UNIT-V

Transmission Lines

A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel conductors used to connect a source to a load.
The source may be a generator, a transmitter, or an oscillator; the load may be a factory, an antenna, or an
oscilloscope, respectively.
Transmission lines are commonly used in power distribution, communications, electrical laboratories and
transmission lines such as the twisted-pair and coaxial cables are used in computer networks such as the
ethernet and internet.
Transmission line problems are usually solved using EM field theory and electric circuit theory, the two
major theories on which electrical engineering is based.
Types of Transmission lines:
a) Two-wire line
b) Coaxial line
c) Planar line
d) Wire above conducting plane
e) Micro strip line
f ) Waveguides
g ) Optical cable
a) Two-wire line: This transmission line consists of a pair of parallel conducting wires separated by
a uniform distance .These are used in power systems or telephones lines.

Fig. Two-wire line.

Merits:
1. The cost of two wire transmission line is very low as compared to other types of lines.
2. To design the open two line transmission line is quite simple and easy too.
3. Open two wire lines are capable of handling high power.
Demerits:
1. The external interference of the signal in open two wire lines is more.
2. Due to external interference the output at the load end of two wire transmission line will be noisy.
3. To use the two wire transmission lines in the twisty paths is quite difficult.
4. It cannot be used on very high frequencies because it will generate skin effect.
b) Coaxial line: The co-axial cable can be constructed by placing a solid conductor inside a hallow
cylindrical coaxially and these two are separated by a dielectric. They are used as TV cables,
telephone cables and power cables.

Fig.(a) Coaxial cable (b).E and H fields in coaxial cable

Merits:
1. As the outer conductor (braded wire) is grounded, therefore the possibility of external interference is
minimized. The output of the load end will be less noised.
2. The coaxial cable is used for high frequencies transmission.
3. This type of transmission cables can be easily used if the path of energy from source to load is twisty or
complicated.
4. Coaxial cable occupies less space as compared to two wire lines.
5. The conductor which carries the energy from source to load is protected from dust, rust etc. due to proper
insulation.
Demerits:
1. This type of transmission line is costly with respect to two wire lines.
2. Designing of coaxial cable is difficult as compared to two wire lines.
3. This type of transmission lines handles low power transmissions.
(c) Planar line: It consists of two parallel conductors separated by dielectric medium as shown in fig. It
supports TE and TM waves.

d) Wire above conducting plane: It consists of a conducting wire above the ground plane as shown in fig.

c) Micro strip line: The Micro strip line is transmission line geometry with a single conductor trace on one
side of a dielectric substrate and a single ground plane on the other side.
Merits:
1. Very high frequency.
2. Small size
3. Low weight.
4. Losses are minimum.
5. This type of transmission line is used for very high frequency.
6. Micro strip lines are used in integrated circuits where distance between load and source is very short.
7. As the path of energy is made of very good conductor like gold, therefore the losses of energy are
minimum possible.
8. The weight of micro strip line is low.
Demerits:
1. The cost of micro strip is very high as compared to coaxial and two wire line.
2. The micro strip line cannot be used as a transmission line when the distance between source and load is
long.
3. This type of transmission line cannot be used in twisty paths between source and load.
d) Wave guides: The wave guides are hallowed or dielectric filled conductor used to transmit the
electromagnetic energy at micro wave frequency ranges.
The wave propagates in TE ,TM,TEM modes.

Merits:
1. The large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces copper (12R) losses.
2. Dielectric losses are also lower in wave guides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission line
Demerits:
1. Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The width of a waveguide must be
approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be transported
2. Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. Special couplings at the joints
are required to assure proper operation.
3. The inside surfaces of waveguides are often plated with silver or gold to reduce skin effect losses. These
requirements increase the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at any other than
microwave frequencies.
e) Optical fibers transmission line: It consists of core and cladding. Information passes through the core in
the form of totally internal reflected TEM light waves.

Merits:
1. The fiber optics offers the high bandwidth.
2. Fiber immune to electromagnetic interference, Fiber has a very low rate of bit error, Fiber-optic
transmission is virtually noise free.
3. Fiber provides an extremely secure transmission medium.
4. When high freq signal are propagated through the optical fiber the loss is very low.
5. Because of very small size and light in weight and large flexibility, it is easy to install and
compatibility with digital technology.
6. As optical fiber has no electrical conductivity, therefore grounding and protection are not
necessary.
7. Lack of electrical signals in the fiber, so it cannot shock or other hazards. This makes optical fibers
suitable for work in explosive atmospheres.
Demerits:
1. Installing fiber optic cabling is still relatively costly.
2. Equipment used in the fiber optics is expensive, specialized optical test equipment is needed in testing of
optical fiber.
3. Fiber is a small and compact cable, and it is highly susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during
installation or construction activities.
4. Damage to Fiber Optic Cables from birds, ants, Sharks etc
5. Even though the raw material for making optical fibers, sand, is cheap, optical fibers are still more
expensive per meter than copper.
6. The glass can be affected by various chemicals including hydrogen gas (a problem in underwater cables).
7. Optical fiber cannot be joined together as a easily as copper cable and requires additional training of
personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement equipment.
8. As optical fibers have no electrical conductivity, therefore additional copper cable is not used with optical
fiber to provide power supply to the repeaters.

Transmission Line Parameters:

The transmission line is described in terms of its line parameters, which are its resistance per unit length R,
inductance per unit length L, conductance per unit length G, and capacitance per unit length C. These are
also called primary parameters. These are independent of frequency. These parameters are not lumped but
distributed that means these are uniformly distributed along the entire length of the line.
Resistance(R) : A series resistance is due to the internal resistance of the conductors of a transmission line. It
depends on the conductivity and cross-sectional area of the conductors. But at high frequencies, it depends
on skin depth. It is measured as loop resistance per unit length of the line. Its units are Ω/m.
Inductance (L):A series inductance is due to the magnetic flux produced around the conductors of a
transmission line. The flux linkage per unit current gives the inductance of the line. It is measured as loop
inductance per unit length of the line. Its units are H/m.
Capacitance(C): Two conductors of a transmission line separated by a dielectric form a capacitor. Thus a
shunt capacitance is formed due to the electric field between the conductors. It is measured as shunt
capacitance per unit length of the line. Its units are F/m.
Conductance (G): A shunt conductance is due to the leakage current between the conductors of a line since
the dielectric medium between the conductors is not perfect. It is measured as shunt conductance per unit
length of the line. Its units are ℧/m.
The series impedance Z and shunt admittance Y of the line per
unit length can be expressed as
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑌 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
The equivalent circuit of the transmission line is shown in fig

Fig. Equivalent circuit of transmission line

Transmission Line Equations: consider a transmission line with two parallel conductors. Let R, L, C and G
be the primary parameters. Consider a point P on the line at a distance x from the source as shown in fig.
 Fig. Voltages and currents on the transmission line
Let Q be the another point at distance dx from the P.
Let V and I be the voltage and current at point P respectively. Let V+dV and I+dI be the voltage and current
at point Q respectively.
For a small length dx of the line, the series impedance is (R + jωL)dx and shunt admittance is (G + jωC)dx .
The potential difference between P and Q is
V − (V + dV) = I(R + jωL)dx
dV
− = (R + jωL)I − − − −(1)
dx
The current difference between P and Q is
I − (I + dI) = V(G + jωC)dx
dI
− = (G + jωC)V − − − −(2)
dx
Taking differentiation of eq.(1)
d2 V dI
− 2 = (R + jωL) − − − − − (3)
dx dx
Substitute the eq.(2) in eq.(3)
d2 V
= (R + jωL)(G + jωC)V
dx 2
Similarly differentiate eq.(2) and substitute eq.(1) we get
d2 I
= (R + jωL)(G + jωC)I
dx 2
The propagation constant
γ = α + jβ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC)
Where α=attenuation constant and β=phase shift constant
Therefore
d2 V
= γ2 V − − − −( 4)
dx 2

d2 I
= γ2 I − − − −(5)
dx 2
The equations (4) and (5) are the second order differential equations in terms of voltage and current whose
solutions are given by
V = aeγx + be−γx − − − (6)
I = ceγx + de−γx − − − −(7)

Where a, b, c and d are the constants.

In terms of hyperbolic functions the above equations become
eγx = cosh 𝛾𝑥 + sinh 𝛾𝑥
e−γx = cosh 𝛾𝑥 − sinh 𝛾𝑥
 V = A cosh γx + B sinh 𝛾𝑥 − −(8)
I = C cosh γx + D sinh 𝛾𝑥 −– (9)
Instead of four constants A,B,C and D the above equations can simplified to only two constants, by
substituting the value of V from eq.(8) in eq.(1)
d
− (A cosh γx + B sinh 𝛾𝑥 ) = (R + jωL)I
dx
−(γA sinh γx + Bγ cosh 𝛾𝑥 ) = (R + jωL)I
−γ
I= (A sinh γx + B cosh 𝛾𝑥 )
(R + jωL)
G + jωC
I = −√ (A sinh γx + B cosh 𝛾𝑥 )
R + jωL
1
I = − (A sinh γx + B cosh 𝛾𝑥 )
Z0
Where
R + jωL
Characteristic impedance Z0 = √
G + jωC
V = A cosh γx + B sinh 𝛾𝑥
1
I = − (A sinh γx + B cosh 𝛾𝑥 )
Z0
The constants A and B can be obtained by using initial conditions.
Let Vs and Is be the source voltage and current respectively. At source end, x=0, the voltage V= Vs and
current I= Is
Then
Vs = A cosh γ(0) + B sinh 𝛾 (0)

Therefore Vs = A
1
Is = − (A sinh γ(0) + B cosh 𝛾 (0))
Z0
Therefore B = −Is Z0
Substituting the constants A and B in above equations
V = Vs cosh γx − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑥
Vs
I = Is cosh 𝛾𝑥 − sinh γx
Z0
These are called transmission line equations. They give voltage and current at a point of distance x from the
sending end in terms of source voltage and current.
Infinite line: A line is said to be infinite if all the input signals are consumed by the line and there is no
reflected signal.
I = ceγx + de−γx − − − (1)
When x=0, the current at the sending end is I=ISi
Substitute x=0 in Eq.(1)
ISi = c + d
When x=∞, the current at receiving end is I=0
Substituting x=∞ in Eq.(1)
0 = ceγ∞ + de−γ∞
0 = c∞
c=0
Therefore
d = ISi
The current at any point on the infinite line is given by
I = ISi e−γx
Similarly the voltage at any point the infinite line is given by
V = VSi e−γx

Secondary Constants: The propagation constant γ and the characteristic impedance Z0 are referred
as secondary constants.
1.Propagation Constant(γ) : The propagation constant γ is a complex quantity.
γ = α + jβ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC)
Where α is the attenuation constant (in nepers per meter or decibels per meter), and β is the phase constant
(in radians per meter).
2.Characteristic impedance(Z0) : The characteristic impedance Z0 of the line is the ratio of positively
traveling voltage wave to current wave at any point on the line. The characteristic impedance is also
defined as the input impedance of an infinite line.
We know that
dV
− = (R + jωL)I
dx
For infinite line
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
d
− (𝑉𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 ) = (R + jωL)𝐼𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
dx
γ𝑉𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 = (R + jωL)𝐼𝑆 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
γ𝑉𝑆 = (R + jωL)𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑆 R + jωL
=
𝐼𝑆 𝛾
The input impedance of infinite line is given by
𝑉𝑆
𝑍0 =
𝐼𝑆
R + jωL
Characteristic impedance Z0 = √
G + jωC
The propagation constant γ and the characteristic impedance Zo are important properties of the line because
they both depend on the line parameters R, L, G, and C and the frequency of operation.
Attenuation and phase constants:
The propagation constant γ is a complex quantity.
γ = α + jβ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC)
Squaring the magnitude of γ we get
α2 + β2 = √(R2 + ω2 L2 )(G 2 + ω2 C 2 ) − − − (1)

Squaring γ on the both sides

(α + jβ)2 = (R + jωL)(G + jωC)
α2 − β2 + j2αβ = RG − ω2 LC + j(ωLG + ωRC)
Equating the real parts we get
α2 − β2 = RG − ω2 LC − − − −(2)
Adding Eq.(1) and Eq.(2)
2α2 = √(R2 + ω2 L2 )(G 2 + ω2 C 2 ) + RG − ω2 LC
The real part of γ is called attenuation constant. It determines the reduction or attenuation in voltage and
current along the line. Its unit is neper per km. 1neper=8.686dB.
 1
𝛼 = √ [√(R2 + ω2 L2 )(G 2 + ω2 C 2 ) + (RG − ω2 LC)] 𝑁𝑃/𝑘𝑚
2
Subtracting Eq.(2) from Eq.(1)
1
𝛽 = √ [√(R2 + ω2 L2 )(G 2 + ω2 C 2 ) − (RG − ω2 LC)] 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑘𝑚
2
The imaginary part of γ is called the phase constant. It determines the variation in phase position of voltage
and current along the line. Its unit is radians per km.

Lossless Line (R = 0 = G): A transmission line is said to be loss less if the conductors of the line
are perfect(σc≈∞) and the dielectric medium separating them is lossless (σd≈0).
Condition for losses less line is, R = 0 = G.
The high frequency lines are termed as lossless lines because the ω=2πf in the series impedance(R+jωL) and
shunt admittance (G+jωC) becomes very large due to the high frequency.
Therefore the real part of the series impedance can be neglected.
The propagation constant and characteristic impedance for losses line are given by
γ = α + jβ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC)
R + jωL
Z0 = √
G + jωC
Substitute R = 0 = G
γ = α + jβ = jω√LC
Therefore
α = 0 and β = ω√LC
L
Z0 = √
C
The phase velocity is
𝜔 1
𝜈0 = =
𝛽 √𝐿𝐶

Distortion less Line(R/L = G/C): A transmission line is said to be distortion less if the attenuation
constant ‘α’ is frequency independent while the phase constant ‘β’ is linearly dependent on frequency.
The condition for the distortion less line is R/L = G/C.
The propagation constant for distortion less line is given by
jωL jωC
γ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC) = √RG (1 + ) (1 + )
R G
For the distortion less line
𝑅 𝐺
=
𝐿 𝐶
Therefore
jωC
γ = √RG (1 + )
G
α + jβ = √RG + jω√LC
α = √RG and β = ω√LC
The characteristic impedance for distortion less line is given by
R + jωL R(1 + jωL/R) R
Z0 = √ =√ =√
G + jωC G(1 + jωC/G) G

R L
R0 = √ = √ and X 0 = 0
G C
The phase velocity is
𝜔 1
𝜈0 = =
𝛽 √𝐿𝐶
Note:
1. The phase velocity is independent of frequency.
2. The phase velocity and characteristic impedance are same for both lossless and distortionless lines.
3. A lossless line is also a distortionless line, but a distortionless line is not necessarily lossless. Although
lossless lines are desirable in power transmission, telephone lines are required to be distortionless.
Input Impedance:
A transmission line terminated with any load impedance ZR at x=l is shown in fig.

Fig . Input impedance of transmission line

The V and I equations at a point of distance x from the sending end in terms of source voltage and current are
given by.
V = Vs cosh γx − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑥
Vs
I = Is cosh 𝛾𝑥 − sinh γx
Z0
The voltage and currents at load end (x=l) are given by
VR = Vs cosh γ𝑙 − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
Vs
IR = Is cosh 𝛾𝑙 − sinh γ𝑙
Z0

The load impedance ZR is given by

VR
ZR =
IR

Vs cosh γ𝑙 − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
ZR =
V
Is cosh 𝛾𝑙 − Zs sinh γ𝑙
0
Vs
ZR (Is cosh 𝛾𝑙 − sinh γ𝑙) = Vs cosh γ𝑙 − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
Z0
Vs
ZR Is cosh 𝛾𝑙 − ZR sinh γ𝑙 = Vs cosh γ𝑙 − Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
Z0
 Vs
ZR Is cosh 𝛾𝑙 + Is Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = Vs cosh γ𝑙 + ZR sinh γ𝑙
Z0
ZR
Is (ZR cosh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙 ) = Vs (cosh γ𝑙 + sinh γ𝑙)
Z0
Vs ZR cosh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
=
Is Z
cosh γ𝑙 + ZR sinh γ𝑙
0
The input impedance of the line is given by
Vs
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
Is
ZR cosh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 cosh γ𝑙 + ZR sinh γ𝑙

ZR + Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + ZR tanh γ𝑙
For lossless line γ=jβ

ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
Voltage and Current at any point on the transmission line:

Consider the transmission line of length l terminating with an impedance ZR. Let VR and IR be the voltage
and current at the load ZR.
The voltage and current at a point of distance x from the sending end in terms of source voltage and current
are given by
V = A cosh γx + B sinh 𝛾𝑥 − − − (1)
1
I = − (A sinh γx + B cosh 𝛾𝑥 ) − − − (2)
Z0
Where A and B are constants.
At x=l V= VR and I=IR
Substituting these values in eq.(1) and eq.(2)
VR = A cosh γ𝑙 + B sinh 𝛾𝑙 − − − −(3)
1
IR = − (A sinh γ𝑙 + B cosh 𝛾𝑙 ) − − − (4)
Z0
Multiplying Eq.(3) with coshγl and Eq.(4) with sinhγl
VR cosh γ𝑙 = A cosh2 γ𝑙 + B sinh 𝛾𝑙 cosh γ𝑙 − − − −(5)
Z0 IR sinh γ𝑙 = −A sinh2 γ𝑙 − B cosh 𝛾𝑙 sinh γ𝑙 − − − (6)
Adding Eq.(5) and Eq.(6)
VR cosh γ𝑙 + Z0 IR sinh γ𝑙 = A(cosh2 γ𝑙 − sinh2 γ𝑙 )
Therefore
A = VR cosh γ𝑙 + Z0 IR sinh γ𝑙
Multiplying Eq.(3) with sinhγl and Eq.(4) with coshγl
VR sinh 𝛾𝑙 = A cosh γ𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑙 + B sinh2 𝛾𝑙 − − − −(7)
Z0 IR cosh γ𝑙 = −A sinh γ𝑙 cosh γ𝑙 − B cosh2 𝛾𝑙 − − − (8)
Adding Eq.(7) and Eq.(8)

VR sinh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 IR cosh γ𝑙 = −(cosh2 γ𝑙 − sinh2 γ𝑙 )

B = −(VR sinh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 IR cosh γ𝑙 )
Substituting the values of A and B in Eq.(1)
V = (VR cosh γ𝑙 + Z0 IR sinh γ𝑙 ) cosh γx − (VR sinh 𝛾𝑙 + Z0 IR cosh γ𝑙 ) sinh 𝛾𝑥
V = (VR cosh γ𝑙 cosh γx + Z0 IR sinh γ𝑙 cosh γx) − (VR sinh 𝛾𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑥 + Z0 IR cosh γ𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑥 )
 V = VR (cosh γ𝑙 cosh γx − sinh 𝛾𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑥 ) + Z0 IR (sinh 𝛾𝑙 cosh γx − cosh γ𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑥 )
V = VR cosh γ(𝑙 − 𝑥 ) + Z0 IR sinh 𝛾 (𝑙 − 𝑥 )
Similarly Substituting the values of A and B in Eq.(2)
VR
I = IR cosh γ(𝑙 − 𝑥 ) + + sinh 𝛾 (𝑙 − 𝑥 )
Z0
If y=l-x then
V = VR cosh γ𝑦 + Z0 IR sinh 𝛾y
VR
I = IR cosh γy + + sinh 𝛾y
Z0
These are the voltage and current equations at a point of distance y from the load end in terms of terminal
voltage and current.
Transmission line terminated with characteristic impedance:
Consider a line of length l which is terminated with characteristic impedance Z0 as shown in fig.

Fig. Transmission line terminated with Z0

The input impedance of the line is given by
ZR + Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + ZR tanh γ𝑙
Here ZR=Z0
Z0 + Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + Z0 tanh γ𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0
Hence the input impedance of a finite line terminated with characteristic impedance Z0 is equal to
characteristic impedance Z0.
Therefore a finite line terminated with characteristic impedance Z0 is equal to infinite line.
A line terminated with characteristic impedance Z0 is called matched line.
Standing Waves In Transmission Lines: Signal energy is transmitted through a transmission
line from the source to the load in the form of voltage and current waves. When the terminated load
impedance is different from the characteristic impedance of the line, then the some part of the transmitted
signal is returns back and there exists a reflected wave .These incident and reflected travelling waves create a
standing waves.
The voltage and current equations along the transmission line equation are given by
V = Vi e−γx + Vr eγx
I = Ii e−γx + Ir eγx

In the above equations 1 st term is called incident wave and 2nd term is called reflected wave.
Reflection Coefficient:
The reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage. The reflection
coefficient is also defined as the ratio of reflected current to incident current. It is denoted by K.
Let Vi and Vr are the incident and reflected voltages respectively.
𝑉𝑟
𝐾=
𝑉𝑖
Let Ii and Ir are the incident and reflected currents respectively.
𝐼𝑟
𝐾=−
𝐼𝑖
The voltage at the load ZR is given by
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟 − − − (1)
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑟 − − − (2)
𝑉𝑖 𝑉
But characteristic impedance Z0 is 𝑍0 = = − 𝐼𝑟 − − − −(3)
𝐼𝑖 𝑟
Substitute the Eq.(3) in Eq.(2), we get
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑟
𝐼𝑅 = −
𝑍0 𝑍0
𝑍0 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑟 − − − (4)
Divide the Eq.(1) by Eq.(4), we get
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑟
=
𝑍0 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑟
We know that
𝑉𝑅
𝑍𝑅 =
𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑟
𝑍𝑅 1 + 𝑉𝑖
=
𝑍0 1 − 𝑉𝑟
𝑉 𝑖
We know that the reflection coefficient K is
𝑉𝑟
𝐾=
𝑉𝑖

𝑍𝑅 1 + 𝐾
=
𝑍0 1 − 𝐾

𝑍𝑅 (1 − 𝐾 ) = 𝑍0 (1 + 𝐾 )
(𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍𝑅 𝐾 ) = (𝑍0 + 𝑍0 𝐾 )
𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑅 𝐾 + 𝑍0 𝐾
𝐾 (𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍0 ) = 𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍0
The reflection coefficient K is
𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍0
𝐾=
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍0
The range of reflection coefficient K is −1 ≤ |𝐾 | ≤ 1

Fig. Standing wave pattern on transmission line

Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR): The VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage on the line having standing waves.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 |𝑉𝑖 | + |𝑉𝑟 | 1 + |𝐾 |
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = 𝑆 = = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 |𝑉𝑖 | − |𝑉𝑟 | 1 − |𝐾 |
1 + |𝐾 |
𝑆=
1 − |𝐾 |
Similarly the current standing wave ratio can be defined as the ratio between maximum current to the
minimum current.
The range of VSWR is 1 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ ∞
𝑉
(𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆𝑍𝑜
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑍
(𝑍𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑜
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
Short circuited line (ZR = 0): If transmission line is terminated with short circuit, then the line is called
short circuited line.
The input impedance of the short circuited line can be obtained by substituting the ZR = 0 in the input
impedance of the transmission line.
ZR + Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + ZR tanh γ𝑙
If ZR=0 then
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
The input impedance of the short circuited lossless transmission line is
given by
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑗Z0 tan 𝛽𝑙
The reflection coefficient of the short circuited transmission line is K=
-1.
The VSWR of the short circuited transmission line is S=∞.
The variation of input impedance of SC line is shown in fig.
Fig . Input impedance of SC

Fig. Short circuit transmission line

Open circuited line (ZR = ∞): If transmission line is terminated with open circuit, then the line is called
open circuited line.
The input impedance of the open circuited line can be obtained
by substituting the ZR =∞ in the input impedance of the
transmission line.
ZR + Z0 tanh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + ZR tanh γ𝑙
If ZR=∞ then
𝑍𝑜𝑐 = Z0 coth 𝛾𝑙
The input impedance of the open circuited line lossless
transmission line is given by
𝑍𝑜𝑐 = −𝑗Z0 cot 𝛽𝑙 Fig. Input impedance of OC
The reflection coefficient of the open circuited line transmission line is K= 1. The VSWR of the open
circuited line transmission line is S=∞. The variation of input impedance of OC line is shown in fig.
 Fig. Open circuit transmission line

Fig. Voltage and current distribution on SC TL Fig. The variation of input impedance of OC line
λ/8- line: If length of the line is λ/8 then it is called λ/8 line or eight-wave line.

Fig. λ/8 line

The input impedance of the lossless transmission line is given by
ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
𝛽𝑙 = =
𝜆 8 4
𝜋
ZR + jZ0 tan 4
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ 𝜋]
Z0 + jZR tan 4
 ZR + jZ0
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR
|𝑍𝑖𝑛 | = |Z0 |
The λ/8 line is used to transform any load impedance ZR to input impedance Zin whose magnitude is equal to
magnitude of Z0.
Quarter-wave line: If length of the line is λ/4 then it is called λ/4 line or quarter-wave line.
The input impedance of the lossless transmission line is given by
ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
𝛽𝑙 = =
𝜆 4 2
𝜋
ZR + jZ0 tan 2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ 𝜋]
Z0 + jZR tan 2
ZR
𝜋 + jZ0
tan 2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0
Z0
𝜋 + jZR
[ tan ]
2

Z0 2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
ZR

The λ/4 line can transform low impedance into high impedance and vice versa, thus it can be considered as
an impedance inverter.

Fig. Quarter-wave line

The quarter wave line may be used as an impedance transformer for matching of load impedance ZR with
input impedance Zin. For impedance matching ZR and Zin , the line characteristic impedance Zo may be
selected as 𝑍𝑜 = √𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝑖𝑛
λ/2- line(half-wave line): If length of the line is λ/2 then it is called λ/2 line or half-wave line.

Fig. Half-wave line.

The input impedance of the lossless transmission line is given by
ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
 2𝜋 𝜆
𝛽𝑙 = =𝜋
𝜆 2
ZR + jZ0 tan 𝜋
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝜋
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ZR
The input impedance Zin of the λ/2 line is equal to load impedance ZR.

Transmission lines of various lengths can be used as circuit elements: Different lengths of transmission
lines can be used as circuit elements as discussed below.

Fig. SC lines at different lengths with equivalent circuits

Fig. OC lines at different lengths with equivalent circuits

The input impedance of the short circuited lossless transmission line is given by
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑗Z0 tan 𝛽𝑙 − − − (1)
The input impedance of the open circuited lossless transmission line is given by
𝑍𝑜𝑐 = −𝑗 Z0 cot 𝛽𝑙 − − − (2)
The Eq.s(1) and (2) shows that input impedance of an open and short circuited lossless line is a pure
reactance. Desired value of the reactance is obtained by varying the electrical length βl of the stubs.
If length of the short circuited line is less than λ/4, It will act as inductance. If length of the short circuited
line is greater than λ/4 and less then λ/2, It will act as capacitance. If length of the short circuited line is equal
to λ/4, It will act as parallel resonance circuit with high impedance. If length of the short circuited line is
equal to λ/2, It will act as series resonance circuit with low impedance.

If length of the open circuited line is less than λ/4, It will act as capacitance. If length of the open circuited
line is greater than λ/4 and less then λ/2, It will act as inductance. If length of the open circuited line is equal
to λ/4, It will act as series resonance circuit with low impedance. If length of the open circuited line is equal
to λ/2, It will act as parallel resonance circuit with high impedance.

The Smith Chart:

The Smith chart is the most commonly used graphical techniques in solving transmission problems in simple
way. It is basically a graphical indication of the impedance and VSWR of a transmission line as one moves
along the line.
The construction of the chart is based on the reflection coefficient
𝑍𝑅 − 𝑍0
𝐾=
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍0
Instead of having separate Smith charts for transmission lines with different characteristic impedances such
as Zo = 60,100, and 120. A normalized chart can be used for any line in which all impedances are normalized
with respect to the characteristic impedance Zo of the particular line under consideration.
𝑍𝑅
𝑍 − 1 𝑧𝑟 − 1
𝐾= 0 =
𝑍𝑅 𝑧𝑟 + 1
+ 1
𝑍0
Where zr is the normalized impedance
1+𝐾
𝑧𝑟 =
1−𝐾
Since zr and K both are complex quantities, we have
1 + 𝐾𝑟 + 𝑗𝐾𝑥
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 =
1 − (𝐾𝑟 + 𝑗𝐾𝑥 )
(1 + 𝐾𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝐾𝑥
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 =
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 ) − 𝑗𝐾𝑥
Rationalizing on the right hand side, we get
(1 + 𝐾𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝐾𝑥 (1 − 𝐾𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝐾𝑥
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = ×
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 ) − 𝑗𝐾𝑥 (1 − 𝐾𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝐾𝑥
1 − 𝐾𝑟2 − 𝐾𝑥2 + 2𝑗𝐾𝑥
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 =
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
1 − 𝐾𝑟2 − 𝐾𝑥2
𝑅= − − − −(1)
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2
2𝐾𝑥
𝑋= − − − (2)
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2
Equations (1) and (2) will yield two set of orthogonal circles when solved separately. Eq.(1) will results in
family of circle called R-circle while Eq.(2) will results in family of circle called X-circle.
(i) The constant R-circle:
𝑅 {1 + 𝐾𝑟2 − 2𝐾𝑟 + 𝐾𝑥2 } = 1 − 𝐾𝑟2 − 𝐾𝑥2
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐾𝑟2 − 2𝑅𝐾𝑟 + 𝑅𝐾𝑥2 = 1 − 𝐾𝑟2 − 𝐾𝑥2
𝐾𝑟2 (𝑅 + 1) + 𝐾𝑥2 (𝑅 + 1) − 2𝑅𝐾𝑟 = 1 − 𝑅
2𝑅 1−𝑅
𝐾𝑟2 + 𝐾𝑥2 − 𝐾𝑟 =
1+𝑅 1+𝑅
𝑅2
Adding (1+𝑅)2 on both sides, we get
2𝑅 𝑅2 1−𝑅 𝑅2
𝐾𝑟2
− 𝐾 + 2
+ 𝐾𝑥 = +
1 + 𝑅 𝑟 (1 + 𝑅 )2 1 + 𝑅 (1 + 𝑅 )2
𝑅 2 1 2
(𝐾𝑟 − ) + 𝐾𝑥2 = ( )
1+𝑅 1+𝑅
This equation represents a family of circles on the reflection co-efficient plane. These circles are called
𝑅 1
constant –R circles with center (1+𝑅 , 0) and radius 1+𝑅 .

Fig. Family of constant R circles

Fig. Family of constant X circles

(i) The constant X-circle:
2𝐾𝑥
𝑋=
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2
2𝐾
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2 = 𝑥
𝑋
2𝐾 𝑥
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2 − =0
𝑋
1 2
Adding (𝑋) on both sides, we get
2𝐾𝑥 1 2 1 2
(1 − 𝐾𝑟 )2 + 𝐾𝑥2 − +( ) =( )
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
2 2
1 1
(𝐾𝑟 − 1)2 + (𝐾𝑥 − ) = ( )
𝑋 𝑋
This equation represents a family of circles on the reflection co-efficient plane. These circles are called
1 1
constant –X circles with center (1, 𝑋 ) and radius 𝑋 .
The complete smith chart can be obtained by the superposition of the family of the constant-R circles and
constant-X circles on K plane as shown in fig.

Fig. Smith chart

Properties of smith chart:
1. The smith chart can be used for impedance as well as for admittance.
2. The smith chart consists of constant –R circles and constant –X circles.
3. The point Psc on the chart represents short circuit or zero impedance and the point P oc on the chart
represents open circuit or infinite impedance.
4. A complete revolution of 360° around the Smith chart represents a distance of λ/2 on the line.
5. Clockwise movement on the chart is regarded as moving toward the generator from the load on the
transmission line. Similarly, counterclockwise movement on the chart corresponds to moving toward the
load from the generator.
6. There are three scales around the periphery of the Smith chart as illustrated in Figure. The outermost scale
is used to determine the distance on the line from the generator end in terms of wavelengths, and the next
scale determines the distance from the load end in terms of wavelengths. The innermost scale is used to
determine angle of reflection coefficient in degrees.
7. Since a λ /2 distance on the line corresponds to a movement of 360° on the chart, λ distance on the line
corresponds to a 720° movement on the chart.
8. Vmax occurs where Zin(max) located on the chart while V min occurs where Zin(min) located
9. The distance between Zsc and Zoc is λ/4.

Fig. Smith chart illustrating scales around the periphery and movements around the chart line.

Applications of smith chart:

1. Plotting impedance
2. Measurement of VSWR
3. Measurement of reflection coefficient K
4. Measurement of input impedance of the transmission line.
5. Impedance to admittance conversion
6. Finding voltage maximum and voltage minimum locations
7. Stub matching
Microstrip transmission line:
A microstrip line consists of a single ground plane and an open strip conductor separated by dielectric
substrate as shown in Figure.

Fig. Microstrip line

The characteristic impedance of microstrip line is given by the following approximate formula

The input impedance of the lossless microstrip line is given by

ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
Impedance matching techniques:
When the transmission line is terminated with a load impedance which is not equal to the characteristic
impedance of the line, mismatch occurs and reflected wave exists on the line. Mismatch reduces efficiency
and increases power loss. To avoid mismatching, it is necessary to add impedance matching device between
the load and the line.
The following are the impedance matching techniques
1. Quarter-wave impedance matching or quarter-wave transformer
2. Stub matching
Quarter wave impedance matching or quarter wave transformer:
When the transmission line is terminated with a load impedance which is not equal to the characteristic
impedance of the line, mismatch occurs and reflected wave exists on the line. Mismatch reduces efficiency
and increases power loss. Quarter wave line is inserted between the line and load to match load impedance to
the line as shown in Fig.

Fig. Quarter wave transformer

1
Z0 is selected such that Zin = Z0
𝑍0𝚤 = √𝑍0 𝑍𝐿
The λ/4 line is also called Quarter wave transformer.
Advantages:
1. Simple to design
Disadvantages:
1. We have to cut the line to insert a quarter wave transformer in between the line and the load.
2. It is frequency sensitive
Stub matching:
A piece of transmission line is called stub. The stub may be open or short circuited. A small section of open
or short circuited stub is used as impedance matching device, which can be connected in parallel to the line at
a certain distance from the load. This matching device is called stub matching.
The stub has the same characteristic impedance as the main line. It is more difficult to use a series stub
although it is theoretically feasible. An open-circuited stub radiates some energy at high frequencies.
Consequently, short-circuited parallel stubs are preferred.
There two types of stub matching methods
1. Single stub matching
2. Double stub matching
1. Single stub matching:
In this method, to achieve impedance matching, a short circuited stub is connected in parallel to the line at a
certain distance from the load as shown in Fig. Since the stub is connected in parallel, it is easy to use
admittance instead of impedance for analysis.
When load admittance YR is connected to the line and if it is not equal to the characteristic admittance Y0,
mismatch occurs and reflected wave exists on the line.
The input admittance at point 1 looking towards load is given by
Y𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌0 ± 𝑗𝐵
This is the admittance at point 1 before stub is connected. The point 1 is selected such that at point 1,
Y0=1/Z0. The short circuited stub is connected at point 1 in parallel with the main line. The length of the stub
is selected such that its input succeptance is ∓𝑗𝐵.
The total input admittance at 1 is
Y𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌0 ± 𝑗𝐵 ∓ 𝑗𝐵 = 𝑌0
Thus the input impedance looking towards load is
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
Therefore the line terminated with Z0 at point 1, hence the line is said be matched.
Length and location stub:
Consider a transmission line terminated with load admittance Y R. Let a short circuited stub of length lt is
connected to the main line at a distance ls from the load as shown in Fig.

Fig. Single stub matching

We know that the input impedance at any point on the line is
ZR + jZ0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Z0 [ ]
Z0 + jZR tan 𝛽𝑙
The corresponding input admittance is given by
1
Y𝑖𝑛 =
𝑍𝑖𝑛
YR + jY0 tan 𝛽𝑙
Y𝑖𝑛 = Y0 [ ]
Y0 + jYR tan 𝛽𝑙
The normalized input admittance is given by
Y𝑖𝑛
𝑦𝑖𝑛 =
Y0
YR
Y0 + j tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = [ ]
Y
1 + j YR tan 𝛽𝑙
0
𝑦𝑅 + j tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = [ ]
1 + j𝑦𝑅 tan 𝛽𝑙

Where the normalized load admittance is

Y𝑅
𝑦𝑅 =
Y0
Separating the real and imaginary terms
𝑦𝑅 + j tan 𝛽𝑙 1 − j𝑦𝑅 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = ( )( )
1 + j𝑦𝑅 tan 𝛽𝑙 1 − j𝑦𝑅 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑅 + 𝑦𝑅 tan2 𝛽𝑙 + j tan 𝛽𝑙 − 𝑗yR2 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑖𝑛 =
1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑅 (1 + tan2 𝛽𝑙 ) (1 − yR2 ) tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = + 𝑗
1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙 1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙
For no reflection, at distance l = ls, the real part of normalized input impedance is equal to unity.
Therefore
𝑦𝑅 (1 + tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 )
=1
1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠
𝑦𝑅 (1 + tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 ) = 1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠
𝑦𝑅 + 𝑦𝑅 tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 = 1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠

(𝑦𝑅 − yR2 ) tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 = 1 − 𝑦𝑅

1 − 𝑦𝑅
tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 =
𝑦𝑅 (1 − 𝑦𝑅 )
1
tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠 =
𝑦𝑅
1 𝑌0
tan 𝛽𝑙𝑠 = =√
√𝑦𝑅 𝑌𝑅

1 𝑌0
𝑙𝑠 = tan−1 √
𝛽 𝑌𝑅
Therefore the location of stub is given by
𝜆 𝑍𝑅
𝑙𝑠 = tan−1 √
2𝜋 𝑍0
At this location the imaginary part of yin is
(1 − yR2 ) tan 𝛽𝑙𝑠
𝑏𝑠 =
1 + yR2 tan2 𝛽𝑙𝑠
But
1
tan 𝛽𝑙𝑠 =
√𝑦𝑅
1
(1 − yR2 )
√𝑦𝑅
𝑏𝑠 =
1
1 + yR2 𝑦
𝑅
(1 − yR2 )
𝑏𝑠 =
√𝑦𝑅 (1 + 𝑦𝑅 )
(1 − 𝑦𝑅 )
𝑏𝑠 =
√𝑦𝑅
Y
(1 − Y𝑅 )
0
𝑏𝑠 =
Y
√ Y𝑅
0
(Y0 − Y𝑅 )
𝑏𝑠 =
√Y𝑅 Y0
The input impedance of the short circuited stub is given by
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑗Z0 tan 𝛽𝑙𝑡
The normalized input admittance is
𝑦𝑠𝑐 = −𝑗 cot 𝛽𝑙𝑡
The normalized succeptance of stub is
𝑏𝑠𝑠 = − cot 𝛽𝑙𝑡
At point 1 the total succeptance is zero
 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠𝑠 = 0
(Y0 − Y𝑅 )
− cot 𝛽𝑙𝑡 = 0
√Y𝑅 Y0
(Y0 − Y𝑅 )
cot 𝛽𝑙𝑡 =
√Y𝑅 Y0
√Y𝑅 Y0
tan 𝛽𝑙𝑡 =
(Y0 − Y𝑅 )
√𝑍𝑅 Z0
tan 𝛽𝑙𝑡 =
(ZR − 𝑍0 )
1 √𝑍𝑅 Z0
𝑙𝑡 = tan−1 ( )
𝛽 (ZR − 𝑍0 )
Therefore the length of the stub is
𝜆 √𝑍𝑅 Z0
𝑙𝑡 = tan−1 ( )
2𝜋 (ZR − 𝑍0 )
Disadvantages of single stub matching:
1. The location and length of the stub are frequency dependent. If frequency of the wave changes, the
location and length of the stub should be changed.
2. In practical cases, the location of stub has to be moved along the line for fine adjustment.

Double stub matching:

To overcome the drawbacks of the single stub matching, two stubs are used at different locations. This is
called double stub matching.
Consider a double stub matching system consisting of two short circuited stubs connected in parallel to the
main line near the load as shown in Fig.

Fig. double stub matching

The characteristic admittance of the stubs should be equal to the characteristic admittance of the line. In
double stub matching the locations of the stubs are arbitrary, but the spacing between two stubs must be
equal to λ/8, λ/4 or 3λ/8.
Therefore, in the design of double stub matching, it is better to keep the locations of stubs fixed. Impedance
matching is done by finding the lengths of the stubs. When the frequency changes, the stub lengths can be
adjusted to achieve impedance matching.
Design of double stub matching:
1. The normalized admittance at the location of stub1 from load is
𝑦𝐴 = 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑗𝑏𝐴
2. Connect a short circuited stub1 having succepatance ±𝑗𝑏1 to the line at point 1
The normalized admittance at point 1 after stub connection is
𝑦𝐴 = 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑗(𝑏𝐴 ± 𝑏1 )
3. For the impedance matching, the normalized admittance at the location of stub2 is
𝑦𝐵 = 1 ± 𝑗𝑏𝐵
4. The spacing between two stubs is selected such the real part of normalized admittance at the location of
stub2 is unity.
5. Connect second short circuited stub having succeptance of ∓𝑗𝑏𝐵 to the line at 2
Now the normalized input admittance at point 2 after stub2 connection
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 1 ± 𝑗𝑏𝐵 ∓ 𝑗𝑏𝐵 = 1
𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
Therefore the line terminated with Z0 at point 2, hence the line is said be matched.

Loading:
The processes of increasing the inductance L of the transmission line artificially is called loading. And such
a line is called loaded line.
There are three types of loading methods
1. Patched loading
2. Continuous loading
3. Lumped loading