Cambridge University Press

978-1-107-17953-0 — Introduction to Engineering Heat Transfer

G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
Frontmatter
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Introduction to Engineering
Heat Transfer
This new text integrates fundamental theory with
modern computational tools such as EES, MATLAB,
and FEHT to equip students with the essential tools for
designing and optimizing real-world systems and the
skills needed to become effective practicing engineers.
Real engineering problems are illustrated and solved in
a clear step-by-step manner. Starting from first prin-
ciples, derivations are tailored to be accessible to under-
graduates by separating the formulation and analysis
from the solution and exploration steps to encourage a
deep and practical understanding. Numerous exercises
are provided for homework and self-study and include
standard hand calculations as well as more advanced
project-focused problems for the practice and applica-
tion of computational tools. Appendices include refer-
ence tables for thermophysical properties, and answers
to selected homework problems from the book. Com-
plete with an online package of guidance documents on
EES, MATLAB, and FEHT software, sample code,
lecture slides, video tutorials, and a test bank and
full solutions manual for instructors, this is an ideal
text for undergraduate heat transfer courses and a
useful guide for practicing engineers.

G. F. Nellis is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at

the University of Wisconsin, Madison. His teaching
expertise has been recognized through awards includ-
ing the Polygon Engineering Council Outstanding
Professor of Mechanical Engineering Award (2013
and 2007), the Pi Tau Sigma Distinguished Professor
of Mechanical Engineering Award (2016, 2012,
2009, and 2006), and the J. G. Woodburn award for
Excellence in Teaching (2008). He is a Fellow of the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
S. A. Klein is Emeritus Professor of Mechanical
Engineering at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
He is the recipient of the American Society for Mech-
anical Engineers (ASME) James Harry Potter Gold
Medal (2013), the Pi Tau Sigma Distinguished Profes-
sor of Mechanical Engineering Award (1991, 1992)
and the Polygon Engineering Council Outstanding
Professor of Mechanical Engineering Award (1991,
1992). He is a Fellow of ASME, the American Society
of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE), the American Solar Energy
Society (ASES), and the International Building Per-
formance Simulation Association (IBPSA).

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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-17953-0 — Introduction to Engineering Heat Transfer
G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
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“This excellent text on heat transfer continues the tradition of the strong analytical treatment of conduction
and convection heat transfer, buttressed by strong EES, FEHT, and MATLAB examples . . . The emphasis
on examples is substantial, and the use of the software is tastefully introduced in ways that emphasize the
solution instead of the software . . . This edition is well organized, succinctly written, and well supported by
software aids. The book is also a valuable reference for those in a wide variety of disciplines desiring to self-
learn heat transfer. All the essential elements of a heat transfer course are well represented in this volume.”
Ernest W. Tollner, University of Georgia

“No other text spells out real-world problems with computer-based solutions as clearly as this one. This text
will allow readers to translate quickly heat transfer lessons learned into interesting applied solutions.”
Thomas Merrill, Rowan University

“I’ve practiced heat transfer for 30 years as an engineer in industry, a scientist at a national lab, and an
academic. Midway through my career, I studied Nellis and Klein’s pedagogically pioneering text. It was
only then that I obtained a firm grasp of the subject matter. Feedback from students in my classes on their
book has been remarkably terrific.”
Marc Hodes, Tufts University

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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-17953-0 — Introduction to Engineering Heat Transfer
G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
Frontmatter
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Introduction
to Engineering
Heat Transfer
G. F. Nellis
University of Wisconsin, Madison

S. A. Klein
University of Wisconsin, Madison

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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-17953-0 — Introduction to Engineering Heat Transfer
G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Nellis, Gregory, 1969, author. | Klein, Sanford A., 1950, author.
Title: Introduction to engineering heat transfer / G. F. Nellis (University of Wisconsin, Madison),
S. A. Klein (University of Wisconsin, Madison).
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019013363 | ISBN 9781107179530 (hardback ; alk. paper) |
ISBN 110717953X (hardback ; alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Heat–Transmission.
Classification: LCC TJ260 .N453 2019 | DDC 621.402/2–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013363

ISBN 978-1-107-17953-0 Hardback

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G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
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Contents

Preface page xv
Sample Program of Study xvii
Nomenclature xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Relevance of Heat Transfer 1
1.2 Relationship to Thermodynamics 2
1.3 Problem Solving Methodology 5
1.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 6
1.4.1 Conduction 6
1.4.2 Convection 7
1.4.3 Radiation 8
1.5 Thermophysical Properties 15
1.5.1 Real Fluids 15
1.5.2 Ideal Gas Model 17
1.5.3 Incompressible Substance Model 21
1.6 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 24
Reference 25
Problems 25
Projects 30

2 One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 32

2.1 Conduction Heat Transfer 32
2.1.1 Fourier’s Law 32
2.1.2 Thermal Conductivity 35
2.2 Steady-State 1-D Conduction without Generation 35
2.2.1 Introduction 35
2.2.2 The Plane Wall 36
Define a Differential Control Volume 37
Carry out an Energy Balance on the Control Volume 37
Take the Limit as dx!0 38
Substitute Rate Equations into the Differential Equation 38
Define Boundary Conditions 39
2.2.3 The Resistance Concept 46
2.2.4 Radial Conduction 54
Radial Conduction in a Cylinder 54
Radial Conduction in a Sphere 57
2.2.5 Other Resistance Formulae 59
Convection Resistance 59
Contact Resistance 60
Radiation Resistance 62
2.3 Steady-State 1-D Conduction with Generation 75
2.3.1 Introduction 75
2.3.2 Uniform Thermal Energy Generation in a Plane Wall 78
2.3.3 Uniform Thermal Energy Generation in Radial Geometries 93
Cylindrical Geometry 93
Spherical Geometry 94
v

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Contents
vi

2.3.4 Spatially Nonuniform Generation 101

2.4 Numerical Solutions 105
2.4.1 Introduction 105
2.4.2 Developing the Finite Difference Equations 106
2.4.3 Solving the Equations with EES 110
2.4.4 Solving the Equations with Matrix Decomposition 113
2.4.5 Solving the Equations with Gauss–Seidel Iteration 119
2.4.6 Temperature-Dependent Properties 123
Implementation in EES 125
Implementation using Matrix Decomposition 127
Implementation using Gauss–Seidel Iteration 131
2.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 132
References 133
Problems 133
Conduction without Generation: Concepts and Analytical Solutions 133
Thermal Resistance Problems 138
Conduction with Generation: Concepts and Analytical Solutions 154
Numerical Solution Concepts 165
Numerical Solutions 166
Projects 171

3 Extended Surface Problems 185

3.1 Extended Surfaces 185
3.1.1 The Extended Surface Approximation 185
3.1.2 The Biot Number 186
3.2 Analytical Solutions to Extended Surface Problems 188
3.2.1 Deriving the ODE and Boundary Conditions 188
3.2.2 Solving the ODE 189
3.2.3 Applying the Boundary Conditions 191
3.2.4 Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions 194
3.2.5 Solutions to Linear Homogeneous ODEs 195
3.3 Fins 201
3.3.1 Fin Efficiency 202
3.3.2 Convection from the Fin Tip 207
3.3.3 Fin Resistance 213
3.3.4 Finned Surfaces 217
3.4 Numerical Solutions to Extended Surface Problems 223
3.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 228
Problems 229
The Extended Surface Approximation and the Biot Number 229
Analytical Solutions to Extended Surface Problems 231
Fins and Finned Surfaces 238
Numerical Solutions to Extended Surface Problems 241
Projects 246

4 Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 255

4.1 The Governing Differential Equation and Boundary Conditions 255
4.2 Shape Factors 258
4.2.1 Definition of Shape Factor 258
4.2.2 Shape Factor Resistance 261
4.2.3 The Meaning of a Shape Factor 263

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Contents
vii

4.3 Finite Difference Solution 268

4.3.1 Introduction 268
4.3.2 Developing the Finite Difference Equations 268
4.3.3 Solving the Equations with EES 273
4.3.4 Solving the Equations with Matrix Decomposition 277
4.3.5 Solving the Equations with Gauss–Seidel Iteration 283
4.4 Finite Element Solution 288
4.4.1 Introduction 288
4.4.2 Specifying the Problem 289
4.4.3 Specifying the Mesh and Solving 289
4.4.4 Examination of the Solution 290
Mesh Convergence 290
Engineering Judgment 291
4.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 293
References 293
Problems 293
The Governing Differential Equation and Boundary Conditions 293
Shape Factors 296
Finite Difference Solutions 298
Finite Element Method using FEHT 302
Projects 308

5 Lumped Transient Problems 310

5.1 The Lumped Capacitance Assumption 310
5.1.1 The Biot Number 310
5.1.2 The Lumped Capacitance Time Constant 311
5.2 Analytical Solutions 316
5.2.1 Deriving the Differential Equation 317
5.2.2 Solving the Differential Equation 318
Step Change in Ambient Temperature 320
Ramped Ambient Temperature 320
5.3 Numerical Solutions 332
5.3.1 Introduction 332
5.3.2 The Euler Method 333
5.3.3 Predictor–Corrector Methods 338
5.3.4 Implicit Methods 340
5.3.5 Using ODE Solvers 343
EES’ Integral Command 343
MATLAB’s ODE Solvers 345
5.4 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 352
Problems 353
The Lumped Capacitance Approximation and the Biot Number 353
Analytical Solutions 355
Numerical Solutions 362
Projects 367

6 Transient Conduction 375

6.1 Conceptual Tools 375
6.1.1 Diffusive Energy Transport 375
6.1.2 The Diffusive Time Constant 380
6.1.3 The Semi-Infinite Resistance 385

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Contents
viii

6.2 Analytical Solution 388

6.2.1 The Differential Equation 388
6.2.2 Semi-Infinite Body Solutions 392
6.2.3 Bounded Problem Solutions 398
The Plane Wall – Exact Solution 398
The Plane Wall – Approximate Solution 404
The Cylinder – Exact Solution 407
The Cylinder – Approximate Solution 409
The Sphere – Exact Solution 409
The Sphere – Approximate Solution 410
6.3 1-D Numerical Solutions 414
6.3.1 Introduction 414
6.3.2 The State Equations 415
6.3.3 The Euler Method 418
6.3.4 Predictor–Corrector Methods 423
6.3.5 Implicit Methods 425
Implementation with EES 425
Implementation with Matrix Decomposition 426
Implementation with Gauss–Seidel Iteration 428
6.3.6 Using ODE Solvers 430
EES’ Integral Command 430
MATLAB’s ODE Solver 432
6.4 2-D Numerical Solutions 435
6.4.1 Introduction 435
6.4.2 The Finite Difference Solution 435
Deriving the State Equations 435
Integrating through Time 438
6.4.3 The Finite Element Solution 441
Specifying the Problem 442
Specifying the Mesh and Solving 443
Mesh Convergence 444
6.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 445
References 446
Problems 446
Conceptual Tools 446
The Differential Equation and Boundary Conditions 453
Semi-Infinite Solutions 456
Plane Wall, Cylinder, and Sphere Solutions 457
1-D Transient Numerical Solutions 460
Finite Element Method using FEHT 467
Projects 469

7 Convection 477
7.1 The Laminar Boundary Layer 477
7.1.1 The Velocity Boundary Layer 477
7.1.2 The Thermal Boundary Layer 480
7.1.3 A Conceptual Model of Laminar Boundary Layer Growth 482
7.1.4 The Prandtl Number 483
7.1.5 A Conceptual Model of Shear Stress and the Heat Transfer Coefficient 484
7.1.6 The Reynolds Number 489
7.1.7 The Friction Coefficient and the Nusselt Number 490
7.1.8 The Reynolds Analogy 492

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ix

7.1.9 Local vs. Average Quantities 494

The Average Friction Coefficient 494
The Drag Coefficient 495
The Average Nusselt Number 495
7.2 Turbulent Boundary Layer Concepts 498
7.2.1 Introduction 498
7.2.2 The Critical Reynolds Number 498
7.2.3 A Conceptual Model of the Turbulent Boundary Layer 501
7.3 The Boundary Layer Equations 504
7.3.1 Introduction 504
7.3.2 The Governing Equations for Viscous Fluid Flow 504
The Continuity Equation 504
The Momentum Equations 506
The Energy Conservation Equation 509
7.3.3 The Boundary Layer Simplifications 510
The Continuity Equation 511
The x-Momentum Equation 512
The y-Momentum Equation 513
The Energy Conservation Equation 513
7.4 Dimensional Analysis in Convection 514
7.4.1 Introduction 514
7.4.2 The Dimensionless Boundary Layer Equations 516
The Dimensionless Continuity Equation 516
The Dimensionless Momentum Equation 517
The Dimensionless Energy Equation 517
7.4.3 Correlations 518
The Friction and Drag Coefficients 518
The Nusselt Number 520
7.4.4 The Reynolds Analogy (Revisited) 524
7.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 525
References 526
Problems 526
Laminar Boundary Layer Concepts 526
Turbulent Boundary Layer Concepts 529
The Boundary Layer Equations and Dimensional Analysis for Convection 530
Projects 533

8 External Forced Convection 536

8.1 Methodology for using a Convection Correlation 536
8.2 Flow over a Flat Plate 538
8.2.1 The Friction Coefficient 538
Local Friction Coefficient for a Smooth Plate 538
Local Friction Coefficient for a Rough Plate 539
Average Friction Coefficient 540
8.2.2 The Nusselt Number 543
Constant Temperature 543
Unheated Starting Length 553
Constant Heat Flux 555
8.3 Flow across a Cylinder 558
8.3.1 The Drag Coefficient 560
8.3.2 The Nusselt Number 561
8.4 Flow across other Extrusions 568

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x

8.5 Flow past a Sphere 573

8.6 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 578
References 579
Problems 579
Flow over a Flat Plate 579
Flow over Cylinders and other Extrusions 583
Flow over a Sphere 585
Projects 587

9 Internal Forced Convection 591

9.1 Internal Flow Concepts 591
9.1.1 Velocity and Momentum Considerations 591
Internal vs. External Flow 591
The Developing Region vs. the Fully Developed Region 591
The Mean Velocity, Hydraulic Diameter, and Reynolds Number 593
The Laminar Hydrodynamic Entry Length 594
Turbulent Internal Flow 595
The Pressure Gradient 597
The Friction Factor 599
9.1.2 Thermal Considerations 601
The Developing Region vs. the Fully Developed Region 601
The Mean Temperature and the Heat Transfer Coefficient 601
The Laminar Thermal Entry Length 605
Turbulent Internal Flow 605
The Nusselt Number 607
9.2 Internal Flow Correlations 609
9.2.1 Introduction 609
9.2.2 Flow Classification 609
9.2.3 The Friction Factor 610
Laminar Flow 611
Turbulent Flow 619
EES’ Internal Flow Convection Library 621
9.2.4 The Nusselt Number 627
Laminar Flow 627
Turbulent Flow 632
9.3 The Energy Balance 637
9.3.1 Introduction 637
9.3.2 The Energy Balance 637
9.3.3 Specified Heat Flux 639
Constant Heat Flux 639
9.3.4 Specified Wall Temperature 644
Constant Wall Temperature 644
9.3.5 Specified External Temperature 645
9.4 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 650
References 650
Problems 651
Internal Flow Concepts 651
Internal Flow Correlations 653
The Energy Balance 657
Projects 667

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Contents
xi

10 Free Convection 672

10.1 Free Convection Flow 672
10.2 Dimensionless Parameters 672
10.2.1 The Characteristic Buoyancy Velocity 672
10.2.2 The Volumetric Thermal Expansion Coefficient 674
The Volumetric Thermal Expansion Coefficient of an Ideal Gas 675
10.2.3 The Grashof Number and the Rayleigh Number 676
10.3 External Free Convection Correlations 676
10.3.1 Introduction 676
10.3.2 Plate 676
Heated or Cooled Vertical Plate 676
Horizontal Plate – Heated Upward Facing or Cooled Downward Facing 680
Horizontal Plate – Heated Downward Facing or Cooled Upward Facing 681
Plate at an Arbitrary Angle 688
10.3.3 Sphere 693
10.3.4 Cylinder 694
Horizontal Cylinder 694
Vertical Cylinder 694
10.4 Internal Free Convection Correlations 700
10.4.1 Introduction 700
10.4.2 Vertical Parallel Plate Channels 700
10.4.3 Enclosures 706
10.5 Combined Free and Forced Convection 707
10.6 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 711
References 711
Problems 712
Free Convection Concepts 712
Free Convection from Plates, Spheres, and Cylinders 712
Free Convection in Channels 715
Free Convection in Enclosures 715
Combined Free and Forced Convection 717
Projects 718

11 Boiling and Condensation 720

11.1 Relevance 720
11.2 Pool Boiling 721
11.2.1 Introduction 721
11.2.2 The Boiling Curve 721
11.2.3 Pool Boiling Correlations 724
11.3 Flow Boiling 730
11.3.1 Introduction 730
11.3.2 Flow Boiling Correlations 731
11.4 Film Condensation 736
11.4.1 Introduction 736
11.4.2 Correlations for Film Condensation 737
Vertical Wall 737
Horizontal, Downward Facing Plate 741
Horizontal, Upward Facing Plate 742
Single Horizontal Cylinder 742
Bank of Horizontal Cylinders 742
Single Horizontal Finned Tube 742

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xii

11.5 Flow Condensation 743

11.5.1 Introduction 743
11.5.2 Flow Condensation Correlations 744
11.6 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 745
References 746
Problems 747
Pool Boiling 747
Flow Boiling 748
Film Condensation 749
Flow Condensation 752
Projects 753

12 Heat Exchangers 754

12.1 Introduction to Heat Exchangers 754
12.1.1 Applications of Heat Exchangers 754
12.1.2 Heat Exchanger Classifications and Flow Configurations 755
12.1.3 Overall Energy Balance 759
12.1.4 Heat Exchanger Conductance 761
Fouling Resistance 762
12.1.5 Flow across Tube Banks 765
The Friction Factor 767
The Nusselt Number 768
12.1.6 Compact Heat Exchanger Correlations 773
12.2 The Heat Exchanger Problem 778
12.2.1 Introduction 778
12.2.2 The Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger Solution 778
12.3 The Log-Mean Temperature Difference Method 782
12.3.1 Introduction 782
12.3.2 Counter-Flow and Parallel-Flow Heat Exchangers 783
12.3.3 Shell-and-Tube and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers 786
12.4 The Effectiveness–NTU Method 787
12.4.1 Introduction 787
12.4.2 Effectiveness, Number of Transfer Units, and Capacitance Ratio 787
12.4.3 Effectiveness–NTU Solution for a Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger 788
12.4.4 Effectiveness–NTU Solutions 791
12.4.5 Further Discussion of Heat Exchanger Effectiveness 792
Behavior as CR Approaches Zero 793
Behavior as NTU Approaches Zero 795
Behavior as NTU Becomes Infinite 796
Heat Exchanger Design 797
12.5 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 803
References 803
Problems 804
Heat Exchanger Conductance, Tube Banks, and Compact Heat Exchangers 804
Log-Mean Temperature Difference Solution 806
Effectiveness–NTU Solution 807
Projects 817

13 Mass Transfer 827

13.1 Composition Relationships 827
13.1.1 Ideal Gas Mixtures 830

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13.2 Mass Diffusion 830

13.2.1 Fick’s Law 830
13.2.2 The Diffusion Coefficient for Binary Mixtures 831
Gas Mixtures 831
Liquid Mixtures 833
Solids 834
13.2.3 Concentrations at Interfaces 834
Gas Mixture in Contact with Pure Liquid or Solid 834
Liquid Mixture in Contact with Pure Solid 835
Liquid Mixture in Contact with Gas 836
13.3 Transient Diffusion through a Stationary Solid 838
13.4 Diffusion of a Species in a Fluid 842
13.4.1 Diffusive and Advective Mass Transfer 842
13.4.2 Evaporation through a Layer of Gas 843
13.5 Momentum, Energy, and Mass Transfer Analogies 847
13.6 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer 853
13.7 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 858
References 859
Problems 859
Concentration Relationships 859
The Diffusion Coefficient and Boundary Conditions 859
Transient Diffusion through a Solid 860
Diffusion of a Species in a Fluid 861
Heat Mass Transfer Analogy 862
Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer 863
Projects 864

14 Radiation 866
14.1 Introduction 866
14.1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 866
14.1.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 866
14.2 Emission of Radiation by a Blackbody 867
14.2.1 Introduction 867
14.2.2 Blackbody Emission 868
Planck’s Law 868
Blackbody Emission in Specified Wavelength Bands 869
14.3 Radiation Exchange between Black Surfaces 872
14.3.1 Introduction 872
14.3.2 View Factors 873
Inspection 873
The View Factor Integral 873
The Enclosure Rule 874
Reciprocity 875
Other View Factor Relationships 875
The Crossed and Uncrossed Strings Method 876
The View Factor Libraries 879
14.3.3 Blackbody Radiation Calculations 879
The Space Resistance 879
N-Surface Solutions 887
14.4 Radiation Characteristics of Real Surfaces 892
14.4.1 Introduction 892

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14.4.2 Emission from Real Surfaces 892

Spectral, Directional Emissivity 892
Hemispherical Emissivity 893
Total Hemispherical Emissivity 893
The Diffuse Surface Approximation 895
The Diffuse Gray Surface Approximation 896
14.4.3 Reflectivity, Absorptivity, and Transmissivity 896
Diffuse and Specular Surfaces 897
Hemispherical and Total Hemispherical Reflectivity, Absorptivity, and Transmissivity 897
Kirchhoff’s Law 897
The Diffuse Surface Approximation 897
The Diffuse Gray Surface Approximation 898
14.5 Diffuse Gray Surface Radiation Exchange 900
14.5.1 Introduction 900
14.5.2 Radiosity 900
14.5.3 Diffuse Gray Surface Radiation Calculations 901
Resistance Network 902
N-Surface Solutions 905
14.6 Conclusions and Learning Objectives 909
References 910
Problems 910
Blackbody Radiation and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 910
View Factors 913
Blackbody Radiation Exchange 914
Properties of Real Surfaces 918
Diffuse Gray Surface Radiation Exchange 920
Projects 931

Appendix A Thermophysical Properties of Solids 940

Appendix B Thermophysical Properties of Liquids 943
Appendix C Thermophysical Properties of Gases 945
Appendix D Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Liquids 948
Appendix E Engineering Equation Solver (EES) Software 952
Appendix F Finite Element Heat Transfer (FEHT) Software 966
Appendix G MATLAB Software 978
Appendix H Answers to Selected Problems 987

Index 993

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Preface

The objective of this book is to provide engineering students with the capability, tools, and confidence to solve
real-world heat transfer problems. This objective has resulted in a textbook that differs from existing heat
transfer textbooks in an important way. This textbook introduces fundamental heat transfer concepts at an
introductory, undergraduate level that is appropriate for a practicing engineer and integrates these concepts
with modern computational tools. The text provides extensive examples and problems that utilize these tools.
The practicing engineer of today is expected to be proficient with computer tools; engineering education must
evolve accordingly. Most real engineering problems cannot be solved using a sequential set of calculations that
can be easily carried out with a pencil and a hand calculator. Engineers must have the ability and confidence to
utilize the powerful computational tools that are available and essential for design and optimization of real-
world systems.
The text reinforces good engineering problem solving technique by delineating the formulation and analysis
steps from the solution and exploration steps. In the formulation step, the problem itself is defined and, through
appropriate approximations, simplified to the point where it can be represented by a set of mathematical
equations. These equations are derived from first principles in the analysis step. Many textbooks stop their
presentation at this point. However, the solution step where the equations are solved is equally important. In
some cases hand calculations are appropriate for solving the equations. More typically, the complexity of the
problem dictates that some type of computational software must be used for the solution step. Each of these
steps is essential. It is not possible to move to the solution step until the formulation and analysis steps are
complete. Separating these steps forces the student to understand that the computational software cannot be
used to “think” for them, but rather provide powerful tools for helping them solve the relevant equations.
Computational software is essential for the exploration step in which the engineer carries out parametric,
optimization, and design studies that allow a deeper understanding of the problem and provide more useful
results. Exploration studies are a natural first step to becoming an effective practicing engineer.
This book integrates the computational software Engineering Equation Solver (EES), MATLAB, and Finite
Element Heat Transfer (FEHT) directly with the heat transfer material so that students can see the relevance of
these tools. The specific commands and output associated with these software packages are used in the solution
and exploration steps of numerous examples so that the integration is seamless and does not detract from the
presentation of the heat transfer concepts. The computational software tools used in this book are all common
in industry and have existed for more than a decade; therefore, while this software will certainly continue to
evolve, it is not likely to disappear. Educational versions of these software packages are available and therefore
the use of these tools should not represent an economic hardship to any academic institution or student. These
tools are easy to learn and use, allowing students to become proficient with all of them in a reasonable amount
of time. Therefore, learning the computer tools will not detract from material coverage. In fact, providing the
capability to easily solve the equations developed in the analysis is a motivator to many students. To facilitate
this learning process, tutorials for each of the software packages are provided as appendices in this book.
Traditionally, tables and charts have been required to solve heat transfer problems in order to, for example,
determine properties, view factors, shape factors, convection relations, and related information. Limited
versions of these tables and graphs are provided in the textbook; however, much more extensive libraries have
been made available as functions and procedures in the EES software so that they can be easily accessed and
used to solve problems. The Heat Transfer Library that has been developed and integrated with EES as part of
the preparation of this textbook and the more advanced textbook, Heat Transfer, enables a profound shift in the
focus of the educational process. It is trivial to obtain, for example, the value of a shape factor or a view factor
using the Heat Transfer Library. Therefore, it is possible to assign problems involving design and optimization
studies that would be computationally impossible without these computer tools.

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G. F. Nellis , S. A. Klein
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Preface
xvi

Integrating the study of heat transfer with computer tools does not diminish the depth of understanding of the
underlying physics that students obtain. Conversely, our experience indicates that the innate understanding of
the subject matter is enhanced by appropriate use of these tools for several reasons. First, the software allows
the student to tackle practical and relevant problems as opposed to the comparatively simple problems that
must otherwise be assigned. Real-world engineering problems are more satisfying to the student. Therefore, the
marriage of computer tools with theory motivates students to understand the governing physics as well as to
learn how to apply the computer tools. When a solution is obtained, students can carry out a more extensive
investigation of its behavior and therefore a more intuitive and complete understanding of the subject of heat
transfer. Along with the typical homework problems, each chapter includes several project type problems that
allow a guided exploration of advanced topics using computer tools. Real-world problems often require a
combination of English and SI units. The EES software provides unit checking that should prevent the student
(and practicing) engineer from making unit conversion errors. Therefore, the examples and problems in this
book use mixed units.
This book is unusual in its linking of classical theory and modern computing tools. It fills an obvious void that
we have encountered in teaching undergraduate heat transfer. The text was developed over many years from our
experiences teaching Introduction to Heat Transfer (an undergraduate course) at the University of Wisconsin. It
is our hope that this text will not only be useful during the heat transfer course, but also a life-long resource for
practicing engineers.

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Sample Program of Study

A sample program of study is laid out below for a one-semester undergraduate course. The format assumes that
there are 45 lectures within a 15-week semester.

Lecture Sections in book Topics

1 Chapter 1 Introduction
2 2.1–2.2.2 Fourier’s Law, 1-D steady-state conduction
3 2.2.3–2.2.5 Resistance concepts and circuits
4 2.3 1-D steady-state with generation
5 2.4 Numerical solutions
6 3.1–3.2 Extended surface approximation and analytical solution
7 3.3 Fin behavior, fin efficiency, and finned surfaces
8 3.4 Numerical solution to extended surface problems
9 4.1–4.2 2-D steady-state conduction, shape factors
10 4.3.1–4.3.3 Finite difference solutions with EES
11 4.3.4–4.3.5 Finite difference solutions using matrix decomposition and Gauss–Seidel iteration
12 4.4 Finite element solutions
13 5.1–5.2 Lumped capacitance approximation and analytical solution
14 5.3 Numerical solution to lumped capacitance problems
15 6.1 1-D transient conduction concepts
16 6.2 Analytical solutions to 1-D transient problems
17 6.3 Numerical solutions to 1-D transient problems
18 6.4.3 Finite element solution to 2-D transient problems
19 7.1–7.2 Laminar and turbulent boundary layer concepts
20 7.3–7.4 The boundary layer equations and dimensional analysis
21 8.1–8.2 External flow correlations and flow over a flat plate
22 8.3–8.5 Flow over extrusions and spheres
23 9.1.1 Internal flow hydrodynamic concepts
24 9.1.2 Internal flow thermal concepts
25 9.2 Internal flow correlations
26 9.3 The energy balance for an internal flow
27 10.1–10.2 Free convection concepts and dimensionless parameters
28 10.3–10.4 Free convection correlations
29 10.5 Combined free and forced convection
30 11.1–11.2 Pool boiling
31 11.3–11.5 Boiling and condensation correlations
32 12.1–12.2 Heat exchanger configurations & concepts
33 12.3 Log-mean temperature difference method
34 12.4.1–12.4.4 Effectiveness–NTU method
35 12.4.5 Behavior of ε-NTU solutions and heat exchanger design
36 13.1–13.2 Introduction to mass transfer and mass diffusion
37 13.3 Diffusion in a stationary solid
38 13.4 Diffusion in a fluid
39 13.5–13.6 Mass transfer analogies and simultaneous heat and mass transfer

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Sample Program of Study

xviii

40 14.1–14.2 Introduction to radiation and blackbodies

41 14.3.1–14.3.2 View factors
42 14.3.3 Blackbody radiation exchange
43 14.4 Radiation characteristics of real surfaces
44 14.5 Diffuse, gray surface radiation exchange
45 Multi-mode heat transfer problems

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Nomenclature

A area (m2) CN correction factor for number

A the coefficient matrix in a of tubes in a tube bank (-)
system of linear equations Cnb nucleate boiling constant (-)
Ac cross-sectional area (m2) CR capacitance ratio (-)
Ap projected area (m2) Co convection number (-)
As surface area (m2) COP coefficient of performance (-)
As,fin surface area of a single fin D diameter (m)
exposed to fluid (m2) Dh hydraulic diameter (m)
As,fins surface area of all of the fins dx differential distance in the
on a finned surface (m2) x-direction (m)
As,prime surface area of the base of a e specific energy (J/kg)
finned surface that is exposed surface roughness (m)
to fluid (m2) Eb blackbody emissive power
As,total total surface area of fins and (W/m2)
base exposed to fluid (m2) E b, 0 λ1 blackbody emissive power
AR aspect ratio of a rectangular for λ < λ1(W/m2)
duct, defined as the ratio of Eb,λ blackbody spectral emissive
the minimum to the power (W/m2-μm)
maximum dimensions of the ed energy density (J/kg)
cross-section err iteration error (varies)
ARtip tip to perimeter surface area f Moody (or Darcy) friction
ratio for a fin (-) factor (-)
b the constant vector in a F0 λ1 fraction of blackbody
system of linear equations radiation emitted at λ < λ1 (-)
Bi Biot number (-) Fi,j view factor from surface i to
Bo boiling number (-) surface j (-)
c specific heat capacity (J/kg-K) F λ1 λ2 fraction of blackbody
speed of light (299,792,000 radiation emitted at λ1 < λ < λ2 (-)
m/s) fl friction factor associated with
cv specific heat capacity at the flow of liquid alone (-)
constant volume (J/kg-K) 
f average Moody friction
cp specific heat capacity at factor (-)
constant pressure (J/kg-K) fFanning Fanning friction factor (-)
C thermal capacitance (J/K) fpl number of fins per length
C_ capacitance rate (W/K) (1/m)
C1, C2 undetermined constant of Ec Eckert number (-)
integration (varies) FD drag force (N)
Ccrit critical heat flux constant (-) Fo Fourier number (-)
CD drag coefficient (-) Fr Froude number (-)
Cf local friction coefficient (-) Frmod modified Froude number (-)
f
C average friction coefficient (-) g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Ci the ith constant in a separation G mass velocity, also known as
of variables solution (-) mass flux (kg/m2-s)
Cms heat capacity of microscale g_ rate of thermal energy
energy carrier (J/K) generation (W)

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Nomenclature
xx
000
g_ rate of thermal energy generation mL fin constant (-)
per unit volume (W/m3) MW molecular weight (kg/kmol)
Ga Galileo number (-) N total number of time steps
Gr Grashof number (-) used (in numerical problems)
Gz Graetz number (-) intermediate dimensionless
h local heat transfer coefficient parameter for flow boiling
(W/m2-K) correlation (-)

h average heat transfer nms number density of microscale
coefficient (W/m2-K) energy carriers (#/m3)
~
h dimensionless heat transfer NL number of rows of tubes in
coefficient for flow boiling (-) the longitudinal direction in
hl superficial heat transfer a tube bank
coefficient of the liquid phase Nu local Nusselt number (-)
(W/m2-K) Nux local Nusselt number based

heff effective heat transfer on the characteristic length x (-)
coefficient (W/m2-K) Nu average Nusselt number (-)

hrad radiation heat transfer NTU number of transfer units (-)
coefficient (W/m2-K) OUT amount or rate of some
i specific enthalpy (J/kg) arbitrary quantity leaving a
integer index for spatial system
location (in numerical p pressure (Pa)
problems) P LMTD effectiveness (-)
j integer index for time p
~ dimensionless pressure (-)
(in numerical problems) patm atmospheric pressure (Pa)
jH Colburn jH factor (-) p∞ free stream pressure (Pa)
Ic current (ampere) per wetted perimeter (m)
IN amount or rate of some perh perimeter exposed to
arbitrary quantity entering a heating (m)
system Pr Prandtl number (-)
k thermal conductivity q_ heat transfer rate (W)
(W/m-K) q_ cond heat transfer rate due to
kc contraction loss coefficient (-) conduction (W)
ke expansion loss coefficient (-) q_ conv heat transfer rate due to
Kn Knudsen number (-) convection (W)
L length (m) q_ fin heat transfer rate to a fin (W)
Lc corrected length for fin q_ fin, k!∞ heat transfer rate to a fin with
calculation (m) k!∞ (W)
Lchar characteristic length (m) q_ no fin heat transfer rate that would
Lcond conduction length (m) occur from a surface if fin
Lflow length in the flow was removed (W)
direction (m) q_ rad heat transfer rate due to
Lms average distance between radiation (W)
energy carrier q_ r heat transfer rate in the
interactions (m) r-direction (W)
Lnb nucleate boiling length q_ x , q_ y , q_ z heat transfer rate in the x-,
scale (m) y-, and z-directions (W)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) q_ 00 heat transfer rate per unit
m mass (kg) area, heat flux (W/m2)
M total number of nodes used q_ 00conv heat flux due to convection
(in numerical problems) (W/m2)

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Nomenclature
xxi

q_ 00rad heat flux due to radiation RSF shape factor thermal

(W/m2) resistance (K/W)
q_ 00x , q_ 00y , q_ 00z heat flux in the x-, y-, and Rsph thermal resistance associated
z-directions (W/m2) with radial conduction
q_ 00s surface heat flux (W/m2) through a spherical shell
q_ 00s, crit critical heat flux (W/m2) (K/W)
q_ 00s, nb nucleate boiling heat flux Rsurface-to-surroundings thermal resistance between
(W/m2) the surface of an object and
Q total amount of heat its surroundings (K/W)
transfer (J) Rtotal total resistance of a finned
~
Q dimensionless heat transfer (-) surface (K/W)
r radial coordinate, radius (m) Runiv universal gas constant (8314
~r dimensionless radial J/kmol-K)
coordinate (-) R00c area-specific contact
R thermal resistance (K/W) resistance (K-m2/W)
gas constant (J/kg-K) Ra Rayleigh number (-)
LMTD capacitance ratio (-) Re Reynolds number (-)
Rc contact thermal resistance Reδm Reynolds number based on
(K/W) the momentum boundary
Rcond thermal resistance to layer thickness (-)
conduction (K/W) Rex Reynolds number based on
Rcond,int thermal resistance to internal the characteristic length x (-)
conduction within an object RR radius ratio, ratio of inner to
(K/W) outer radius of an annular
Rcond,x thermal resistance to duct (-)
conduction in the x-direction s a coordinate direction (m)
(K/W) S shape factor (m)
Rcond,y thermal resistance to conduction spacing between plates (m)
in the y-direction (K/W) SL tube pitch in the longitudinal
Rconv thermal resistance to direction in a bank of
convection (K/W) tubes (m)
Rcyl thermal resistance associated ST tube pitch in the transverse
with radial conduction through direction in a bank of
a cylindrical shell (K/W) tubes (m)
Re electrical resistance (ohm) St Stanton number (-)
Rf fouling resistance (K/W) STORED amount or rate of some
Rfin thermal resistance of a single arbitrary quantity being
fin (K/W) stored in a system
Rfins thermal resistance of all of the t time (s)
fins on a finned surface (K/W) tj time at the jth time in a
R”f fouling factor (K-m2/W) numerical solution (s)
Ri,j space resistance between tsim simulation time (s)
surfaces i and j in a radiation T temperature (K)
problem (1/m2) 
T average temperature (K)
Rpw thermal resistance to Tf film temperature (K)
conduction through a plane Th solution to a homogeneous
wall (K/W) differential equation (K)
Rrad thermal resistance associated Ti temperature of the ith node
with radiation (K/W) in a numerical solution (K)
Rs surface resistance in a Tj temperature at the jth time in
radiation problem (1/m2) a numerical solution (K)

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Nomenclature
xxii

Ti,j temperature of the ith node x x-coordinate (m)

and jth time in a numerical direction parallel to a surface
solution (K) and in the flow direction for
^i
T an intermediate estimate of convection problems (m)
the temperature of the ith thermodynamic quality (-)
node in a numerical xfd,h hydrodynamic entry
solution (K) length (m)
^j
T an intermediate estimate of xi x-location of the ith node in a
the temperature at the jth numerical solution (m)
time in a numerical x
~ dimensionless x-coordinate (-)
solution (K) X the vector of unknown
Tini initial temperature (K) temperatures in a system of
Tp solution to a particular linear equations (K)
differential equation (K) Xtt Lockhart Martinelli
Tref reference temperature (K) parameter (-)
Ts surface temperature (K) y y-coordinate (m)
Tsur surrounding temperature (K) direction perpendicular to a
T∞ free stream temperature (K) surface for convection
th thickness (m) problems (m)
time time duration (s) y
~ dimensionless y-coordinate (-)
tol tolerance (K) z z-coordinate (m)
u velocity in the x-direction (m/s)
specific internal energy (J/kg) Greek Symbols
UA conductance (W/K)
α absorption coefficient (1/m)
uchar characteristic velocity (m/s)
thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
uf fluid approach velocity for an
ratio of gas side surface area to
external flow (m/s)
volume (1/m)
um mean velocity (m/s)
β volumetric thermal expansion
umax maximum velocity (m/s)
coefficient (1/K)
u∞ free stream velocity (m/s)
χ correction factor for pressure
u
~ dimensionless velocity in the
drop in tube bank (-)
x-direction (-)
δ boundary layer thickness (m)
U total internal energy (J)
δm momentum boundary layer
v velocity in the y-direction (m/s)
thickness (m)
velocity in the r-direction (m/s)
δt thermal penetration depth (m)
vms average velocity of microscale
thermal boundary layer
energy carriers (m/s)
thickness (m)
~v dimensionless velocity in the
δvs viscous sublayer thickness (m)
y-direction (-)
Δivap latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
V volume (m3)
Δp pressure drop (Pa)
V_ volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
Δpdh dead head pressure rise
V_ oc open circuit flow rate
produced by a pump with no
produced by a pump with no
flow (Pa)
resistance (m3/s)
Δppump pressure rise generated by a
w_ work transfer rate,
pump (Pa)
power (W)
Δt duration of time step (s)
W total amount of work (J)
Δtcrit duration of critical time step (s)
width (m)
ΔT temperature difference (K)

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Nomenclature
xxiii

ΔTcond temperature difference due to τyx viscous stress on the y-face of a

conduction (K) control volume in the x-
ΔTcond,x temperature difference due to direction (Pa)
conduction in x-direction (K) τyy viscous stress on the y-face of a
ΔTcond,y temperature difference due to control volume in the
conduction in the y- y-direction (Pa)
direction (K) τdiff diffusive time constant (s)
ΔTconv temperature difference due to τlumped lumped capacitance time
convection (K) constant (s)
ΔTe excess temperature, surface υ kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
minus saturation frequency (Hz)
temperature (K) ζ angle relative to horizontal
ΔTlm log mean temperature (radian)
difference (K) ζ1 the 1st eigenvalue in a
Δx distance between nodes in the separation of variables solution
x-direction (m) (-)
Δy distance between nodes in the ζi the ith eigenvalue in a separation
y-direction (m) of variables solution (-)
ε emissivity (-)
effectiveness (-)
Subscripts
εfin fin effectiveness (-)
ϕ viscous dissipation function b base
(W/m3) c contact, corrected
η efficiency (-) C cold
ηfin fin efficiency (-) cond conduction
ηo overall efficiency of a finned conv convection
surface (-) crit critical time step where
κ Von Kármán constant, 0.41 (-) simulation becomes unstable
λ wavelength (μm) critical Reynolds number for
μ dynamic viscosity (N-s/m2) laminar-to-turbulent transition
θ temperature difference (K) cyl cylinder
θ~ dimensionless temperature diff diffusive
difference (-) fc forced convection
ρ density (kg/m3) fd fully developed
ρe electrical resistivity (Ω-m) fin fin
σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant h homogeneous
(5.67  10–8 W/m2-K4) H hot
surface tension (N/m) solution for constant heat flux
ratio of free flow to frontal area boundary condition
(-) in entering a system, inner (e.g.,
τ shear stress (Pa) diameter or radius)
τs shear stress at a surface (Pa) ini initial, at time t = 0
τs average shear stress on int internal, within an object
surface (Pa) is inner surface
τxx viscous stress on the x-face of a l,sat saturated liquid
control volume in the x- lam laminar
direction (Pa) max maximum possible amount
τxy viscous stress on the x-face of a nc natural convection
control volume in the y- p particular
direction (Pa) pw plane wall

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Nomenclature
xxiv

o overall ai,j the value of a at node i and

os outer surface time j
out leaving a system, outer (e.g., ak the value of a for iteration k
diameter or radius) ax¼x1 the value of a evaluated at
rad radiation the x-location x1
s at the surface aðxÞ a is a function only of x
semi-∞ related to the semi-infinite da the ordinary derivative of a
body solution dx with respect to x (a is only a
SF shape factor function of x)


sph sphere da

the ordinary derivative of a
surface-to-surroundings from the surface of dx
x¼x1 with respect to x evaluated
an object to the at x-location x1
surroundings ∂a the partial derivative of a
T solution for constant ∂x with respect to x (a is a
temperature boundary function of variables other
condition than x)
total total resistance a a one-dimensional vector of
turb turbulent values
uh unheated a a two-dimensional matrix
v,sat saturated vapor of values
vs viscous sublayer a 1
the inverse of a, a two-
x in the x-direction dimensional matrix of
y in the y-direction values
Max ðai Þ i ¼ 1 . . . M the maximum value of the
Superscripts and Abbreviations (Where a elements of vector a with
and b are Arbitrary Quantities) indices i = 1 to M
Min ðai Þ i ¼ 1 . . . M the minimum value of the
a0 per unit length elements of vector a with
a00 per unit area indices i = 1 to M
000 PM
a per unit volume i¼1 ai the sum of the elements in
a
 average value of a vector a with indices i = 1 to M
a
^ prediction of a obtained akb quantity a in parallel with
during a predictor step quantity b, shorthand for
a
~ dimensionless form of the 1 1 1
aþb
variable a
O(a) order of magnitude of the
ai the value of a at node i
quantity a
aj the value of a at time j

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