UNIT 1

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTCS

A computer is a fast electronic device that processes the input data according to the
Instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the desired information as an
Output. In a laymans language, a computer is a fast calculating device that can perform arithmetic
Operations. Although the computer was originally invented mainly for doing high speed
And accurate calculations, it is not just a calculating device. The computer can perform any
Kind of work involving arithmetic and logical operations on data. It gets the data through an
Input device, processes it as per the instructions given and gives the information as an
Output.
Computers play a vital role for processing of data in an organization. Computer: help in
Processing the volumes of data efficiently and accurately within a short time. A computer
has the following characteristics which make it so important for an organization:
1. Fast: A computer is so fast that it can perform the given task (arithmetical or logical)
in few seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for doing the same
task. A computer can process millions of instructions per second.
2. Accurate: While doing calculations, a computer is more accurate than man can make
mistakes in calculations but a computer does not make mistakes, if it is provided
accurate instructions.
3. Diligence: A computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and boredom.
Man will be tired and bored while doing millions of calculations but a computer, being
a machine, does this job very efficiently and without any tiredness and boredom.
4. High Memory: A computer has much more memory or storage capacity than human
being. It can store millions of data and instructions, which can be retrieved and recalled
even after a number of years. This is not possible in case of human brain.
5. No Intelligence: A computer is a machine and obviously has no intelligence of its
own. Each and every instruction must be given to the computer for doing a task. Man
has an intelligence and it is the man who invented computer and gives it all the
instructions and logic to work. A computer cannot take decisions on its own and it is
the main drawback of computer.
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

Accuracy

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same
accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.

Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also
used to store data.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

Computers are classified into following six types based on their historical advancement and
electronic components used.
Zeroth Generation Computers
The zeroth generation of computers (1642-1946) was marked by the invention of mainly
mechanical computers. In 1822, Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, designed
a machine called Difference Engine to compute tables of numbers for naval navigation. Later
on, in the year 1834, Babbage attempted to build a digital computer, called Analytical Engine.
The analytical engine had all the parts of a modern computer, i.e.; it had four components
the store (memory unit), the mill (computation unit), the punched card reader (input unit)
and the punched/printed output (output unit). The Zeroth generation of computers or the
era of mechanical computers ended in 1946 when vacuum tubes were invented.
First Generation Computers
The first generation of computers (1946-1954) was marked by the use of vacuum tubes or
valves for their basic electronic component. Although these computers were faster than
earlier mechanical devices, they had many disadvantages. First of all, they were very large
in size. They consumed too much power and generated too much heat, when used for even
short duration of time. They were very unreliable and broke down frequently. They required
regular maintenance and their components had also to be assembled manually.
Examples:
􀁺 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) It was the first electronic
computer using vacuum tubes. - 1946
􀁺 EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) It was the first stored-program computer.
- 1949
􀁺 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) It was successor of EDSAC.
- 1951
􀁺 IAS machine (Princeton's Institute of Advanced Studies) It was a new version of the
EDVAC, built by von Neumann. - 1952
31

Second Generation Computers

The second generation of computers (1954-64) was marked by the use of transistors in place
of vacuum tubes. Transistors had a number of advantages over the vacuum tubes. As
transistors were made from pieces of silicon, they were more compact than vacuum tubes.
The second generation computers, therefore, were smaller in size and less heat generated
than first generation computers. Although they were slightly faster and more reliable than
earlier computers, they also had many disadvantages. They had limited storage capacity,
consumed more power and were also relatively slow in performance. Like first generation
computers, they also required regular maintenance and their components had also to be
assembled manually. Manual assembly of components was very expensive and later many
attempts were made to reduce such manual assembly.
Second generation computers became out-dated after the invention of ICs.
Examples:
􀁺 PDP-l, developed by DEC was the first minicomputer.
􀁺 NCR 304 (National Cash Register), was first all-transistorized computer.
Third Generation Computers
The third generation of computers (1964-1980) was marked by the use of Integrated Circuits
(ICs) in place of transistors. ICs were more compact than transistors, as hundreds of transistors
could be put on a single small circuit. These computers removed many drawbacks of second
generation computers. The third generation computers were even smaller in size which
generated less heat and required very less power as compared to earlier two generation of
computers. These computers required less human labor at the assembly stage. Although,
third generation computers were faster and more reliable, they also had a few disadvantages.
They still had less storage capacity, relatively slower performance and thus could not fulfil
the requirements of the users and programmers. The third generation computers became
out-dated around the year 1978 when it was found that thousands of ICs could be integrated
onto a single chip, called LSI (Large Scale Integration).
Examples:
􀁺 IBM 360, developed by IBM in 1964 was the first product line designed as a family.
􀁺 PDP-8, developed by DEC in 1965 was the first mass-market minicomputer.
􀁺 PDP-ll, developed by DEC in 1970 was the first highly successful minicomputer.
􀁺 CRAY-l, developed by Cray in 1974 was the first supercomputer.
􀁺 VAX, developed by DEC in 1978 was the first super minicomputer.
Fourth Generation Computers
The fourth generation of computers (1978-till date) was marked by use of Large Scale Integrated
(LSI)
circuits in place of ICs. As thousands of ICs could be put onto a single circuit, so LSI circuits are still
more compact than ICs. In 1978, it was found that millions of components could be packed onto a
single circuit known as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI). VLSI is the latest technology of
computer
that led to the development of the popular Personal Computers (PCs), also called as Microcomputers.
All present day computers belong to the fourth generation of computers. These computers are very
powerful having a high memory and a fast processing speed. Today's PCs are even more powerful
than mainframe computers. Although fourth generation computers offer too many advantages to
users, the major drawback of these computers is that they have no intelligence on their own. Scientists
are now trying to remove this drawback by making computers which would have artificial
intelligence.
Examples:
􀁺 IBM PC, developed in 1981 was the first industry standard personal computer, having
Intel 8088 memory chip.
􀁺 IBM PC/AT, developed in 1982 was the first advanced technology PC, having Intel
80286 memory chip.
􀁺 386, developed in 1985, had Intel 80386 memory chip.
􀁺 CRAY-2, developed in 1985, was the fourth generation supercomputer.
􀁺 486, developed in 1989, had Intel 80486 memory chip.
􀁺 Pentium, developed in 1995, has pentium (80586) memory chip.

Fifth Generation Computers

The fifth generation computers (Tomorrow's computers) are still under research and
development stage. These computers would have artificial intelligence. They will use ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration) chips in place of VLSI chips. One ULSI chip contains millions
of components on a single IC. The most important feature of fifth generation computers is
that they will use an intelligent software. This software will enable the user to tell computer
'What to do' and not 'How to do' by using intelligent programming and knowledge-based
problem solving techniques. So, the programmers or users would not be required to give
each and every instruction to the computer for solving a problem. These computers will also
have user interface in form of speech in natural languages.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs
are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one
chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and
for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for
personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked
together to form a network. In terms of power, nowadays high-end models of the Macintosh and PC
offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

The workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high-quality graphics capabilities.
 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of RAM,
inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage
device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless workstations, comes
without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are
also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local area network,
although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
The mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports much simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require an immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number-crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated)graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

COMPUTER ORGANISATION
Computer Organization refers to the level of abstraction above the digital logic level, but
below the operating system level.
In computer engineering, micro-architecture, also called computer organization, is the way a
given instruction set architecture is implemented on a processor. A given ISA may be
implemented with different micro-architectures.

Computer organization consist of following parts

1. CPU – central processing unit

2. Memory
3. Input devices
4. Output devices

CPU – central processing unit

Introduction
It is alternatively referred to as the brain of the computer, processor, central processor,
or microprocessor, the CPU (pronounced as C-P-U) was first developed at Intel with the help
of Ted Hoff in the early 1970’s and is short for Central Processing Unit. The computer CPU is
responsible for handling all instructions it receives from hardware and software running on
the computer.
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program).It controls the
operation of all parts of computer.
  
CPU itself has following three components

1. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

All arithmetic calculations and logical operation are performed using the Arithmetic/Logical
Unit or ALU

2. Memory Unit
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is use to Stores information being processed by the CPU

3. Control Unit
Control unit help to perform operations of input unit, output unit, Memory unit and ALU in a
sequence.

Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or
permanently. For example, Random Access Memory RAM is a type of volatile memory that
is stores information on an integrated circuit, and that is used by the operating system,
software, hardware, or the user.

Computer memory divide into two parts

1. Volatile memory
Volatile memory is a temporary memory that loses its contents when the computer or
hardware device loses power.eg. RAM
2. Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory keeps its contents even if the power is lost. Example: ROM or EPROM
is a good example of a non-volatile memory 

Input Devices
A device that can be used to insert data into a computer system is called as input device. It
allows people to supply information to computers. An input device is any hardware device
that sends data to the computer, without any input devices, a computer would only be a
display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV.The most fundamental
pieces of information are keystrokes on a keyboard and clicks with a mouse. These two input
devices are essential for you to interact with your computer. Input devices represent one
type of computer peripheral.
Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and
joysticks.

Output Devices

A device which is used to display result from a computer is called as output device. It Allows
people to receive information from computers. An output device is any peripheral that
receives or displays output from a computer. The picture shows an inkjet printer, an output
device that can make a hard copy of anything being displayed on a monitor. Output device is
electronic equipment connected to a computer and used to transfer data out of the computer
in the form of text, images, sounds or print.
Examples of output devices include Printer, Scanner, Monitor, etc.

STORAGE DEVICES

A storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information
and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer
hardware which stores information/data to process the result of any computational work.
Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other
words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Computer storage is of two types:

Primary Storage Devices: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a
section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is
generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory)
are examples of primary storage.

Secondary Storage Devices: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the
computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.
Hard Disk, CD, DVD, Pen/Flash drive, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.

Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These storage
devices have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage devices
are:

1. Primary storage devices

(i) RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is used
immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software
installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer
is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple
tasks like loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the
newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks, remembering where
you’re in one task once you switch to a different task. It is also used to load and run
applications, like your spreadsheet program, answer commands, like all edits you made
within the spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like once you left the
spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always being actively employed by your
computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are
different types of RAM, although they all serve the same purpose, the most common ones
are:

SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits that retain stored
information as long as the power is supply is on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is
used to build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as
compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.

DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to stores binary bits in the
form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower
as compare to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.

SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is faster than
DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After SDRAM was introduced, the
upgraded version of double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was
entered into the market and widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.

(ii) ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices are
non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The
memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile.
The information is stored permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores
instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is
also used in other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM chips can only store
few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are
two types of ROM:

PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs that can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on the PROM.
Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is
non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.

EPROM: Another sort of memory is that the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It
is possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and write new
data onto the chip.

2. Magnetic Storage Devices

(i) Floppy Disk: It is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal
computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and
secures with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective
storage devices like USB, etc.

(ii) Hard Disk: It is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times
without any problem. Most of the computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary
storage device. It is actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every
hard disk, the data is recorded electromagnetically in the concentric circles or we can say
track present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but
fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The read-write speed of
HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.

(iii) Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the
magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also
known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode(to enter into house or hotel room), credit
card, identity card, etc.

(iv) Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in
which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio
recordings.

(v) SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation corporation
and it is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.

3. Flash memory Devices

It is a cheaper and portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store
data because is more reliable and efficient as compare to other storage devices. Some of
the commonly used flash memory devices are:

(i) Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an
integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to our computers and
laptops and read/write data into them in a much faster and efficient way. These devices are
very portable. It ranges from 1GB to 256GB generally.

(ii) SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDDs. It is more durable
because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as
compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster read and write speed as
compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent
function as hard drives, their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives,
SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives. Instead of
storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs
haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few and
more TB.

(iii) SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic devices
like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD
card is also small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available in different
sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.

(iv) Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is
also used to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory
card on a computer you require a separate memory card reader.
(v) Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used
in-car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also a secondary storage device. It is a removable storage

device. Following are some optical storage devices:

(i) CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store
data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to
700MB. It is of two types:

CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written can
not be erased. It is read-only.

CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily write or
erase data multiple times.

(ii) DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to
store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is
8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more
than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:

DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the data is
written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.

DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read Write. In this type of DVD, you can easily
write or erase data multiple times.

(iii) Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to 25GB.
To run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to
read a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which the information is stored in greater density
with a longer wavelength.

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We
can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for
the cloud storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely Google,
Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get
multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical device located in
the data centres of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical device
and its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of
storage where users can store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive
devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.

PC AS A VIRTUAL OFFICE
 UNIT: 2

Meaning and components

Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and
exchange all kinds of electronic data[1] and information. IT is typically used within the context
of business operations as opposed to personal or entertainment technologies.[2] IT forms part
of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology
system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system, or, more
specifically speaking, a computer system — including all hardware, software,
and peripheral equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users.

Categories of technology that fall under the IT umbrella include: 

● Networking. Two or more computer systems, connected wirelessly or by cables,

comprise a network.
● Compute. Though computing broadly refers to anything in the computer world, here it
means data processing, particularly in the main memory of a central processing
unit (CPU). 
● Data storage. Information has to stay somewhere when it isn’t directly being processed.
Storage solutions include devices (such as solid state drives), cloud storage,
databases, data lakes, and file systems. 
● Security. Cybersecurity helps institutions protect their data and other technological assets
from unauthorized access. Data is one of the most important enterprise commodities,
and attacks are increasing in frequency. 
● Technical support. Technology often requires fixing hardware or software issues.
Technical support ranges from unlocking a laptop to solving an entire network outage.
Because computer systems are central to information technology management, computer departments
within companies and universities are often called IT departments. Some companies refer to this
department as IS (Information Systems) or MIS (Management Information System).

IT department tasks include:

● Installing software onto devices 

● Solving issues with hardware, such as broken device parts and electronic failures
● Updating devices to new operating systems 
● Patching software or managing platforms that automatically perform patching 
● Managing network cables, routers, and switches
● Designing and debugging software
● Provisioning new servers and storage arrays
 ● Migrating stored data to a cloud environment
● Maintaining data center hardware and software
● Monitoring security management platforms for potential weaknesses or breaches
● Mitigating security issues after receiving alerts

Components of the information technology system are as follows:

1. Computer Hardware:

Physical equipment used for input, output and processing. The hardware structure depends
upon the type and size of the organization. It consists of an input and an output device,
operating system, processor, and media devices. This also includes computer peripheral
devices.

2. Computer Software:

The programs/ application program used to control and coordinate the hardware
components. It is used for analysing and processing of the data. These programs include a
set of instruction used for processing information.

Software is further classified into 3 types:

a) System Software
b) Application Software
c) Procedures

3. Databases:

Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganized that are and later processed to
generate information. Softwares are used for organizing and serving data to the user,
managing physical storage of media and virtual resources. As the hardware can’t work
without software the same as software needs data for processing. Data are managed using
Database management system.

Database software is used for efficient access for required data, and to manage knowledge
bases.

4. Network:

Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the intranet, extranet and
the internet. These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organization. Network
consists of both the physicals devices such as networks cards, routers, hubs and cables and
software such as operating systems, web servers, data servers and application servers.
Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications processors, and other
devices interconnected by communications media and controlled by software. Networks
include communication media, and Network Support.
5. Human Resources:

It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system. People are the
end user of the information system, end-user use information produced for their own
purpose, the main purpose of the information system is to benefit the end user. The end user
can be accountants, engineers, salespersons, customers, clerks, or managers etc. People
are also responsible to develop and operate information systems. They include systems
analysts, computer operators, programmers, and other clerical IS personnel, and managerial
techniques.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORK

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN (Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states
or countries.
 o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if
the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN.
The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to
buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers
get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application
like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the
productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
 o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject
the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

INTERNET –A GLOBAL NETWORK

The Internet is “the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.” It has changed the way we do
our daily chores. The usual tasks that we perform like sending an email, looking up train
schedules, social networking, paying a utility bill is possible due to the Internet. The
structure of internet has become quite complex and it cannot be represented as it is
changing instantaneously. Every now and then some resources are being added while some
are being removed. Internet comprises of various networks that include public, private,
government, business, and academic sectors linked together using different electronic
technologies. It interconnects global networks with local and vice-versa. The resources of
Internet range in both information (including digital documents like image, video, text etc.)
and services (including information sharing, email, video conferencing) domains.

Though the terms Internet and World Wide Web are used interchangeably in lay man terms
they are not the same. It is common practice to say "going on the Internet" whenever we
open any web page on a browser. However, the World Wide Web or the Web is one of the
most popular Internet services available. The Web is a collection of interconnected
documents (web pages) and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. It uses
HTTP as an underlying protocol for information transfer, which is one of the several other
protocols available in networking theory.

Definition: - The Internet is a global collection of computer networks that are linked together
by devices called routers and use a common set of protocols for data transmission known as
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol / Internet protocol). The primary purpose of the
Internet is to facilitate the sharing of information. There are many different tools used on
the Internet to make this possible. Some of the more common tools include email, list
servers, newsgroups, telnet, gopher, FTP, and the World Wide Web. Probably the most
popular of all Internet tools is the World Wide Web.

Advantages of Internet :
The internet is perhaps one of the best inventions thus far. As anyone can access the
computer this made people by stripping away geographical barriers and sharing information
instantaneously.
1. Communication Forum –
The speed of communication becomes faster which is obtained through the web.
Families and friends can confine touch easily. The platform for products like SKYPE
allows for holding a video conference with anyone within the world who also has access.
 
2. Abundant Information –
Anyone can find information on almost any imaginable subject. Plenty of resources are
 often found through the program in minutes.
 
3. Inexhaustible Education – 
For instance, students can gain readily available help for his or her homework online.  
 
4. Entertainment for everybody – 
Most folks love using our laptops, smartphones, and, tablets. The web is that the big
reason behind us spending such a lot of time on these gadgets.
 
5. Online Services and E-commerce –
Many services of emails, online banking, online shopping, etc are there. Free mail to
anyone is definitely accessible all around the world. E-commerce enables one in
America to shop for things in Asia, Africa, or other areas within the world through some
simple clicks of the mouse.
 
6. Social network –
Social networking is the sharing of data with people across the planet. Aside from being
an entertainment website, it’s many uses.
 
7. Learning –
The web has now become a neighborhood of education. Education like homeschooling
is definitely administered using the web. Teachers can upload their teaching videos on
the web  
 
Disadvantages of Internet :
The Internet’s drawbacks can’t be overlooked any longer as numerous teenagers are
affected by Internet Addiction Disorder, then many ladies became online shopaholics.
1. Internet Addiction Disorder – 
Internet addiction is detrimental to not only fitness but also psychological state.  
 
2. Cyber Crime – 
Hacker programs a virus which gets into the pc and ruins valuable data. Users’ personal
information like name, address, master card, bank details, and other information are
often accessed by culprits when used on the web, leading to significant economic loss.
 
3. Social Alienation –
Time spent online flies fast without consciousness. After getting attracted the user
trapped into the trap, users are trapped by a “net”, spending less time with people in the
real world. Less interaction and face-to-face communication, actually, may end in a
decrease in social abilities.
 
4. Spam –
The unnecessary emails, advertisements, etc. are sometimes said to be spam because
they need the power to hamper the system and make the users face many problems.

E-MAIL

E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the Internet. It is one of the most commonly
used features over communications networks that may contain text, files, images, or other
attachments. Generally, it is information that is stored on a computer sent through a network to a
specified individual or group of individuals.
Email messages are conveyed through email servers; it uses multiple protocols within
the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP is a protocol, stands for simple mail transfer protocol and used
to send messages whereas other protocols IMAP or POP are used to retrieve messages from a mail
server.
Although most of the webmail servers automatically configure your mail account, therefore, you only
required to enter your email address and password. Email messages include three components, which
are as follows:
o Message envelope: It depicts the email's electronic format.
o Message header: It contains email subject line and sender/recipient information.
o Message body: It comprises images, text, and other file attachments.

Uses of E-mail : Email can be used in different ways: it can be used to communicate either within an
organization or personally, including between two people or a large group of people. Most people get
benefit from communicating by email with colleagues or friends or individuals or small groups. It
allows you to communicate with others around the world, send, and receive images, documents, links,
and other attachments. Additionally, it offers benefit users to communicate with the flexibility on their
own schedule.
Advantages of E-mail

There are many advantages of email, which are as follows:

o Cost-effective: Email is a very cost-effective service to communicate with others as there are

several email services available to individuals and organizations for free of cost. Once a user
is online, it does not include any additional charge for the services.
o Email offers users the benefit of accessing email from anywhere at any time if they have an
Internet connection.
o Email offers you an incurable communication process, which enables you to send a response
at a convenient time. Also, it offers users a better option to communicate easily regardless of
different schedules users.
o Speed and simplicity: Email can be composed very easily with the correct information and
contacts. Also, minimum lag time, it can be exchanged quickly.
o Mass sending: You can send a message easily to large numbers of people through email.
o Email exchanges can be saved for future retrieval, which allows users to keep important
conversations or confirmations in their records and can be searched and retrieved when they
needed quickly.
o Email provides a simple user interface and enables users to categorize and filter their
messages. This can help you recognize unwanted emails like junk and spam mail. Also, users
can find specific messages easily when they are needed.
o As compared to traditional posts, emails are delivered extremely fast.
o Email is beneficial for the planet, as it is paperless. It reduces the cost of paper and helps to
save the environment by reducing paper usage.
o It also offers a benefit to attaching the original message at the time you reply to an email. This
is beneficial when you get hundreds of emails a day, and the recipient knows what you are
talking about.
o Furthermore, emails are beneficial for advertising products. As email is a form of
communication, organizations or companies can interact with a lot of people and inform them
in a short time.

Disadvantages of E-mail
 o Impersonal: As compared to other forms of communication, emails are less personal. For
example, when you talk to anyone over the phone or meeting face to face is more appropriate
for communicating than email.
o Misunderstandings: As email includes only text, and there is no tone of voice or body
language to provide context. Therefore, misunderstandings can occur easily with email. If
o Malicious Use: As email can be sent by anyone if they have an only email address.
Sometimes, an unauthorized person can se
o Accidents Will Happen: With email, you can make fatal mistakes by clicking the wrong
button in a hurry. For instance, instead of sending it to a single person, you can accidentally
send sensitive information to a large group of people.
o Spam: Although in recent days, the features of email have been improved, there are still big
issues with unsolicited advertising arriving and spam through email. It can easily become
overwhelming and takes time and energy to control.
o Viruses: Although there are many ways to travel viruses in the devices, email is one of the
common ways to enter viruses and infect devices. Sometimes when you get a mail, it might
be the virus come with an attached document.

COMMON PROTOCOLS USED IN INTERNET

A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with
each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design. Network
protocols are the reason you can easily communicate with people all over the world, and thus play a
critical role in modern digital communications.

Similar to the way that speaking the same language simplifies communication between two people,
network protocols make it possible for devices to interact with each other because of
predetermined rules built into devices’ software and hardware. Neither local area networks
(LAN) nor wide area networks (WAN) could function the way they do today without the use of
network protocols. There are thousands of different network protocols, but they all perform one of
three primary actions:

● Communication
● Network management
● Security

Some of the most common protocols are :

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which is

used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are
sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used
with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a
network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol
connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-
latency linking between different applications.
 4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing
E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to
another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents,
etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in
any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a
client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for making a request. The
server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two
computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for
transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server (response) in the
hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an
encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or
modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection
is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.

CONCEPT OF WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as the web. The
WWW was initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in 1989. 
History: 
It is a project created, by Timothy Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together
effectively at CERN. is an organization, named the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),
which was developed for further development of the web. This organization is directed by
Tim Berner’s Lee, aka the father of the web. 
System Architecture: 
From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of
documents or web pages. Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the
world. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers of which internet explorer,
Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome, etc are the popular ones. The browser fetches the
page requested interprets the text and formatting commands on it, and displays the page,
properly formatted, on the screen. 
The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure below. Here the browser is
displaying a web page on the client machine. When the user clicks on a line of text that is
linked to a page on the abd.com server, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a
message to the abd.com server asking it for the page. 
 
 Here the browser displays a web page on the client machine when the user clicks on a line
of text that is linked to a page on abd.com, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a
message to the abd.com server asking for the page. 
Working of WWW: 
The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers, Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). 
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs
which display text, data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked
resources on the World Wide Web can be accessed using software interfaces provided by
Web browsers. Initially, Web browsers were used only for surfing the Web but now they
have become more universal. Web browsers can be used for several tasks including
conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and much more. Some of the commonly
used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google Chrome. 
Features of WWW: 
● HyperText Information System 
● Cross-Platform 
● Distributed 
● Open Standards and Open Source 
● Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services 
● Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving. 
● “Web 2.0” 
 
Components of the Web: There are 3 components of the web: 
 
1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the web. 
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and server. 
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation and content
of a webpage.
INTERNET SECURITY

Internet security is a term that describes security for activities and transactions made over
the internet. It is a particular component of the larger ideas of cybersecurity and computer
security, involving topics including browser security, online behaviour and network security.
We spend a large proportion of our lives online, and some of the internet security threats we
can encounter include:

● Hacking, where unauthorized users gain access to computer systems, email accounts, or
websites.
● Viruses or malicious software (known as malware) which can damage data or make systems
vulnerable to other threats.
● Identity theft, where criminals can steal personal and financial information.

Individuals and organizations can protect themselves from these kinds of threats by
practicing internet security.

Common internet security threats include:

Phishing

Phishing is a cyber-attack involving disguised emails. Hackers try to trick email recipients
into believing that a message is genuine and relevant – a request from their bank or a note
from a co-worker, for example – so that they click on a link or open an attachment. The goal
is to deceive people into handing over their personal information or downloading malware.

Hacking and remote access

Hackers are always looking to exploit a private network or system's vulnerabilities so they
can steal confidential information and data. Remote access technology gives them another
target to exploit. Remote access software allows users to access and control a computer
remotely – and since the pandemic, with more people working remotely, its usage has
increased.

The protocol, which allows users to control a computer connected to the internet remotely, is
called Remote Desktop Protocol, or RDP. Because businesses of all sizes so widely use
RDP, the chances of an improperly secured network are relatively high. Hackers use
different techniques to exploit RDP vulnerabilities until they have full access to a network
and its devices. They may carry out data theft themselves or else sell the credentials on the
dark web.

Malware and malvertising

Malware is a portmanteau of "malicious" and "software". It's a broad term related to viruses,
worms, trojans, and other harmful programs that hackers use to cause havoc and steal
sensitive information. Any software intended to damage a computer, server, or network can
be described as malware.

Malvertising is a portmanteau of “malicious” and “advertising”. The term refers to online

advertising, which distributes malware. Online advertising is a complex ecosystem involving
publisher websites, ad exchanges, ad servers, retargeting networks, and content delivery
networks. Malvertisers exploit this complexity to place malicious code in places that
publishers and ad networks don’t always detect. Internet users who interact with a malicious
ad could download malware onto their device or be redirected to malicious websites.

Ransomware

Ransomware is a type of malware that prevents you from using your computer or accessing
specific files on your computer unless a ransom is paid. It is often distributed as a trojan –
that is, malware disguised as legitimate software. Once installed, it locks your system’s
screen or certain files until you pay.
Because of their perceived anonymity, ransomware operators typically specify payment in
cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin. Ransom prices vary depending on the ransomware variant
and the price or exchange rate of digital currencies. It isn’t always the case that if you pay,
the criminals will release the encrypted files.
 Ransomware attacks are on the rise, and new ransomware variants continue to emerge.
Some of the most talked-about ransomware variants include Maze, Conti, GoldenEye, Bad
Rabbit, Jigsaw, Locky, and WannaCry.

Botnets

The term botnet is a contraction of “robot network”. A botnet is a network of computers that

have been intentionally infected by malware so they can carry out automated tasks on the
internet without the permission or knowledge of the computers’ owners.

Once a botnet’s owner controls your computer, they can use it to carry out malicious
activities. These include:

● Generating fake internet traffic on third party websites for financial gain.
● Using your machine’s power to assist in Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks to shut
down websites.
● Emailing spam to millions of internet users.
● Committing fraud and identity theft.
● Attacking computers and servers.

Computers become part of a botnet in the same ways that they are infected by any other
type of malware – for example, opening email attachments that download malware or visiting
websites infected with malware. They can also spread from one computer to another via a
network. The number of bots in a botnet varies and depends on the ability of the botnet
owner to infect unprotected devices.

Ways to insure Internet Security are: -

Enable multifactor authentication wherever you can

Multifactor authentication (MFA) is an authentication method that asks users to provide two
or more verification methods to access an online account. For example, instead of simply
asking for a username or password, multifactor authentication goes further by requesting
additional information, such as:

● An extra one-time password that the website's authentication servers send to the
user's phone or email address.
● Answers to personal security questions.
● A fingerprint or other biometric information, such as voice or face recognition.

Use a firewall

A firewall acts as a barrier between your computer and another network, such as the
internet. Firewalls block unwanted traffic and can also help to block malicious software from
infecting your computer. Often, your operating system and security system come with a pre-
installed firewall. It is a good idea to make sure those features are turned on, with your
settings configured to run updates automatically, to maximize internet security.

Choose your browser carefully

Our browsers are our primary gateway to the web and therefore play a key role in internet
security. A good web browser should be secure and help to protect you from data breaches.
Create strong passwords, and use a secure password manager

A strong password will help you maintain internet security. A strong password is:

● Long – made up of at least 12 characters and ideally more.

● A mix of characters – that is, upper- and lower-case letters plus symbols and
numbers.
● Avoids the obvious – such as using sequential numbers (“1234”) or personal
information that someone who knows you might guess, such as your date of birth or
a pet’s name.
● Avoids memorable keyboard paths.

Keep an up-to-date security program installed on your devices

Internet security antivirus is critical for ensuring privacy and security online. The best internet
security software protects you from different types of internet attacks and protects your data
online. It’s important to keep antivirus software up to date – most modern programs update
themselves automatically to stay on top of the latest internet security threats.
APPLICATION OF INTERNET IN BUSINESS

There are a number of strategic uses of the Internet within business. These
include:

1. Corporate activities

● Gathering corporate intelligence

● Enhancing corporate communications
● Improving public relations
● Providing new ways to recruit employees
● Developing electronic publishing and new information services
● Achieving cost savings and efficiencies
● Reducing distribution costs.

2. Market intelligence

● Monitoring customer discussions and attitudes

● Monitoring customer-developed websites
● Monitoring competitor activities
● Conducting market research.

3. Customer relations

● Providing product information repositories

● Providing customer support
● Obtaining customer feedback
● Providing directory services.

4. Selling

● Electronic stores or malls

● Order taking and providing information on order status
● Distribution of digital data.

5. Marketing
● Finding new customers
● Educating customers
● Building credibility with potential customers
● Building goodwill
● Improving brand loyalty
● Encouraging brand trial
● Building customer loyalty: membership programs
● Building customer loyalty: ongoing communications
● Building a mailing list.