importing the program name as module.

87
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 In python modules can be of two types

1. User defined modules

2. Predefined or built-in modules

Working User defined modules:

Sample.py :

x=123
def add(a,b):
print("sum is:",a+b)
def mul(a,b):
print("Product is:",a*b)

 Here sample.py acts as module.

 Sample module contains one variable and 2 functions.
 Variables and functions of module called as members.
 If we want to use members of module in our program then we should
import that module.
 import modulename
 We can access members by using module name.
 modulename.variable
 modulename.function()

Test.py:

import sample
print(sample.x)
sample.add(10,20)
sample.mul(30,20)

 Here Test.py reusing the functionality of sample.py file.

88
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Renaming a module or module aliasing:

 Just giving other name to a module is called module aliasing.

 Make sure that once we change the module name then we can access
members of the modules with alias name only.
Test.py:

import sample as sm
print(sm.x)
sm.add(10,20)
sm.mul(30,20)

 Here sample is original module name and sm is alias name.

 We can access members by using alias name sm

from ... import :

 We can import particular members of module by using from ... import.

 The main advantage of this is we can access members directly without
using module name.

Test.py:

from sample import x,add,mul

print(x)
add(10,20)
mul(20,30)

 We can import all members of a module as follows

Test.py:

from sample import *

print(x)
add(10,20)
mul(20,30)

Renaming a member or member aliasing:

89
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Test.py:

from sample import x as a,add as sum

print(a)
sum(10,20)

 Here a is alias name of x and sum is alias name of add

 We can also import multiple modules

Ex with importing multiple modules

Sample.py :

x=123
def add(a,b):
print("sum is:",a+b)
def mul(a,b):
print("Product is:",a*b)

Sample1.py:

x=200
def sub(a,b):
print("mul is:",a*b)

Test.py:

from sample import *

from sample1 import *
print(x)
add(2,3)
mul(3,6)

print(x)
sub(7,3)

90
 MOHAN S.REDDY

Note: in the above program we notice that the value of x is 200 for two times,
the reason is recent module value only effect that is from sample1, to avoid this
try to change the program like below.
Test.py :

from sample import *

print(x)
add(2,3)
mul(3,6)

from sample1 import *

print(x)
sub(7,3)

The Special variable name :

 For every python program, a special variable name will be added

internally.
 This variable stores information regarding whether the program is executed
as an individual program or executed from other program.
 If the program executed as an individual program then the value of this
variable is main 
 If the program executed from some other program then the value of this
variable is the name of module where it is defined.
 Hence by using this name variable we can identify whether the
program executed directly or executed from some other program.

Sample.py :

def f1():
if name ==' main ':
print("Executed as an individual
program")
else:
print("Executed from some other

91
 MOHAN S.REDDY

program")
f1()

Test.py :
import sample
sample.f1()

To get the information of particular module:

Test.py :

import sample
help(sample)

Working with pre-defined modules:

 When we install python software then automatically lot of modules gets

installed for ready to use.
 In case any modules are not available then we have to install explicitly.

Working with math module:

 This module defines several functions which can be used for mathematical
operations.

Ex:

from math import *

print(factorial(3))
print(sqrt(4))
print(pow(3,2))
print(log(10,2))
print(ceil(34.2))
print(floor(34.9))

Working with random module:

92
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 This module defines several functions to generate random numbers.

 We can use these functions while developing games, in cryptography and
to generate random numbers on fly for authentication.
 Functions of random module:
1. Random()
2. Randint()
3. Uniform()
4. Randrange()
5. Choice()

Random () :

 This function always generate some float value between 0 and 1 ( not
inclusive)

from random import *

for i in range(5):
print(random())

Randint () :

 This function always generate random integer values between two given
numbers ( inclusive)

from random import *

for i in range(10):
#print(randint(2,21))
print(randint(1000,2000))

Uniform () :

 This function always generate some float value between two given
numbers ( not inclusive)

93
 MOHAN S.REDDY

from random import *

for i in range(10):
print(uniform(2,21))

Randrange () :

 This function always generates random range values.

 Syntax: randrange(start,stop,step)

from random import *

for i in range(10):
print(randrange(2,21,3))

Choice ():

 This function will not generate random values but it return random object.

from random import *

l=["sai","mohan","raj","ram",10,34.5,"manoj"]
x=choice(l)
print(x)
print(type(x))
#in python everything is called as object

Working with Date time module:

 This module is used to work with date and time related tasks.

Example to display current system date and time

94
 MOHAN S.REDDY

import datetime
x=datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

from datetime import *

x=datetime.now()
print(x)
print(x.date())
print(x.time())

Example to display current system date and time

import datetime

x=datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

import datetime as dt

x=dt.datetime.now()
print(x)

from datetime import *

x=datetime.now()
print(x)

strftime () function :

 This function is used to display date objects into string format

from datetime import *

x=datetime.now()
print(x)
print(x.strftime('%A')) #weekday full version
print(x.strftime('%a')) #weekday short version
print(x.strftime('%Y')) #year full version
print(x.strftime('%y')) #year short version
95
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(x.strftime('%B')) #month full version

print(x.strftime('%b')) #month short version

Working with Calendar module:

Example to display the calendar for specified year and month

from calendar import *

y=1947
m=8
print(month(y,m))
print(month(2021,11))

Example to display entire the year calendar

from calendar import *

print(calendar(2021,2,1,9))#y,w,l,c

#y---year
#w---width of the characters
#l---lines per week
#c---column separation

from calendar import *

print(leapdays(1980,2021))
print(isleap(2020))
print(isleap(2022))

Arrays in Python:

Array:

 Array is a user defined collection of similar data type elements.

 Array index always starts with zero and ends with size – 1
 In general arrays are two types

96
 MOHAN S.REDDY

1. Single dimension array

2. Two dimension array

 In python we can create single dimension array by using array module.

 Using array module we cannot create two dimension array.
 To create single and two dimension arrays then we use numpy module.

Example with single dimension array:

import array
# 0 1 2 3
A=array.array('i',[10,20,30,40])
print(A)
print(type(A))

A=array.array('f',[12.3,45.6,78.9,45.2])
print(A)
print(type(A))

Note: to create arrays in python using array module then we use type code

from array import *

A=array('i',[10,20,30,40])
print(A)
print(type(A))

97
 MOHAN S.REDDY

print(A.typecode)
print(A[2])
A.insert(1,34)
print(A)
A.append(45)
print(A)
A.extend([67,89,90])
print(A)
A.remove(30)
print(A)
A.reverse()
print(A)

To display array elements using for loop:

from array import *

A=array('i',[100,200,300,400,500,600])

for i in A:
print(i)

for i in range(len(A)):
print(A[i])

Copying elements from one array to another:

from array import *

A=array('i',[2,3,4,5,6])
print(A)
#B=A
#print(B)
B=array(A.typecode,[i*2 for i in A])
print(B)

Creating array by accepting elements at runtime:

98
 MOHAN S.REDDY

from array import *

A=array('i',[])

n=int(input("Enter length of the array:"))

for i in range(n):
x=int(input("Enter value:"))
A.append(x)
print(A)

Numpy:

 Numpy stands for numerical python

 Numpy is a multi-dimensional array processing package.
 Numpy is not available by default; we have to install this explicitly.
 Using numpy we can create single and two dimension arrays.
 Numpy provides several methods to create arrays.

Numpy methods:

1. Array()
2. Linespace()
3. Logspace()
4. Arange()
5. Zeros()
6. Ones()

Steps to install numpy package:

 Go to file menu in pycharm editor

 Click on settings
 Expand your project from left hand side
 Click on python interpreter
 Click on + symbol
 Type in search : numpy
 Select numpy
99
 MOHAN S.REDDY

 Click on install package.

Examples with numpy arrays:

Ex1:
import numpy

#A=numpy.array([10,20,30,40,50])
A=numpy.array([10,20,30,40,50.8],int)
print(A)
print(type(A))
print(A.dtype)
print(A.ndim)
print(A.size)
print(A.shape)
Ex2:

from numpy import *

A=linspace(2,20,7)#start,stop,no of parts
print(A)

A=logspace(3,15,6)
print(A)

A=arange(2,20,3)#start,stop,step
print(A)

A=zeros(6,int)
print(A)

A=ones(6,int)
print(A)
Ex3:

import numpy as np

A=np.array([[10,20,30],
10
0
 MOHAN S.REDDY

[34,56,78],
[78,23,45]])

print(A)
print(A.dtype)
print(A.ndim)
print(A.shape)
print(A.size)
print(A[1][2])

Ex4:

import numpy as np

A=np.array([[-10,20,30],
[34,-56,78],
[78,23,-45]])
print("max element is:",A.max())
print("min element is:",A.min())

print("col wise max element is:",A.max(axis=0))

print("col wise min element is:",A.min(axis=0))

print("row wise max element is:",A.max(axis=1))

print("row wise min element is:",A.min(axis=1))
print(A.sum())

Note: in numpy arrays dimensions are called axis

axis 0 means columns, axis 1 means rows

flatten () method:

 This method is used to collapse all rows from two dimension array into a
single row.

import numpy as np

10
1
 MOHAN S.REDDY

A=np.array([[-10,20,30],
[34,-56,78],
[78,23,-45]])

print(A)
print(A.ndim)

B= A.flatten()
print(B)
print(B.ndim)

THANK YOU

10
2