OVERVIEW OF TOTAL QUALITY TOOLS

Pareto Charts
• A Pareto chart is a form of graph that combines a line graph and a bar chart, with the line
representing the cumulative total and the bars representing individual numbers in decreasing
order.
• Pareto charts are one of the seven fundamental tools of quality control because they make it
simple to identify the most prevalent problems or difficulties. They emphasize the most significant
aspects in a data collection.
• Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian statistician who worked on data disparities in the nineteenth century, is
credited with coming up with the idea. He is a supporter of both the Pareto Principle and the chart.
• Pareto Principle claims that twenty percent of the elements account for eighty percent of the
activity. It's also referred to as the "80-20 rule." According to the principle, managers should focus
on 20% of the components in order to solve 80% of the organizational issues.

Sample Problem: Pareto Chart for a Computer Service Center

Jack has taken over a failing computer repair shop that has a number of issues that need to be fixed.
His goal is to boost client satisfaction in general.
SOLUTION: Jack evaluated the problem, enumerated the root causes of the computer service center's
subpar performance, and graded each factor based on the volume of customer complaints that it had
received. Later, Jack was able to compile the following information:

Ite Customer Complaints Cause Frequency

m
1 Phones aren’t answered quickly enough Too few customers 15
service staff.
2 Staff seem distracted and under pressure Too few customers 6
service staff.
3 Engineers aren't well organized and often need to book Poor organization 4
second visits to bring extra parts. and preparation.
4 Engineers don't know what time they'll arrive. This means Poor organization 2
that customers may have to be in all day for an engineer and preparation.
to visit.
5 Customer service staff don't always seem to know what Lack of training. 30
they're doing.
6 Customers are often booked in for an appointment with an Lack of training. 21
engineer, only to discover that the issue could have been
solved on the phone.

Jack groups issues by their underlying causes using his analysis, and then tally the results for each
group. Now that the center's major causes can be arranged, he can start with the one that has
generated the most customer complaints:
1. Lack of training (items 5 and 6) – 51 complaints.
2. Too few services center staff (items 1 and 2) – 21 complaints.
3. Poor organization and preparation (items 3 and 4) – 6 complaints.
 60
40
20
0
Score

Causes Linear (Causes)

DECISION POINT: Jack could start by focusing on the area where the company will gain the most,
which is providing employees with additional training. In the phone center, he might also consider
hiring more people. The provision of additional training, however, may serve to decrease customer
complaints and boost employee productivity, so this might not even be essential.
Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
• A cause-and-effect diagram is a visual tool that suggests causal linkages between ideas by visually
portraying potential explanations for a particular problem or consequence in increasing detail.
• A cause-effect diagram aids in organizing many theories on fundamental causes and presenting
them graphically when identifying a problem's cause.
• It serves as a visual representation of the potential causes of an effect or phenomena that is being
studied.
• Because of how it is structured, it is also referred to as the "fishbone diagram."
It was created by Japanese quality specialist Kaoru Ishikawa, hence the diagram's other name of
"Ishikawa Diagram."
Advantages of Using Cause-and-Effect Disadvantages of Using Cause-and-Effect
Diagrams Diagrams
 Excellent for collecting the results of group  can grow exceedingly complex.
brainstorming sessions and for completing  It could be challenging to find or show
the "broad picture." connections.
 provide a chronological picture and aids in
organizing and connecting factors.
 focuses on time direction but excludes
amount. focuses on time direction but
excludes quantity.

Sample Problem: A Car Lost Control

How does a vehicle regain control? A flat tire, a slick road, mechanical issues, and driver error are some
of the potential key contributing elements to that loss of control. There may be several causes within
each of these main causes categories. Nail, rock, glass, or a blow-out due to a material failure are all
possible causes of a flat tire. If required or suitable, the causal chain can be extended backwards still
another step at a time. A mechanical issue, such as a brake failure, which can result from fluid loss or
worn brake pads, may lead to lost control.
 Check Sheets
• A Check Sheet is a form for recording data that has been made to make it simple to comprehend
the form's own outcomes. It must be planned for the precise data that will be gathered.
• It is used for the collection of quantitative or qualitative repetitive data.
Why Use Check Sheets?
 Adaptable to different data-gathering situations.
 Minimal interpretation of results required.
 Easy and quick to use.
 No control for various forms of bias - exclusion, interaction, perception, operational, non-
response, estimation.

Sample Problem: The owner of a local restaurant is worried about the lack of business at his
establishment. He wants to identify the problems to fix and communicate the results to his staff in a
way they can comprehend because complaints have been increasing.
SOLUTION: The manager surveyed his customers over several weeks and collected the following data:

Customer Week 1 Week 2 Frequency

Complaints
Impolite server |||||| |||||| 12
Slow service ||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||||||||||||| 42
| |
Cold dinner || ||| 5
Cramped tables ||||||||||| ||||||||| 20
Atmosphere ||||| ||||| 10

DECISION POINT: The check sheet's results have allowed the manager to pinpoint the first issue that
has to be fixed in order to lower customer complaints and increase the number of diners at his
restaurant.

Histograms
• A Histogram is a visual representation of the variety in a set of data. It helps us recognize patterns
that are challenging to spot in a straightforward table of numbers. It can be examined to draw
conclusions about the data set.
• The histogram simply and succinctly illustrates the frequency distribution of data among various
groups of a sample, enabling you to spot process improvement opportunities right away. A
histogram has a shape akin to a bar graph, with each bar denoting a group and the height of the bar
denoting the frequency of data inside that group.
• When categorizing your data's frequency into groups like age, days of the week, physical
characteristics, or any other group that can be reported in numerical or chronological order,
histograms are especially useful.
Sample Problem: From the previous example of the eatery suffering from low customer arrival due to
complaints, we can use the previous data from their survey as follows:

Customer Number Of Episodes

Complaints
Impolite server 12
Slow service 42
Cold dinner 5
Cramped tables 20
Atmosphere 10
TOTAL 89
 45
40
35
Number of Episodes 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Impolite server Slow service Cold dinner Cramped tables Atmosphere
Customer Complaints

DECISION POINT: The manager will be able to determine the most frequent cause why consumers aren't
frequenting the restaurant by the results shown in the histogram.

Scatter Diagrams
• The scatter diagram is the best tool for illustrating the relationship between two variables among
the seven quality tools, making it the best choice for quality assurance specialists looking to pinpoint
causal connections.
• Each dot indicates a common crossing point where dependent values are on the Y-axis of the
diagram and independent values are on the X-axis. These dots can be connected to show how the
two variables are related. The more correlated the variables are in your diagram, the more
significant the relationship between them.
• There could be three (3) different forms of data correlation produced by the scatter diagrams.
The following examples of scatter diagrams showing the relationships between paired data
serve to illustrate these linkages.

Figure 4. Strong Positive Figure 5. Moderate Positive Figure 6. No Correlation

Correlation Correlation
• A close association between the data that are matched together can be inferred from the strong
positive correlation. Figure 5's center diagram shows a slightly different pattern that shows there is
sometimes a relationship there, but sometimes there isn't. The final graphic (Figure 6) shows that the
paired data have no correlation or other connection.
Sample Problem: A study was conducted to determine the relationship between the scores of the
students to the number of hours they spent studying. In preparing the scatter diagram, we will use the
following data:

Student ID Hours Spent Studying Exam Scores

Number
A1 1 90
A2 3 82
A3 2 62
A4 2 70
A5 5 94
A6 3 75
A7 4 92
A8 1 73
A9 4 88
A10 5 85
 A11 1 60
A12 5 90
A13 3 70
A14 2 57
A15 1 45
100
90
80
70
Exam Scores

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Hours Spent Studying

DECISION POINT: We can infer from the scatter diagram's outcome that the students' exam results and
the number of hours they spent studying have a moderately positive association because the data is
arranged in a line.
Run Charts
• A run chart is a time-plotted data line graph. You can uncover trends or patterns by gathering data
over time and charting it.
• Run charts cannot identify the stability of a process because they do not apply control limits. The
method can be demonstrated to you, though.
• The run chart can be a useful tool early on in a project since it shows crucial information about a
process before you've gathered enough information to establish trustworthy control limits.
• It is important to determine if the process has a consistent central tendency, variation, and
randomness since processes fall into one (1) of the four (4) states as follows:
1. Ideal. It speaks of a predictable process where results satisfy client requirements.
2. Threshold. Although it relates to a predictable process, it doesn't always fulfill the demands
of the client.
3. Brink of chaos. It refers to an unpredictable process, but the outputs still meet customer
requirements.
4. State of chaos. It refers to a process that produces unpredictable levels of non-
conformance.
Sample problem: Angeline just moved into a new apartment. Over her first couple of days, she noticed
that it doesn't take the same amount of time each day for her to arrive at work. Since Angeline wants
to set a definite time of departure from her apartment and her goal is to arrive at work on time, she
decided to monitor the amount of time it takes for him to get to work over the next four weeks.
Angeline constructed a run chart for his daily record as follows:

DAYS OF THE TRAVEL TIME

WEEK (MINUTES)
WEEK 1 M 33
T 28
W 26.5
TH 28
F 26
WEEK 2 M 35
T 30.5
W 28
TH 26
F 25.5
WEEK 3 M 34.5
 T 29
W 28
TH 26
F 25
WEEK 4 M 34
T 29.5
W 27
TH 27
F 25.5

Arriving to work on ti me
40
35
travel time (in minutes)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
M T W TH F M T W TH F M T W TH F M T W TH

days of the week

DECISION POINT: Each week, there is a general trend toward decline. Angeline typically takes the
longest days to get to work, while Fridays typically take the shortest. Angeline made the decision to
allow the most time possible for his Monday departure from his residence based on the run chart's
results.
Stratification
• Stratification is a quality control method used to categorize individuals, objects, and data into
distinct groups. By using stratification to separate your data, you may better understand its meaning
by spotting patterns that could go undetected when the data is grouped together.
• Using stratification analysis, you can make meaning of your data before, during, and after it has
been collected, regardless of whether you are looking at tools, goods, shifts, materials, or even days
of the week.
To make the most of the stratification process, think about the details of your data's sources that can
have an impact on the outcome of your data analysis. Make sure to include that information in your
data collection when setting it up.
Sample Problem: ABC manufacturing team constructed a scatter diagram to test whether product purity
and iron contamination were related, but the results did not demonstrate a relationship. Then a team
member realized that the data came from three (3) different reactors. The team member redrew the
diagram, using a different symbol for each reactor’s data:
DECISION POINT: Now, patterns are apparent. Reactors 2 and 3's data are circled. Based on the theory
of scatter diagrams, it is obvious that reactor 3 has shown a strong positive correlation while reactor 2
has shown a moderate positive correlation. This is true even without performing any computations.
Reactor 3 doesn't display any linkage or relationship, on the other hand.

Other Important Tools

Aside from the seven (7) basic methods to ensure quality in the workplace, the following are the
additional tools that ensure continual improvement:
o Five-S. It stands for the Japanese terms that translate to the following steps in an organizational
process for a workplace:
o Seiri (Sort). It describes the procedure of identifying what is necessary and getting rid of what is
not in the workplace.
o Seiton (Straighten, Set). In order to locate objects effectively, it refers to the method of
organizing storage.
o Seiso (Shine, Sweep). It alludes to the routine of keeping a workspace tidy so that issues like
leaks, spills, and furniture damage can be more readily found.
o Seiketsu (Standardize). It alludes to the act of establishing requirements for a tidy workplace.
o Shitsuke (Sustain). It describes the technique of promoting attitudes and routines that uphold
organizational standards for the long-term prosperity of the business.
• Flow Charts. It is a visual depiction of a procedure. The most typical approach to creating
flowcharts is to involve the team in the process and solicit their opinion while creating the diagram.
Once a process has been flowcharted, it is possible to identify which part of the process needs to be
changed. The typical flowcharting symbols for expressing various activities, inputs, and outputs of a
process are as follows:

SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL SHAPE WHAT IS IT USED FOR / WHAT IT MEANS

Oval usually used to indicate the beginning or end of a process.

Rectangle usually used to refer to a stage, an activity, or an operation

in a process.

Diamond used to indicate a turning point. Although it might

potentially stand in for an if/then statement, this function is
often a yes or no one.
Hexagon indicates that something has been prepared.
 Parallelogram represents an input or an output.

Document represents the paperwork that the procedure requires.

Circle used to connect things (from one chart or page to another).

Line with an Arrow identifies the process's flow direction and course.

o Survey. It is employed to get pertinent input from both internal and external clients. It can be
done internally as a kind of employee feedback to learn about product and service issue hot
spots. To learn more about how the items and services are positioned and rated in the market,
it can also be done externally with corporate clients. The various methods for conducting a
survey include the ones listed below:
o Questionnaire. The responders fill out a paper-and-pencil survey that is given to them. Closed-
ended questions with response possibilities are the most common type of question seen in
questionnaires. Some surveys, however, use open-ended questions to delve deeper into the
respondents' responses.
o Interview. Two (2) people are involved: the respondent and the researcher, who conducts the
interview. Due to the interviewer's opportunity to probe more into respondents' responses
with follow-up questions, it is a more intimate and in-depth method of surveying.
 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Kaizen Approach
• Kaizen is a technique where employees at all levels of a company actively collaborate to enhance
the production process on a regular basis. In a sense, it brings together all of the abilities within an
organization to produce a potent engine for growth.
• “Kaizen” is the term used by the Japanese to describe the idea of ongoing, small-step improvement.
Kaizen's core values can be summed up as continuous improvement of everything, at all levels, all
the time. "Kai" means "change," and "zen" means "good."
• Each member of the organization plays an important role in the implementation of Kaizen, and they
are the following:
o Role of executive management. They are in charge of making Kaizen the organization's
corporate strategy (e.g., establishing systems, procedures, and structures that promote Kaizen).
o Role of middle managers. They are in charge of putting the executive management's Kaizen
policies into action. Additionally, they must make certain that staff members obtain the
education required to comprehend and apply Kaizen.
o Role of supervisors. They are in charge of implementing the Kaizen methodology in their
functional duties (i.e., developing plans, improving communication, maintaining morale,
providing coaching for teamwork activities, and soliciting suggestions from employees).
o Role of employees. They are accountable for taking part in Kaizen (i.e., taking part in teamwork
activities, engaging in continual self-improvement activities, and enhancing job skills through
education and training).

Lean Approach
• • Lean management streamlines processes by minimizing time spent on non-value-added activities
(unnecessary operations or transport, waiting, overproduction, etc.), sources of subpar quality, and
complexities, which will be discussed in more detail below.
• The Lean Approach aims to eliminate the following in the operations:
o Overproduction waste - the excessive production of a good or the provision of a service. (For
instance, making 100 parts when only 50 are required, or pumping 20 gallons of gas when only
15 are needed.)
o Inventory waste - the surplus of goods kept in a warehouse (e.g.: a bookstore carrying more
copies of a given book than it is likely to sell).
o Motion waste - the superfluous entry into the service delivery or production process. (For
instance, programming a machine with too many motions.)
o Defects waste - the work that was returned for revision or rejected due to production or
processing faults (e.g., rewriting an insurance policy because of calculation errors in writing the
original policy).
o Waiting waste - the lack of resources that cause people, equipment, or processes to be inactive
(e.g., an expensive machine and its operator sitting idly because the parts they are to work on
have not been delivered).
o Underutilization of waste - the underutilization of human skills, abilities, and creativity or the
underutilization of technological capabilities (i.e., putting people in positions that are not
aligned with their skillsets).

Different Tools and Techniques of Lean

• The tools and techniques most commonly associated with Lean are as follows:
o Visual Workplace Systems. The purpose of this tool is to facilitate communication. In order to
correctly direct people, it entails the use of visual aids (such as signs, lines, labels, and color
coding) in the workplace.
o Layout. Utilizing this tool, the best plant layout can be achieved to minimise motion waste (e.g.,
placing the inputs near the production process to reduce unnecessary movement).
o Standardized Work (SW). This tool is intended to make sure that repetitive activities are carried
out as effectively and efficiently as possible (e.g., setting criteria and standards).
o Quick Changeover (QCO). As quickly as feasible, process conversions are made using this tool
(e.g., changing a room for a different purpose in a service setting).
 o Productive Maintenance (PM). This instrument is used to make sure that every piece of
machinery and component of a particular process is functional and prepared for usage when
required (e.g., periodic maintenance of machinery and equipment).

Six Sigma Approach

• Six Sigma is a technique that gives businesses the tools they need to strengthen the capacity of their
business processes. This improvement in performance and decrease in process variance contributes
to the reduction of defects as well as an improvement in revenue, employee morale, and product or
service quality.
• The term "sigma" refers to the degree to which a system or producer can approach perfection; in
accordance with Six Sigma guidelines, businesses should lower manufacturing errors to 3.4 or fewer
per million units.
• The central core of the Six Sigma concept is a six-step protocol for process improvement are as
follows:
1. Identify the product characteristics wanted by customers.
2. Classify the characteristics in terms of their criticality.
3. Determine if the classified characteristics are controlled by part and/or process.
4. Determine the maximum allowable tolerance for each classified characteristic.
5. Determine the process variation for each classified characteristic.
6. Change the design of the product, process, or both to achieve a Six Sigma process performance.

DMAIC Approach
• This approach refers to a data-driven quality strategy for improving processes. The process steps of
DMAIC are as follows:
1. Define the problem. Formalize the problem statement, the objective statement, the project
charter, the customer need, and the process map.
2. Measure the current process. Gather information on current performance and problems. Check
the accuracy of the data, and as necessary, revise the project charter.
3. Analyze the cause of issues. Analyze the procedure and the data that was gathered, present the
information, look into and confirm the problems, and keep updating the project charter as
necessary.
4. Improve the process. Create process maps for the new solutions you decide on after deciding
on a solution to a problem. Take action to apply the updated changes, then keep tabs on
progress.
5. Control. Refine the new procedure, keep tracking, and, if possible, apply results to other areas
of the company.

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