COMPUTER NETWORK & DATA COMMUNUCATION

Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to share data
and programs among various computers. With the advancement of data communication facilities,
the communication between computers has increased and thus it has extended the power of
computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate with
computers of any remote site through communication channel. The aim of this lesson is to
introduce you the various aspects of computer network and data communication.

Learning objectives

It is expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to
- Understand basics of the various types network technologies in the area of computers,
Local Area Network (LAN) and different components of computer network
- explain the features and the use of computer network and data communication
- describe the OSI model and its 7 layers
- Give some network security problems and eventual solutions
I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS

I.1- Definition and Network Basics

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network is a set of interconnected objects
(roads, computers, …) with something to share. A computer network is therefore a group of
interconnected computer systems sharing resources and interacting using a shared communications link.
All networks must have the following:

- A resource to share (resource)

- A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
- A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

I.2- BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Specifically, networks are about sharing three things: information, resources, and applications.

• Sharing information: networks allow users to communicate with each other in various ways:
email, chat, forums, etc.
• Sharing resources: Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be set up so
that network users can share them. Sharing hard drives involves also sharing of files and folders.
A network can be used to share an Internet connection.
• Sharing applications: several users can work together on a single business application.
Apart from sharing, other benefits of a computer network are:

• Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the
network.
• Reducing of cost: Instead of buying a printer for each computer of a big network, a single printer
can be shared, and then cost is considerably reduced

I.3- DOWNSIDES (SHORTCOMMINGS) OF NETWORKING

Although networks are one of the best things that ever happened to computers, not everything about
networks is rosy. The following sections describe some disadvantages of using a network:

 Viruses: If a virus is introduced to the network, either intentionally or unintentionally, it will

rapidly spread around all of the workstations and could start to cause havoc to peoples' files or
to the efficient working of the network.
 Network failure: If the file server fails then no-one on the network can access any files or
folders. This means that nobody can do any work. For an organization, this would be extremely
costly and disruptive.

 Slow service: As more users log onto the network and request files, send things to be printed
and open more software applications, the network can start to slow down.
  Cost: Building a network isn't cheap.

I.4- Networking hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment needed
to perform data-processing and communications within the network. Some examples of networking
hardware are: File Servers, Workstations, Network Interface Cards, Hubs, Switches, Repeaters,
Bridges, and Routers:

 Workstations: Each user computers connected to a network is called workstations. A typical

workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking software,
and the appropriate cables.
 Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is an internal device that provides the physical connection
between the network and the computer workstation.
 Hub: In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or connections
to be connected to a computer. It is the most basic networking device that connects multiple
computers or other network devices together.
 Switch: It is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through the network, but often
not capable of much more. Switches (or concentrators) work the same way as hubs, but they can
identify the intended destination of the information that they receive, so they send that
information to only the computers that are supposed to receive it.
 Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost
the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it
receives and rebroadcasts it.
 Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more
efficient networks. The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both
sides of the network. Bridges must be used between networks with the same protocol.
 Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating
an overlay internetwork. A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices such as
a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions.
 Gateway: A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. When a
computer server serves as a Gateway node, the gateway node also operates as a firewall and a
proxy server.
 Firewall: A software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to a computer
or local network by blocking or restricting ports. Firewalls are a great step for helping prevent
un-authorized access to a company or home network.
 Modem: The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive
information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your computer into an
analog signal used on phone lines (modulation) and then converting it back once received on the
other end (demodulation).
 Proxy: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of the gateway server or
another computer that separates a local network from outside networks. A proxy server will
 cache all pages accessed through the network allowing users who may wish to visit that same
page to load it faster and reduce the networks bandwidth.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks can be classified in different ways: according to the geographical area covered, the
strategy used or type of connection

II.1 ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF CONNECTION

According to the type of connection, there exist two types of connections. Wired connection and wireless
connection

II.1.1 Wired connection

A wired network is when you physically connect your computer or other compatible device to your Super
Hub with an Ethernet cable. The best thing about a wired connection is the reliability and speed it gives
you (wired is faster than wireless). This makes it ideal for things that use a lot of bandwidth, like playing
online games on your Xbox.

II.1.2 Wireless connection

A wireless network, as its name would suggest, is a network of computers and computer peripherals that
are connected to each other without wires.

Advantages
• It is easier to add or move workstations.
• It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable.
• Installation is fast and easy, and it can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings.
• Access to the network can be from anywhere within range of an access point.
Disadvantages
• As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each
computer will decrease accordingly.
• As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points.
• Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
• Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point.

II.2 ACCORDING TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED

According to the geographical area covered, there exist three main types of network: LAN, MAN and
WAN
 II.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area such as an office, home building
or closed buildings. A LAN is useful to share resources like files, printers, games and other application.
The infrastructure in a LAN is private. The distance between computers in a LAN cannot be more than
15 Km. Ex: A school network

II.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network of computers spread over a city or closed cities. It may be a single network such as
a cable television network, or it may be many LANS connected together. A MAN may be operated by
one organization (with several offices in one city) or be shared and used by several organizations in the
same city. It can be either a private network or a public network. Ex: A network of all the agencies of
CAMCCUL in Bamenda

II.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a system of interconnecting many computers over a large geographical area such as states,
countries or even the whole world. These kind of networks use telephone lines, satellite link and other
long-range communication technologies to connect. Such networks are design to serve an area of hundreds
kilometers such as national telephone network. For instance, a company like Express Union with agencies
at Fundong, Bamenda, Douala, Bafoussam, Yaounde use a WAN to connect all its agencies. Although a
WAN may be owned or rented by private business, it is usually a public network, designed to connect
LANs or MANs together. The most known and the largest WAN is Internet.

II.3 ACCORDING TO THE STRATEGY USED

According to the strategy used there exist two main types of network: Client/Server network and Peer to
Peer (P2P) network:

II.3.1 Client/server networks

Computers that perform a service on behalf of other network devices are called servers. There are several
types of servers. For example, a computer that provides other network nodes with access to network
storage devices is called a file server. Print servers provide other network nodes with access to network
printers. Computers that use the services of a server are called clients. Networks in which servers control
access to network storage and other network resources are called client/server networks. In a
Client/server network, the role of the server is to provide services demanded by client computers

II.3.2 Peer-to-peer networks

Computers that perform similar functions on a network are called peers. Networks in which no single,
centralized computer controls network functions are called peer-to-peer networks. The idea of peer-to-
peer networking is that each computer on the network can be both a server and a client. Since any computer
on the network can share a resource for other to use. Users can configure their computers so that they can
share directories or printers with other users on the network. All computers are considered to have equal,
or peer, status.

III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of
a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the
physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology
refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. Topology can be
considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network, for it not correspond to the actual physical design
of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle
but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology.

III.1 Physical Topology

It is the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are connected.
Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, tree
topology and hybrid topology.

III.1.1- Bus Topology

Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers as
well as servers) are connected to the single cable, by the help of interface connectors. This central cable
is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus. Every workstation communicates with the other
device through this Bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations
connected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC
address or IP address matches, accepts it. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent
bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus)
encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
4) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.

III.2- Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a
way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two
other components on either side, and it communicates with these two
adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in one direction.
Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN. Token
contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the
source computer.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it receives
an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This makes
it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.

III.3- Star Topology

In Star topology, all the components of network are
connected to a central device which may be a hub, a router
or a switch. All the data on the star topology passes through
the central device before reaching the intended destination.

Advantages of Star Topology

1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better

performance, signals don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations.
 2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology nodes can be added or removed easily
without affecting rest of the network.
3) ailure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s easy to detect the
failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1) If the central device fails whole network goes down.

2) The use of an extra central device increases the overall cost of the network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in
such topology is depended on capacity of central device.

III.4- Tree Topology

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. In
Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus.
This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks
as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.
Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

2. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily managed and
maintained.
3. Error detection and correction is easy.
4. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

III.5- Mesh topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are interconnected
with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. In fact
a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This

topology can withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is tough.

III.6 Hybrid topology

Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or more
different topologies to form a resultant topology which has
good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent
basic topologies rather than having characteristics
of one specific topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology.
Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing existing
architecture.
Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures
and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of
cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.
 III.2 Logical topology
The logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. Logical
topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the network. Different
network access existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing.

IV. COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK

IV.1 What is data communication?
A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates
intersystem exchange of information between different devices.

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or wireless
transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of data
during the transfer process.

IV.2 Characteristics of data communication

For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should be
considered:

 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the intended destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

IV.2- Data Communication Components

There are five basic components in a data communication system

 Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.

 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
 Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from
the sender to the receiver.
 Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. Both the
sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.

IV.3- Data Transmission Mode

Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three
types of transmission modes—simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

1) Simplex: The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no capability to
support response in the other direction.
 2) Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit
information, but not at the same time.
3) Full-duplex: allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with traffic flowing
in both directions.

IV.4- Data Communication Measurement

The measurement of the quantity of data that can be passed over a communication link in a given time is
done in terms of bandwidth. On digital circuits, bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps). In the
digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories.

 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less. There can
be a number of 64 Kbps channels (N × 64 Kbps), but total capacity is not more than 1.544 Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth lies between 1.544 Mbps (also called T1 line) and 45
Mbps (T3 line).
 Broadband: The bandwidth capacity is equal to 45 Mbps. Broadcast television, cable television,
microwave and satellite are examples of broadband technologies.
 IV.5 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
The major role of the physical medium is to move the data from one communicating device to another.
Depending on the form of signal used, data
transmission can be analog data transmission or digital
data transmission.

 Analog Signals: Values on analog devices are

(normally) infinitely variable. A speedometer
that shows a car's speed by means of a dial is an
analog device.
 Digital Signals: Digital signals and objects
deal in the realm of the discrete or finite,
meaning there is a limited set of values they
can be.

IV.6 Serial and Parallel Communication

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.

In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous.
 With asynchronous transmission signal timing is not required; signals are sent in an agreed
pattern of bits and if both ends are agreed on the pattern then communication can take place.
 With synchronous transmission is data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data
signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the
transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in blocks
(called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.

V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium (plural transmission media) refers to the physical media through which
communication signals (data and information) can be transmitted from one point to another media. There
are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications:

- Guided Media (or Bounded Media, or Wired Media)

- Unguided Media (or unbounded Media, or Wireless Media)

 V.1- Guided Media
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These are also
called Bounded media. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good security
and low cost. However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication. Three common
types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These are: coaxial cable, twisted pair cable
and Fiber optic cables

Fig 4: bounded media

V.2- Unbounded Transmission Media

Unguided media facilitate data transmission through the Earth's atmosphere (air, water or vacuum) at a
much faster rate and provide wide area coverage. The data signals are not guided or bound to a fixed
channel to follow. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission include radio frequency (RF)
propagation, microwave transmission, satellite transmission, infrared wave transmission, Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi.

Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Error Rate Transfer rate

Twisted-pair (LAN) 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
Coaxial cable (LAN) 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9) 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
Microwave (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 6 Mbps – 54 Mbps
Satellite (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Fiber (WAN) 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Table 2: Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics
VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
A communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. If one
computer is sending information to another and they both follow the same protocol, the message gets
through; regardless of what types of machines they are and on what operating systems they are running.

VI.1 Network protocol

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The
key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern
to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.
 Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.

Some important protocols are:

Protocol Full meaning Its job
FTP File Transfer Protocol Allows file transfer between two computers
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol used in the web service
Protocol
TCP Transmission Control A reliable connection oriented protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
IP Internet Protocol identifier of each computer or communication devices on the
network and internet.
ARP Address resolution enables the packaging of IP data into ethernet package
protocol
ICMP Internet control provides management and error reporting to help manage the
message protocol process of sending data between computers.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
Protocol
POP post office protocol Transfert of e-mail, used to synchronize messages
Telnet Telephone Network A method of opening a user session on a remote host.
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol Data transfer using modem

UDP User Datagram An unreliable connection less protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
DHCP Dynamic host is a method of assigning and controlling the IP addresses of
configuration protocol computers on a given network
 VI.2 The OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication
between two end users in a network. In 1983, the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) published a document called 'The Basic Reference Model for Open
Systems
Interconnection', which visualizes network protocols as a seven separate but related layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

• Upper Layers: The upper layers of the OSI model consist of the application, presentation and
session layers. Primarily, these layers deal with application issues and are implemented only in
the software.
• Lower Layers: The lower layers of the OSI model comprise the transport, network, data link,
and physical layers. These layers handle the data transport issues. The physical layer and data
link layer are implemented in both hardware and software. The network and transport are
generally implemented only in software.

VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES

Each computer in a LAN can effectively send and receive any information addressed to it. This
information is in the form of data 'packets'. The standards followed to regularize the transmission of
packets, are called LAN standards. There are many LAN standards as Ethernet, Token Ring , FDDI etc.
Usually LAN standards differ due to their media access technology and the physical transmission
medium.
IX. NETWORK SECURITY
Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to prevent
and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and network-
accessible resources. IX.1 Network Security Problems

Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy, authentication,
nonrepudiation and integrity control.

1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of the hands
of unauthorized users.
2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing sensitive
information or entering into a business deal.
3. Nonrepudiation: This deals with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Kartik indeed placed
an order for a book, which Kartik claims he never placed?
4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent, and
not something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

IX.2 Types of attacks over a network

We classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive attacks and active attacks.

a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,
transmissions. The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive
attacks are very difficult to detect since they do not involve the alteration of the data. Two types of
passive attacks are:
 release of message contents where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is being
transmitted. This can be prevented by encryption
 traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of
messages being exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the communication that
is taking place.
b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a
false stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would require
physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to
detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.