REACTIVE POWER / VOLTAGE

CONTROL
NEED OF REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
 For efficient and reliable operation of power systems,
the control of voltage and reactive power should
satisfy the following objective.
 The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce
losses. This ensure that the transmission system
operates efficiently.
 System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization
of the transmission system.
Reactive Power Basics
 Complex Power called Volt Amperes (“VA”) is
comprised of resistive current IR and reactive current
IQ times the voltage.
 “VA” = VIT* = V (IR – jIQ) = P + jQ

 Power Factor (“PF”) = Cosine of angle between P and

“VA”
 P = “VA” times “PF”
 System Losses
2
 Ploss = IT R (Watts)
Q = I 2 X (VARs)
 loss T
 Every component with reactance, X: VAR loss = IT2 X
 Z is comprised of resistance R and reactance X
 On 138kV lines, X = 2 to 5 times larger than R.
 One 230kV lines, X = 5 to 10 times larger than R.
 On 500kV lines, X = 25 times larger than R.
 R decreases when conductor diameter increases.
X increases as the required geometry of phase to
phase spacing increases.
 VAR loss
 Increases in proportion to the square of the total
current.
 Is approximately 2 to 25 times larger than Watt
loss
Static and Dynamic VAR Support
 Static Reactive Power Devices
 Cannot quickly change the reactive power level as long as
the voltage level remains constant.
 Reactive power production level drops when the voltage level
drops.
 Examples include capacitors and inductors.

 Dynamic Reactive Power Devices

 Can quickly change the MVAR level independent of the
voltage level.
 Reactive power production level increases when the voltage
level drops.
 Examples include static VAR compensators (SVC),
synchronous condensers, and generators.
Reactive Power Management
 Effectively balancing capacitive and inductive components
of a power system to provide sufficient voltage support.
 Essential for reliable power system operation.
 Prevention of voltage collapse

Benefits
 Improves efficiency of power delivery.
 Improves utilization of transmission assets.
 Reduces congestion and increases power transfer
capability.
 Enhances grid security.
 Reactive Power for Voltage
Support Reactive
Loads
VARs flow from High voltage
to Low voltage; import of
VARs indicate reactive
power deficit
Power flow control

 Primary control

 Secondary control

 Tertiary control

 Voltage control
Control problem
Separation of the problem

 P-f control
f i and Ptr a n sfer ed   i  p h a se fa u l t

 Using feedback:
 results in Pc , i
 i
Q-V control
 Measuring
 Control signal , generator
U   Vi excitation
and static VAR compensation (capacitors or
power electronics)
Q c , i
Turbine – Generator control
Methods of Voltage Control
Introduction
 A power system is said to be well designed if it
gives a good quality(voltage levels within limit) of
reliable supply.
 All the equipments on the power system are
designed to operate satisfactorily only when the
voltage levels on the system correspond to their
rated voltages or at the most within say 5%.
 If the voltage variation is more than a prespecified
value, the performance of the equipments suffers
and life of most of the equipment is sacrificed
Power System Control Methods
 Pf control  QV control
(active power control) (reactive power control)
OR OR
(frequency control) (voltage control)
Concept of Voltage Control

jX
V1 V2
Load connected to the source through a
line V2=(V1-X/V1)-jPX /V1
System Voltage and Reactive Power
 Consider the system shown .The voltage at bus 2 is related to
the voltage at bus I by the relation.
Phasor representation
Reactive Power Generation by
Synchronous Machines
 Synchronous generators are able to produce both lagging
and leading vars
 Over-excitation: generator field produces vars
 Under excited field causes vars to be absorbed.
 At lagging power factors the limit on var generation is
imposed by either
 Rotor heating (maximum excitation current limit).
 stator heating (thermal MVA loading limit of the stator)
consideration.
 The operating charts for salient and non
salient pole synchronous machines
Voltage Regulation and Power Transfer

 The graphs of machine terminal voltage with load P

can be represented by the relation

where δ is the angle between E and V

maximum at δ = 90°
under ideal conditions(under ideal
conditions) K=0
 Exciter and Voltage Regulator
 The function of an exciter is to increase the
excitation current for voltage drop and decrease
the same for voltage rise.
 The voltage change is defined:
 Exciter ceiling voltage : maximum voltage that
may be attained by an exciter with specified
conditions of load.
 Exciter ceiling voltage It is the rate of increase or
decrease of the exciter voltage.
 Exciter build up depends upon the field resistance
and the charging of its value by cutting or adding
EXCITATION SYSTEM
 The basic function of an excitation system is to
provide direct current to the synchronous machine
field winding.
 It performs control and protective function.
 The control function include the control of voltage
and reactive power flow and enhance the system
stability.
 The protective function ensure that the capability
limits of the synchronous machine, excitation system
are not exceeded.
FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN
EXCITATION SYSTEM
 ELEMENT OF AN EXCITATION SYSTEM
EXCITER : Provides dc power to the synchronous machine field
Winding ,constituting the power stage of the excitation
system.
REGULATOR : Processes and amplifier input control signals to
a level and form appropriate for control of the exciter.
VOLTAGE TRANSDUCER :- Senses generator terminal voltage,
rectifiers and filters it to dc quantity and compares it with a
reference.
LIMITERS : This ensure that the power capability of an exciter
and generator are not exceeded.
POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER: Provides an additional input
signals to the regulator to damp power system oscillations.
TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
 DC excitation system
 AC excitation system
 Static excitation system
DC EXCITATION SYSTEM
 The dc excitation system utilize dc generators as
sources of excitation power and provide current to the
rotor of the synchronous machine through slip rings.
 The exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft of
the generator.
 Magnetic amplifiers and rotating amplifiers are used
as voltage regulators.
DC EXCITATION SYSTEM WITH AMPLIDYNE
AC EXCITATION SYSTEM
 AC excitation system utilize alternators as source of
main generator excitation power.
 The ac output of the exciter is rectified to by either
controlled or non controlled rectifiers to produce the
dc needed for the generator field.
 The rectifier may be rotating or stationary.
 Magnetic amplifiers ,rotating amplifiers and electronic
amplifiers are used as voltage regulators.
AC excitation system are of two types:-
1- Stationary rectifier system
2- Rotating rectifier system
STATIONARY RECTIFIER SYSTEM
 With stationary rectifier ,the dc output is fed to the
field winding of the main generator through slip rings.
It can be classified as:
 Field controlled alternator rectifier excitation system
 Alternator supplied controlled rectifier excitation
system
FIELD CONTROLED ALTERNATOR RECTIFIER
EXCITATION SYSTEM
 When non controlled rectifiers are used, the regulator
controls the field of the AC exciter, which in turn
controls the exciter output voltage.
 The alternator exciter is driven from the main
generator rotor.
 The exciter is self exciter with its power derived
through thyristor rectifiers.
 The voltage regulator derives its power from the
exciter output voltage.
 ALTERNATOR SUPPLIED CONTROLED RECTIFIER
EXCITATION SYSTEM
 When the controlled rectifier are used, the regulator
directly controls the dc output voltage of the exciter.
 The voltage regulator controls the firing of the
thyristors.
ROTATING RECTIFIER SYSTEM
 With rotating rectifier, the need for slip rings and
brushes is eliminated and the dc output is directly fed
to the main generator field.
 The armature of the AC exciter and the diode
rectifiers rotate with the main generator field.
 Brushless excitation system:- It was developed to
avoid problems with the use of brushes.
 Brushless excitation system do not allow direct
measurement of generator field current of voltage.
STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM
 A components in these system are static or stationary.
 Static rectifiers controlled ll or uncontrolled, supply
the excitation current directly to the field of the main
synchronous generator through slip ring.
 The supply of power to the rectifiers is from the main
generator through a transformer.
It may be classified into three categories:
 Potential-source controlled rectifier system
 Compound source rectifier system
 Compound controlled rectifier system
POTENTIAL SOURCE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
SYSTEM
 In this system, the excitation power is supplied
through a transformer from the generator terminal and
is regulated by a controlled rectifier.
 This is also known as a bus fed or transformer-fed
static system.
 The exciter output voltage is dependent on the input
ac voltage.
Compound source rectifier system
 In this case, the power to the excitation system is
formed by utilizing the current as well as the voltage
of the main generator.
 The regulator controls the exciter output through
controlled saturation of the excitation transformer.
 When the generator is not supplying a load, the
armature current is zero and the potential source
supplies the entire excitation power.
 Under loaded condition part of the excitation power is
derived from the generator current.
Compound controlled rectifier system
 This system utilizes controlled rectifiers in the exciter
output circuits and the compounding of voltage and
current derived sources within the generator stator to
provide the excitation power.
Compound controlled rectifier
system
Automatic Voltage Regulators for Alternators

 For an isolated generator feeding a load the

automatic voltage regulator (AVR) functions to:
 maintain the bus bar voltage constant.
 on dynamic, interconnected systems the AVR has
the following objectives:
 To keep the system voltage constant.
 to obtain a suitable distribution of reactive load
between machines working in parallel.
 to improve stability.
Analysis of Generator Voltage Control

Excitation System
Excitation System Block Schematic
Modeling of Excitation Systems
Excitation System
• The basic function of an Excitation
system is to provide direct current to the
synchronous machine field winding.
• It also performs CONTROL and
PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS essential to
the satisfactory performance of the
power system by controlling the field
voltage and thereby the field current.
……continued
Modeling of Excitation Systems
• Mathematical models of Excitation systems are essential for the
assessment of desired performance requirements ,for the design
and coordination of supplementary control and protective circuits,
and for system stability studies related to the planning and
operation of power systems.
• The detail of the model required depends on the purpose of the
study.
• Referring to the figure the control and protective features that
impact on the transient and small signal stability studies are the
voltage regulators, power system stabilizer, excitation control
stabilization.
• The limiter and protective circuits identified in the figure normally
need to be considered only for the mid term,long,and voltage
stability studies.
• Some excitation systems are provided with fast acting terminal
voltage limiters in conjunction with power system stabilizers.
Th h t b d l di t i t t bilit i l ti
Diagrammatical explanation of a typical
Brushless Excitation System
Schematic block diagram of AVR and LFC loops of a synchronous generator
Continued….

• The Brushless Exciter is an ALTERNATOR with

Rotating Armature and Stationary Field.
• The three terminals of rotating armature is connected
to a three phase diode network called rectifier.
• The rectifier is coupled with the field of the main
synchronous generator.
• Thus the necessary DC excitation is provided by
EXCITOR to the field of main SYNCRONOUS
GENERATOR.
Modelling is divided into three parts:

 Modeling of AMPLIFIER

 Modeling of EXCITER

 Modeling of GENERATOR
Block diagram representation of the AVR loop
 Modelling of Amplifier
• The comparator circuit compose the sensed terminal voltage of the main
synchronous generator with the reference values and produces the error
voltage.

(1)
• The error amplifier demodulates and amplifies the error signal.Its gain is KA
and

i.e.
(2) Taking Laplace
transformation of equation (1) and (II)

and
……Contd

(3)

equation (3) represents the amplifier transfer function.

This equation represents the instantaneous amplifier. But ,in really
the amplifier will have a delay represented a time constant .
The transfer of the amplifier with delay –

(4)
Modelling of exciter
Let Re and Le represents the resistance and inductance of the
exciter field as shown in the figure..
….continued

By Kirchhoff's voltage law


Taking Laplace transformation

The field voltage of the main synchronous generator depends on the

exciter current
i.e.
Where is proportionality constant
Taking Laplace transform
Continued…..
The transfer function of the exciter

(5)

where (gain constant of exciter)

and (time constant of exciter)
Modelling of Generator

The voltage equation of the synchronous generator is given by

(6)

Where Rf and Lff are the resistance and self inductance of main
synchronous generator field winding
The flux produced in phase a is given by,
 Continued…..
By faraday’s law the induced emf in phase a is given by

The rms value of this emf equals

Rearranging this equation

(7)
 ……Contd.
lue of from equation (7) in (vi)

Taking laplace of the above equation

(s)
Modelling of generator……Contd.

Transfer function of the synchronous generator

where Kf is the gain constant of synchronous

generator and Tdo is the open circuit d axis time
constant
COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE
EXCITATION SYSTEM
Condensed model of block diagram

G(s)
Conclusion

Thus modeling is done and we obtain open loop

the transfer function of the complete excitation
system as:
(8)

G(s)=
Where the open loop gain K is defined by:
K = KA Ke Kf
ANY QUERIES ???
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