M.Ed.

, - II Semester

Handouts

MTE-C202: LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING PROCESS

Course Objectives: On completion of this course the students will be able to:
 Understand how children learn framework
 Critically analyse the process of learning from the point of view of Cognitive
Psychology and the implications of constructivist learning
 Visualise multiple dimensions and stages of learner’s development and their
implications on learning
 Understand the learner in terms of various characteristics
 Learn the factors affecting learner’s environment and assessment
 Conceptualise a framework for understanding and evaluating teaching-learning
situation as well as the method of analysing and reflecting upon learning
episodes

Unit I—How Children Learn- Framework

Unit II - Understanding the Learners and their Development
Unit III – Understanding the Process of Learning
Unit IV- Learning Environment and Assessment

Note: Reading material is a collection, compiled from different sources.

Compiled by
T ARUN CHRISTOPHER
Unit I—How Children Learn- Framework
 What should be taught and how the knowledge should be organised?
(Knowledge centeredness).
 Who learn and how? (Learner- centeredness).
 What kind of classroom, school and community environment enhances
learning? (Environment centeredness).
 What kind of evidence for learning the teachers, parents and policy makers can
use to decide whether effective learning is really occurring? (Assessment
centeredness).

Unit II - Understanding the Learners and their Development

 Holistic approach in treatment of learner’s development and learning.
 How socio-cultural and economic contexts cause differences in learner,
differential learning needs.
 Learning difficulties at primary stage at elementary level and diagnostic tests.
 Problems of the adolescents and self-identity: educational support required for
adolescents development.
 Language development-language before and into the school, meta linguistic
awareness; acquisition of more than one language, home language vs. school
language, strategies supporting student’s speaking, listening reading and
writing, development critical analysis of the views of Piaget, Vygotsky, and
Chomsky.
 Influences of culture on learners development.
Unit III – Understanding the Process of Learning
 Cognition in Learning: Cognitive process-perception, attention, memory,
development of concepts, logical reasoning, critical thinking development of
concepts, strategies for teaching concepts; problem solving.
 Learning as construction of knowledge; learning as cognitive and socio-
culturally
meditative process: meta cognition, socio-cultural mediation, experimental learning,
cognitive negotiability, understanding constructivist nature of knowing, doing and
practicing in classroom/field, in community setting; critical appraisal of views of
Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky with reference to multiple school contexts of India.
 Forms of learner’s engagement in the process of knowledge construction:
observing,
demonstration, exploring, discovering, analysing, contextualisation, collaboration,
multiple interpretations, critical reflection based on observation, selected reading and
discussion.
 Motivation in Learning: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; approaches to
motivation:
humanistic approach; cognitive approach (attribution theory-Weiner).
 Multiple ways of organising learning in different subject areas individualised,
selflearning, group learning, cooperative learning etc.
Unit IV- Learning Environment and Assessment
 The physical environment.
 The instructional time.
 Respecting the rights of the children.
 Space for the parents and the community: identification of barriers, strategies
for strengthening partnership between school and parents and community.
 Inclusive environment in the classroom for all learners.
 Discipline and participatory management.
 Learning paths and learning styles.
 Assessment-continuous and comprehensive evaluation, assessment during
teaching, designing good test items, open book examination, self-assessment.

Essential Readings
Bruner, J.S. (1990) Acts of meaning. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, R.F. (1978). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Dandapani, S. (2001) Advanced educational psychology, (2nd edition), New Delhi,
Anmol publications pvt Ltd.
Gardner, H. (1983) frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York:
Basic Books.
NCERT (2005) Natioal curriculum framework, New Delhi.
Piaget, J. (1999) Judgment and reasoning in the child. London: Routledge.
Vygostsky. L. (1986) Thought and language (A. Kazulin, Trans). Cambridge, M.A.:
MIT Press.
Unit I—How Children Learn- Framework
 What should be taught and how the knowledge should be organised?
(Knowledge centeredness).
 Who learn and how? (Learner- centeredness).
 What kind of classroom, school and community environment enhances
learning? (Environment centeredness).
 What kind of evidence for learning the teachers, parents and policy makers can
use to decide whether effective learning is really occurring? (Assessment
centeredness)

Learning environment
Creating a classroom community and culture remain another necessary aspect when
fostering a safe learning environment. Students need to understand what they have in
common with their fellow learners in the classroom. It is the teacher's job to create this
community so all students will get along and celebrate one another's differences.
Strong classroom communities can form in a variety of ways. Throughout daily
activities the students should be part of a collaborative learning effort, sharing their
strengths and encouraging each other. The teacher also may introduce a number of
jobs or responsibilities students need to complete in order to maintain the physical
classroom. This shows students that they need to count on one another, and it keeps
students accountable for their own learning environment as well. Classroom jokes,
traditions and pets are other ways to build a strong community. When students enjoy
each other's company, they are more likely to be accepting and feel safe in the
environment.

Another important responsibility of the teacher is to develop a learning environment

where students feel motivated to learn within the boundaries and expectations of a
safe classroom. By modeling and encouraging a safe environment and purposeful
rules, students feel motivated to do the right thing and help one another. It is important
for teachers to put an emphasis on intrinsic motivation in the classroom to keep
students interested and invested in their own learning goals. In addition, extrinsic
motivators help students understand the expectations of the classroom and aid in their
intrinsic motivation. These kinds of motivators include praise, positive reinforcement
and rewards for exceptional behavior.

This being said, the teacher's management plan and expectations play a large role in
the classroom community. Students cannot learn effectively in an environment where
the facilitator has lost control. The teacher should make his or her expectations and
consequences for classroom behavior very clear so students understand rules,
boundaries and how to learn in a safe manner. When the teacher's management plan is
fair, consistent and organized, the students understand what to expect and can make
wise choices and take responsibility for their actions.

The Design of Learning Environments

In this chapter we discuss implications of new knowledge about learning for the
design of learning environments, especially schools. Learning theory does not provide
a simple recipe for designing effective learning environments; similarly, physics
constrains but does not dictate how to build a bridge (e.g., Simon, 1969).
Nevertheless, new developments in the science of learning raise important questions
about the design of learning environments—questions that suggest the value of
rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how it is assessed. The focus in this
chapter is on general characteristics of learning environments that need to be
examined in light of new developments in the science of learning; it provides specific
examples of instructions, examples that make the arguments in the present chapter
more concrete.

Learning goals for schools have undergone major changes during the past century.
Everyone expects much more from today’s schools than was expected 100 years ago.
A fundamental tenet of modern learning theory is that different kinds of learning goals
require different approaches to instruction; new goals for education require changes in
opportunities to learn. After discussing changes in goals, we explore the design of
learning environments from four perspectives that appear to be particularly important
given current data about human learning, namely, the degree to which learning
environments are learner centered, knowledge centered, assessment centered, and
community centered.

Changes In Educational Goals

Educational goals for the twenty-first century are very different from the goals of
earlier times. This shift is important to keep in mind when considering claims that
schools are “getting worse.” In

many cases, schools seem to be functioning as well as ever, but the challenges and
expectations have changed quite dramatically (e.g., Bruer, 1993; Resnick, 1987).

Consider the goals of schooling in the early 1800s. Instruction in writing focused on
the mechanics of making notation as dictated by the teacher, transforming oral
messages into written ones. It was not until the mid to late 1800s that writing began to
be taught on a mass level in most European countries, and school children began to be
asked to compose their own written texts. Even then, writing instruction was largely
aimed at giving children the capacity to closely imitate very simple text forms. It was
not until the 1930s that the idea emerged of primary school students expressing

Learning environments vary from classroom to classroom and context to context.

There are four types of learning environments, each with unique elements. Learning
environments can be student- or learner-centered; knowledge-centered; assessment-
centered; and community-centered.

What should be taught and how the knowledge should be organised? (Knowledge
centeredness)
 Philosophy
It is liberal education for all that focuses on academic and typically includes no
electives/choice. All students should receive the same body of information. Instructor
who wants to create a knowledge-centered learning environment throughout a course
will need to answer three main questions about the course’s content:

 What will be taught?

 How will it be taught?
 How will it be organized?

However, within these questions are a number of additional questions that an

instructor should ask in order to accurately evaluate the knowledge-centeredness of
the environment that needs to be created:

 Is the subject matter aligned with relevant standards?

 Is it organized around big ideas that matter to students?
 Is it focused on information and activities that help learners develop an
understanding of a subject or discipline?
 Does it promote learning about available resources and how to use them?
 Does it produce knowledge and skills that are coherently organized and connected?

A knowledge-centered learning environment introduces knowledge (facts, ideas,

concepts, and principles) in a timely manner—when the need to do so naturally arises,
or when learners see a need. In this type of environment, learners should expect new
information to make sense and should be prepared to ask questions when it does not.
This emphasis on sense-making is crucial to helping students to develop meta-
cognitive skills, those that help students learn more about their own learning. We’ll
further discuss the importance of meta-cognitive skills in the section on assessment-
centered learning environments. Listen to the audio clip below to expand your
understanding of knowledge-centered learning environments 

Role of Student
It is an academic process where students are expected to acquire knowledge of their
world as a foundation for adult life. – Ellis, 2004.
In knowledge centered approach students are viewed as novice learners who do not
have the maturity necessary in order to be responsible for their own education. What
students are responsible for is learning the content and completing assignments.
Students are also required to demonstrate the product and process of the knowledge
they acquire. Typically, these assessments are presented to the student in a multiple-
choice and open-ended, essays and or oral examinations
Students need to display the following qualities:
 self-discipline
 individual effort
 participation with course content.
  passive listener
 theory memorization
 examination driven
 knowledge/awareness generation
Teachers utilization of a knowledge centered curriculum
 Be an expert in specific discipline
 Systematically design the scope and sequence of learning
 Be lifelong learners
 Provide liberal education in a rigorous academic learning environment.
 utilize textbooks, internet, and other learning resources effectively.
 utilize knowledge derived from scholarly disciplines while making
accommodations for various capabilities.
Mortimer Adles’s three approaches of teaching
1. didactic instruction – to enhance acquisition of factually knowledge
2. Coaching – for development of intellectual skills.
3. Seminars – to increase understanding of ideas and values.
Teaching strategies
objective – to impart knowledge from teacher to student by way of
 Lecture and instruction
 Encouraging students to practice concepts through educational ‘coaching’.
 Preparation for assessment, or teaching for testing.
One seeks to equip the child with deeper, more gripping, and subtler ways of knowing
the world and himself -Jerome Bruner.
Limitations
 conventional instructional approach
 teacher centered
 students are dependent learners, passive learners,
 how we have been taught.
Learner Centered Learning
In a learner-centered learning environment, the instructor should design ways to
uncover the knowledge, skills, interests, attitudes, and beliefs of every learner.
Learner-centered instructors know that students are not blank slates—that a
conceptual understanding, or misunderstanding, of a subject is based on what they
bring with them, including the students’ social and cultural traditions and experiences.
Moreover, because people’s thoughts and beliefs are often tacitly held, it is important
to create many opportunities to draw those beliefs to the surface and make them
visible to the learner, the instructor, and the classroom community, as appropriate. The
more visible a student’s thinking becomes, the more opportunity an instructor has to
understand the student’s misconceptions and correct them. In this way, the instructor
can build upon what the student already knows and is able to do.
Traditional methods of teaching practices have worked with prior educational
systems. New student populations call for a shift from this system. Students should
be taught how to learn by emphasising on student development by adopting approach
of student-centered-learning (SCL).
Students at the centre of learning as Learning process where much of the experience
resides on the student and the knowledge and context are inextricably connected with
students experience and application through emphasis on effective learning skills.
It is an approach to teaching in which students are directing themselves in the learning
process and are motivated primarily by their own interests to learn. It is opposed to
the traditional teaching-centered approach.
Assumptions: Students inherently want to learn and will succeed if placed in a proper
environment where self-direction and actualization is promoted. It also focuses on
caring relationships between everyone so that learning can happen.
Role of student
Students become the center of the educational experience, where the professors
becomes a facilitator by identifying the tasks and activities that students need to do in
order to learn the material. Teachers should guide students through application and
summaries as well as provide feedback and clarification, while inviting students to
assimilate into the subject matter and instruction.
 peer teaching & learning
 guided learning
 student friendly
Approaches To SCL
Principles
 Learner has full responsibility of learning
 create relevance and meaning of subject matter to learner
 involvement and participation are necessary.
 relationship with peers and teacher are important
 teachers are facilitators and resource managers.
Active learning Mode
 use of collaborative process in small groups
 personality shaping and modification
 life skills development
 allow students to be creative and empower them with choices and flexibility
 use relevant and applicable problems terms, elements.
 motivate students by formulating personal learning objectives and goals.
 mode of teaching should be interactive
 respected student-teacher relationships
Functions
  Interaction
 responsibility
 motivation
 confidence
 feedback
Implementation of application
 careful planning & preparation prior to practice
 anxiety from both students and teachers, in implementing new approaches
 shift in thinking will take time and experience.
 students playing important role and teacher becoming facilitator with their
interaction / rapport becomes crucial.
 care should be shown to avoid disillusion and rejection.
Advantages
 increases students academic performance and increases in student’s proficiency
 dialogue and feedback allow students to be engaged and understand subject
 growth of interest and student enjoyment
 student more likely to rate better levels of satisfaction and recommend course
to their peers.
ENVIRONMENT CENTERED APPROACH
Philosophy
The foundation of a environment-centered learning environment is the fostering of
explicit values or norms that promote lifelong learning. An example would be students
feeling confident to ask questions and not being afraid to say, “I don’t know.” This is
in contrast to a course in which the norm is “Don’t get caught not knowing
something” (National Research Council, 2000, p. 25).
Environment-centered learning environments also contribute to the aligning of
students’ and instructors’ course expectations. On the first day of a course, it is likely
that there are as many sets of expectations and assumptions about the course as there
are people in the classroom. When instructors take the time to make course goals and
expectations explicit, they are taking the first step in gaining their students’
cooperation. When instructors also take the time to elicit their students’ expectations
and assumptions, they are starting down the road to a truly collaborative learning
environment.

When students understand that their instructor is paying attention to their needs, both
individual and collective, they are much more likely to become active participants in
the construction of a classroom community that helps all of its members to achieve
their learning goals. 

Classroom community in which students and their instructor support all class
members’ learning highlights a major goal of environment-centered learning
environments: to help every student to “develop competence and confidence”
(Bransford, Bropy, & Williams, 2000).Bransford, Vye, and Bateman (2002) note
several likely positive outcomes for students in classrooms with strong communities.
These students:
 Are willing to allow theirs peers to see that they do not know everything
 Improve their abilities to solve complex problems
 Focus their learning goals on mastering the content rather than on learning the
material for the sake of a good grade

The authors summarize by stating that, “Classroom communities that provide

stimulating, supportive, and safe environments in which students are not dissuaded
from challenging themselves due to fear of failure and ridicule are the classrooms in
which students become lifelong learners” (Bransford, Vye, & Bateman, 2002). One
way the IRIS Center has attempted to embrace the idea of environment-centered
learning environments is by creating a community of practice. We have provided our
research and implementation sites with conceptual tools, in the form of online
modules and materials, and ongoing support in the hope of facilitating a community of
practice among faculty and students. It is our hope that the sharing of experiences
about their applications will nurture an ever-expanding community of practice and
that it will have a positive effect on student learning outcomes.

Role of students
 active participants in community initiatives
 develop values of freedom, responsibility, accountability, conservation.
 being open to new ideas, by recognising and respecting traditional values,
practices and beliefs.
 accepting others and strengthening universal brotherhood.
 develop curriculum jointly with all stake holders.
 Development of independent, research oriented and community proactive
personality.
Role of Teachers
 To act as friend, philosopher and guide.
 Visualise and create suitable learning environment.
 Develop and maintain suitable resources for different learning objectives based
on the strength of the class.
 incorporate curriculum related to the community
 propose elective courses based on community specific needs.
 Involve various stake holders of the community in curriculum transactions.
 Directly contribute to the development of community.
 projecting local and traditional values and goals to the global community.
Teaching strategies
objective – to impart knowledge from teacher to student by way of
  projects, case studies, internships, field studies, anecdotal record, educational
rallies, survey etc.
 preparing and presenting research articles, participating in seminars,
conferences, journal writing, creative expression, etc.,
 students participation in community based activities, exhibitions, subject-wise
fairs, club activities, etc.
 quiz, competitions, debate, discussions, etc.,
 curricular and co-curricular activities.
Advantages
 Localised curriculum, based on community needs
 Community centered and hence de-centralization of system of teaching.
 Regional resources are judiciously used.
For the due education competences being successfully built up in the students, the
educational establishment must create a facilitating education including different
micro-environments and motivations to encourage the students for their individual
progress in the class and off-class activity by setting favourable conditions for their
individual self-expression via academic education.
ASSESSMENT-CENTERED APPROACH

Philosophy
Valuable information for faculty and students may be obtained from assessment
measures. Obviously, these can be created in various formats and collected in a
number of ways. Important features of an assessment-centered learning environment
include:
 High standards
 Frequent opportunities for feedback, reflection, and revision, in order to enhance
the quality of learning.
Having high standards means that the instructor expects everyone in the class to
succeed, not because expectations are lowered for some but rather because the
instructor creates opportunities for each student to meet these standards.

Formative Assessment
One important way an instructor might create these opportunities is through formative
assessment. An environment of formative assessment overlaps a learner-centered
environment on the issue of making students’ thinking visible, a prerequisite to
helping them meet high standards.

An environment of formative assessment is one designed to provide continual

feedback about preconceptions and performances to both learners and instructors. This
feedback, which may be from any number of sources including texts, media, instructor
comments, and class discussions, allows learners to reflect on and revise not only their
proposed solutions to a problem but also the way they approached the problem. The
feedback from formative assessments can also help instructors by suggesting ways
they might improve their instruction and by identifying where and how specific
learners need further help.

A critical function of formative assessment is to help learners develop metacognitive

skills. This includes developing students’ abilities to take some measure, over time, of
what they have learned and what they are struggling with. It also involves learning to
recognize and differentiate between the strategies that are working well for their own
problem-solving and those that are not as effective. In other words, helping learners to
develop their metacognitive abilities means helping them to develop the “habits of
mind” that will allow them to consistently assess and improve their own learning
processes and progress, as opposed to always relying on others to assess them
(Bransford, J. D., Vye, N. J., & Bateman, H., 2002)

Summative Assessment
Whereas formative assessment measures learning progress in order to encourage
reflection and revision, summative assessment should be designed to measure the
results of learning. Thus, formative assessment might be viewed as part of the journey
of learning, whereas summative assessment might be viewed as a periodic gathering
of data points that provides quality control and serves the important function of
legitimizing credentials (National Resource Council, 2001).

Role of students
In assessment centered approach, students need to display the following qualities:
 individual effort
 Honest and sincere
 theory memorization
 Examination/test driven in terms of skill and knowledge, continuous as well as
comprehensive.
 feedback and evaluation
 assessment for knowing self and improving self
Principles
 In-built in teaching and learning transactions.
 Learner is fully involved in assessment process.
 Multiple forms of assessment are inbuilt.
 Knowledge, skill, and personality are to be assessed using suitable tools and
techniques.
 Involvement and participation are necessary.
 relationship with peers and teacher are important
 Teachers are facilitators and resource managers.
Functions
It can be used during the following situations:
  course selection
 grade enhancement or change in level
 personality makeup for a particular task
 level of knowledge, skill testing – proficiency.
 continuous, cyclic and functional in nature.
Implementation of applications
In the form of continuous comprehensive evaluation, for all round development
 pre-test, post test, continuous assessment
 oral & written test
 test, examinations & observation.
 wide variety of tools, techniques and methodologies.
Teaching strategies
objective – to impart knowledge from teacher to student by way of
 In-formal and nor-formal assessment
 Curricular & co-curricular activities assessment
 open and closed book method
 Preparation for development of specific skill, knowledge, value.
 Specific teaching method for specific assessment hence variety in teaching and
assessment strategy.
 Incorporates teacher centered, student-centered and evaluation centered
teaching methods.
 online methods, programmed learning, self-learning, immediate feedback etc.,
 ethical principles of assessment.
Advantages
 Increases students academic performance and increases student’s proficiency
 Dialogue and feedback allow students to be engaged actively in assessment and
to realise self.
 Choose better alternative methods suitable to individual needs.
 Individualised method of assessment.
What kind of evidence for learning the teachers, can use to decide whether
effective learning is really occurring?
Principles
 reflect on their own practice
 Systematically examine students progress towards identifying learning goals
over time
 Monitor instruction and assessment for continuous improvement.
 Help to understand students

characteristics,
 formative (classwork/homework/ assignments/ projects/ class tests etc.) and
summative data (Term end examination) helps to verify the level of attainment
and to know whether it is sufficient?
 informal and non-formal assessment (to assess their preparedness, novelty,
creativity, capacity etc.)
 Interest & past-time - co-curricular and extra-curricular activities (to identify
their interest, preference, skills, past-time activities etc.)
 General begaviour/skills - interaction, participation, task completion
 Psychological aspects - Whether every individual in the class is
psychologically stable and sound? (motivation, achievement need, persistence,
attention, perception, boldness, etc.)
 Comprehensive record - case history, academic history, of all students along
with their growth charts.
 Help student to know his position in the class and amount of knowledge
gained.
 It helps teachers to work out alternative strategies to enhance performance of
students (both high and low achievers).
 Ethical values – It is important to adopt unbiased attitude, principles and
procedures while assessing and evaluating to get true picture

All these aspects will be analysed continuously for every hour in the context of
entire class and different subjects handled by teacher and on the whole help the
teacher to decide whether effective learning is really occurring or not. It also
empowers the teacher to work on new techniques, adopt new principles and
perform better.

What kind of evidence for learning the parents can use to decide whether
effective learning is really occurring?
Principles
 academic performances
 Realizes the child is eligible and capable for the new course /level.
 assured that the child gets appropriate job / or can get desired job.
 objective (current performance) and core desire (what to achieve/ target)are
internalised and in-phase.
Characteristics
 academic scores (class test, assessment grades, marks in term exams,
competitive exams, etc.)
 Performance in non-academics aspects (
 personality development (interest, focus on task/learning, systematic and smart
work, self-interest in studies, time management, independent, etc., )
 Values imbibed – honesty, dedication, sincere, integrity etc.
 variety of school activities (participation is quiz, debates, various competitions
organised in school like, singing, dancing, drawing, reciting, poetry, etc.
 opportunities(music class, swimming class, etc), infrastructure (playground,
labs, resource rooms etc. ) and resources (teaching aids,
 Feeling assured -children having a clear vision and direction for the future and
constantly seeking and pursuing it. (e.g. parent says, my daughter wants to be
an engineer and she is doing well in mathematics).
 ethical values – accept child’s ability and work accordingly and not force them
(in terms of selecting course/job etc.)

What kind of evidence for learning the policy makers can use to decide whether
effective learning is really occurring?
Principle
 Education for all and quality education.
 All round development of individual and hence society
 systematic assessment for progress and future growth.
 Education leads to civilised social behaviour/ society.

Characteristics
 percentage of students opting for a particular course
 pass percentage or movement from one level to another
 for growth / future requirements (infrastructure, resources etc.)
 innovation in teaching & learning & evaluation (now we talk more about online
education, education channels etc.).
 productivity of course/delivery/reach ability/economic viability / quality
 job creation / job preparation / individual development / new courses based on
trends
 How to reach the unreached
 What kind of skills obtained as well as required.
 What kind of background the children come from and what transformations
that takes place etc.
 To check input Vs output ratios.(investment...govt. pays salary for teachers.)
 to what extent, people after completing education are prepared/capable for job
industry.
 develop systems of assessment (recruitment exams, competitive exams
including interview, test, discussion etc.)
 Ethical value - time and again suitable procedures to be adopted to interpret
information. Appropriate instruments, true data, proper sampling of population,
 techniques and statistical procedures to gain inferences, articulation and un-
plagarised contents.

Unit II – Understanding the Learners and their Development

 Holistic approach in treatment of learner’s development and learning.

 How socio-cultural and economic contexts cause differences in learner,
differential learning needs.
 Learning difficulties at primary stage at elementary level and diagnostic tests.
 Problems of the adolescents and self-identity: educational support required for
adolescents development.
 Language development-language before and into the school, meta-linguistic
awareness; acquisition of more than one language, home language vs. school
language, strategies supporting student’s speaking, listening reading and
writing.
 Development critical analysis of the views of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Chomsky.
 Influences of culture on learners development.
Holistic Approach in Treatment of Learner’s Development and Learning
Holistic education's origins has been associated with the emergence of the concept of
instruction in ancient Greece and other indigenous cultures. This involved the method
that focused on the whole person instead of one or some segments of an individual's
experience. It formed part of the view that the world is a single whole and that
learning cannot be separated from all of man's experiences.
The term holistic education has been attributed to the South African military leader,
statesman, scholar and philosopher, Field Marshal General Jan Christiaan Smuts
(1870-1950), who is noted for his role in the foundation of the League of Nations, and
the formation of the international peace organization, the United Nations. He drew
from the ancient Greek conceptualization of holistic education to propose a modern
philosophy of learning.
Smuts is considered the founder of "Holism", which he derived from the Greek word,
which means "whole". In his 1926 book "Holism and Evolution", Smuts describes
"holism" as the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the
parts through creative evolution. 

The holistic approach in the treatment of the learner involves the all round
development of the individual as visualized by Bloom in his taxonomy of educational
objectives viz. Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domain. An individual who
comes into the classroom has various dreams and vision. The system of education
should act as a platform for bringing out the potentials and abilities and channelize the
energy and vision which he had for the overall development. In today’s world
student’s feelings are to be taken care off in order to attain the predetermined
objectives of learning. The outcomes of holistic approach, is primarily in the learning,
teaching and incorporate all the aspects related to learners development, such as
personal and professional development and the development of a community of
knowledge seekers. Trigwell (1999) assert teaching is about creating contexts that
make learning possible. Holistic approach is a way going all out to enhance learners'
lives.
Learning is a human right. It is a need that all humans innately posses and it is
expressed in different ways in different societies. The development of the holistic
approach is based on reflective practice. Teacher is not only sympathetic to the needs
of individual learners but is concerned deeply with their appreciation and awareness of
the role of knowledge, in their academic careers, but in their lives and in society too.
This new perspective of teaching has led the way to develop learner centred
developmental strategy which is development of critical, confidant and independent
characteristics among the students.
Meaning of holistic approach
Ron Miller defines, “Holistic education is based on the premise that each person finds
identity, meaning, and purpose in life through connections to the community, to the
natural world, and to spiritual values such as compassion and peace. Holistic
education aims to call forth from people an intrinsic reverence for life and a passionate
love of learning."
Holistic approach in addition to the traditional academic components, we are actively
cultivating the development of the whole child: her emotions, her social skills, her
spiritual beliefs, her participation in the community, and her role in the greater world.
Miller (1991) talks of holistic approach will bring about
 Intellectual, emotional, social, physical, creative, aesthetic and spiritual
potentials of the individual.
 Develop collaborative learning based on relationships within learning
community
 Learning beyond the classroom transactions
 Broadening the horizon of knowledge i.e. learning for life.
 Examine critically the cultural, moral and political contexts of their lives
 To develop habit of observing, independent thinking, executing rational
judgement by reflection on their own values.

Teacher in the Classroom

The goal of teacher is to facilitate knowledge among the students in the form of
subjects by strategise plans and procedures and implementing them. The instructions
will cover cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning as this will bring
out the best in the individual. The approach comprehensively caters for the holism of
the teacher, the learner, the teaching situation. The holistic approach contains
activities that we all do as teachers like lecturing, demonstrating, discussion, tutorial,
problem solving, scientific method, heuristic method, etc. The pragmatic argument is
that it attracts students to lectures, seminars, and tutorials and improves the levels and
quality of interaction between the student - student and student - teacher. In this way
the dynamics of classroom has changed making the teacher accessible to the students
as a friend, philosopher and guide. Behaviourist argues that once teacher reaches to
this level, students will try to explore their talents and skills and bring out their best in
them. Teacher acts as facilitator by motivating and guiding the learners. The positive
impact of the teacher in the classroom will help students to focus on academics
interactions actively and in the process improve on their learning.
Nature of the student in a holistic environment
 Active learner ready to construct their own knowledge by connecting new ideas
to existing ideas.
 Develop skills to face the world
 Develop personality to face the world of competition
 Students need to be academically sound
The holistic approach transmits discipline knowledge at varying depths, represented
by the first four aspects of knowledge, self, personal and professional development,
and discipline.

School and Classroom Environment

As children perceive their world through their senses, it is the responsibility of the
teacher to bring out variety of sensory stimuli in the classroom. Classrooms should be
less structured more activity oriented with lot of fun. At the same time develop
characteristics of individuality, originality, creativity, as well as attitude of co-
cooperativeness, assertiveness, empathy, sympathy, etc, should be the shared
objectives. A sense of inclusive environment where by each one is unique and
different and everyone has their own say in the happenings of classroom activities
without the fear of judgement.

1. Knowledge 2. Self 3. Personal and professional development 4. Discipline 5.

Learning and teaching

The holistic approach results in a safe learning environment where a learner feels
comfortable. If knowledge, self and personal development are not satisfactory to
students, they will stop attending. Excellence in the discipline and learning and
teaching aides alone will not guarantee student attendance. In times of mass education,
the individual learner still demands to be the focus of interaction to ensure a valid
learning experience. Validity here refers to what is of value to the development of the
self.

Curriculum
An application of holistic education to a curriculum has been described as
transformational learning where the instruction recognizes the wholeness of the
learner and that he and the curriculum are not seen as separate but connected.  Various
attempts to articulate the central themes of a holistic education, seeking to educate the
whole person, have been made:
 In holistic education the basic three R's have been said to be education for:
Relationships, Responsibility and Reverence for all life.
 First, children need to learn about themselves. This involves learning self-respect
and self-esteem. Second, children need to learn about relationships. In learning
about their relationships with others, there is a focus on social "literacy" (learning
to see social influence) and emotional "literacy" (one's own self in relation to
others). Third, children need to learn about resilience. This entails overcoming
difficulties, facing challenges and learning how to ensure long-term success.
Fourth, children need to learn about aesthetics – This encourages the student to see
the beauty of what is around them and learn to have awe in life.
 Curriculum is derived from the teacher listening to each child and helping the
child bring out what lies within oneself.

What does holistic approach bring about?

Holistic Education is a methodology which focuses on preparing students to meet any
challenges they may face in life and in their academic career. Students need to be able
to rise and meet challenges presented to them in the future and contribute to the world
in which they live. This type of learning is said to begin during childhood. Children
need to learn to first value themselves, their worth, and recognize their abilities and
how to be able to do what they want in life. Doing what they want ties into the
relationships that they build and how they treat those relationships. Holistic education
teaches children about their immediate relationships with their friends and family as
well as social development, health, and on intellectual development. The idea of
resilience is a learned quality, not one which is inherent and thus children must be
taught to face difficulties in life and overcome them. The last concept inspires children
to observe truths, natural beauty, and the meaning of life.
Holistic approach to education believes it is important for young people to learn:
 About themselves.
 About healthy relationships and pro-social behavior.
 Social development.
 Emotional development.
 Resilience.
 To see beauty, have awe, experience transcendence, and appreciate some sense
of "truths."
 It can bring about in
 Preparing for lifelong learning
 Prepare for a productive life in which their skills and attributes are constantly
challenged developed and applied.
 Collaboration rather than competition in classrooms
 Learning becomes meaningful and purposeful
 Joyful and student cantered learning takes place
 The objectives of learning to knows, learning to do, learning to live together,
learning to be are fulfilled.

Knowledgeable competence
1. Freedom (in a psychological sense).
2. Good-judgment (self-governance).
3. Meta learning (each student learns in their "own way").
4. Social ability (more than just learning social skills).
5. Refining Values (development of character).
6. Self Knowledge (emotional development).

Implications of holistic approach

 academics is not everything
 Educators need a developmental lens
 All students need access to rich opportunities
 The focus on testing and accountability in school undermines educators’ ability
to provide developmental experiences. Hence continuous non-formal
observation is the key to assessment.
 Developing individualised targets for activities and interactions will help in
assessing the performance individually.
 Measurement is not just related to cognitive factors but includes non-cognitive
factors like personality, attitude, aptitudes etc.
 Assessment at times is not directed on the person / group but on the
outcome of the activity / project which is undertaken.

Concluding remarks on
Holistic approach
When it comes to rethinking our
current educational system, a
holistic education offers an
exciting alternative. In the past
decades our knowledge
regarding childhood
development has expanded, and
with it our teaching
methodologies.
Today, parents and educators alike want more from their children’s education. They
are looking for an approach to education that is in tune with each child’s unique needs
and skills, and one that prepares the child to become a well-rounded adult.

As such, holistic education is based on the idea that children can be taught in a more
natural and engaging way. Rather than compartmentalizing school subjects, the
holistic approach seeks to empower children to use their academic learning as a
foothold for their emotional and social development.

The most important theories behind holistic education are learning about oneself,
developing health relationships and positive social behaviors, social and emotional
development, resilience, and the ability to view beauty, experience transcendence, and
truth. Holistic Education takes current cultural influences such as the media and
music and teaches younger people how to be human, since said cultural influences do
not. It conceptualizes questions regarding the biggest challenges in life and how to
overcome obstacles, achieve success, and what basic concepts need to be learned first
in order to accomplish all of those later on in life.

How socio-cultural and economic contexts cause differences in learner,

differential learning needs
Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing
existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences which may lead to a
potential change in synthesizing information, depth of the knowledge, attitude or
behavior relative to the type and range of experience. The ability to learn is possessed
by humans, animals, plants and some machines. 
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling,
or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how
learning occurs is part of educational psychology, show that Learning may occur as a
result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a
result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent
animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. 

Different people use different words to define learning within educational psychology,

but in general, we're talking about a step-by-step process in which an individual
experiences permanent, lasting changes in knowledge, behaviors, or ways of
processing the world.

Piaget's theory centers on the idea that children are active and motivated learners. He
advocated what is known as "cognitive constructivism," meaning that students create
their own meaning through interaction with the environment. He theorized that
learning occurs through a process of assimilation and accommodation as students
continually seek for equilibrium. However, he also hypothesized that cognitive
development can only occur as cognitive maturation is achieved. His four stages of
development are:
 Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operations, Formal operations

Vygotsky believed that learning is a social process, hence his theory is referred to as
"social constructivism." He believed that language, particularly self-talk and inner
speech, plays a major role in learning. Major applications of Vygotsky's theory to
education include the Zone of Proximal Development, scaffolding, guided
participation, apprenticeship, and peer interaction

Social-cultural influences on learning

The aim of this unit is to consider how the culture influences learning. It examines the
following main questions
• How cultures teach learners what and how to think.
• How the knowledge taught in formal education is culturally determined
• The beliefs cultures have about how learning occurs.
• How cultures value ways of thinking.
• How the feedback given during learning influences learning
• How we can 'scaffold' or support students' learning
• Helping students negotiate an understanding of cultural ideas
• Learners' perception of power in the interaction
the culture in which a person learns sets the agenda for learning in several ways. It
determines what is learnt and influences how and when it is learnt. What and how a
person learns is influenced in large measure by the culture in which the learning
occurs and the social interaction processes in which the learner engages. It is the
quality of these interactions rather than processes solely within the learner, that
determine the quality of the learning outcome.

THE KNOWLEDGE CHILDREN LEARN IS CULTURALLY DETERMINED

Our culture teaches us how to think
Cultures and social groups are also characterised by particular ways of thinking. For
effective participation in social activities in the culture, members of the culture are
expected to learn these. Some theories of learning and thinking propose that
individuals learn ways of thinking directly in their social interactions with others,
particularly they are engaged in solving socially defined problems. They internalise
this activity and later use the newly-learnt mental processes by themselves, without
the support of others; cognitive development is "the conversion of social relations into
mental functions".
Learners first becomes aware of the ways of thinking in a culture by participating with
others to solve problems that they have. The actions they see being used are often
referred to as 'tools. We learn these ways of thinking when we see how other
members of our culture use the corresponding tools to solve problems. Cultures use
tools in characteristic ways for solving problems. Cultures differ in how they use their
tools and also in how they interpret their experiences. A tool for solving the problem
of hunger in a Western urban community is to locate a food store and purchase food.
A tool for solving this problem in an Eskimo community in the Arctic is to hunt for
seals. Hunting for seals to appease hunger in a Western zoo would be unacceptable.
Tools and signs provide the bases or templates for thinking; "Intelligence is to a great
extent the of 'tools' provided by a given culture".

Cultural beliefs about how learning occurs

Cultures differ in how they believe people learn. The teaching they provide reflects
these beliefs. Some cultures believe that ideas are learnt best by learners accepting
them without question and 'taking them in'. The culture will present the content 'gift
wrapped' in its final form. The assumption is that learners will simply add it to their
existing knowledge. Other cultures believe that people learn best by discovering new
ideas for themselves. These cultures will encourage learners to analyse and question
the teaching information, re-organise and transform it , explore and trial ideas. These
different beliefs lead to the cultural groups valuing different ways of learning and
different learning outcomes.
The need to learn is culturally determined
The stimulus or motivation for learning culturally valued knowledge, particularly in
the academic context, is also culturally determined. Students are unlikely to have a
flash of insight and say "I have a burning desire to know more about solving quadratic
equations". When required to learn how to solve quadratic equations, the impetus is
more likely to be external to learners. They will want to know more about these ideas
when they see them as having value in their lives. Through participation with teachers
and peers, learners become aware of what is possible to know. They come to see that
their existing knowledge is inadequate and that they need to change what they know.
They respond to a challenge to 'know' that is socially or extrinsically initiated; they
experience a 'need to know'.
The social group guides learning
Not only does the culture decide what is useful knowledge, it also guides learners
towards socially valued outcomes. Learners display what they are learning and what
they have learnt. Members of the culture respond to this display with feedback that
has the potential to changing the knowledge learnt.
In the classroom, the teacher and peers can potentially provide feedback. The
feedback indicates the perceived value of the knowledge at any time. Through their
feedback, teachers and peers can indicate that an expressed idea is useful, 'on the
track' or of no use. This feedback impacts on the further development of the ideas by
the student. Students differ in how they 'read' and use feedback provided in the
learning situation.
For cultural knowledge, it is the responsibility of teachers to challenge students to
learn what our culture thinks they should learn. It is unreasonable to expect them to be
spontaneously intrinsically challenged. Learning how to build a tandem bike may be
intrinsically motivated for a learner interested in cycling. Learning how to solve
quadratic equations may be intrinsically motivated for a learner interested in
mathematics. Not all students, however, will have an intrinsic interest in learning
mathematics or in cycling. Where a society or culture decides that students need to
acquire a set of ideas, it is the responsibility of the society to bring about the impetus
for learning.

Learning at any time involves a feedback-valuing process.

Teachers and schools need to be aware of
• the evaluative feedback provided in their classrooms and its impact on the learning
of individual students.
• the different ways in which students make opportunities for receiving feedback and
for using it effectively. Some will need to learn how to do this more efficiently.
• what they are saying to students through their assessment and evaluation processes.
We also need to keep in mind that the majority of people who we teach belong to
several social groups and the values of the different groups can obviously clash.

Implications for teaching

 Teach the language of the subject
 Teaching through social interaction to facilitate learning
 Negotiating a shared understanding
 Learners' perception of power in the interaction
 Cooperative learning

Socioeconomic status influence learners

Socioeconomic status can be defined as ëa personís overall social position to which
attainments in both the social and economic domain contribution (Ainley et al., 1995:
ix). When used in studies of children ís school achievement, it refers to the SES of the
parents or family. Socio-economic status is determined by an individualís
achievements in: education; employment and occupational status; and income and
wealth. Several comprehensive reviews of the relationship between SES and
educational outcomes exist (Amato, 1987; Williams et al., 1991; Mukherjee, 1995;
Ainley et al., 1995). These studies and reviews make it clear that children from low
SES families are more likely to exhibit the following patterns in terms of educational
outcomes compared to children from high SES families:
have lower levels of literacy, numeracy and comprehension;
• have lower retention rates (children from low SES families are more likely to leave
school early);
• have lower higher education participation rates (children from low SES families are
less likely to attend university);
• exhibit higher levels of problematic school behaviour (for instance truancy); • are
less likely to study specialised maths and science subjects;
• are more likely to have difficulties with their studies and display negative attitudes to
school; and
• have less successful school-to-labour market transitions.

Learning difficulties
Reading: difficulties with oral rhyming, syllabification, blending and segmenting of
sounds in words, limited vocabulary, difficulty in learning letter names, slow and
inaccurate word recognition
Writing: avoids writing tasks, letters are poorly formed, poor handwriting, poor
spelling, difficulties learning basic sentence structure and grammar.
Arithmetic: poor counting skills, difficulties with mastering number knowledge,
difficulties in using effective counting strategies for addition, difficulties remembering
arithmetic facts.
How learning difficulties can be diagnosed?
 Reports of test scores
 Teacher observations
 Evaluation of individual’s response to academic interventions.
Learning difficulties are defined as a significant discrepancy-not otherwise explained
by physical or sensory impairments-between the child's intellectual functioning and
academic performance. While several studies have identified genetic factors,
sensorimotor system integration impairments, and prematurity as risk factors for
learning disorders, there is no single known cause.
Learning difficulties are a category of disorders that affect how the brain processes
information. Children with learning difficulties struggle to understand certain concepts
and experience trouble learning in school despite having average to above average
intelligence.
The most common types of learning difficulties involve problems with reading,
writing, mathematics, reasoning, listening and speaking. In school, where these skills
are demanded of them, children with learning difficulties may feel frustrated and
restless or lose focus during lessons. Behavioural problems, such as a lack of self-
control or trouble interacting with people, do not in themselves constitute learning
difficulties but may co-exist with them. Here are some signs observed in children with
learning difficulties:
• difficulty with the sequence and identification of letters of the alphabet
• confusion over letters and numerals that look alike
• trouble learning the connection between letters and sounds
• uneven spacing between written letters, words and symbols
• difficulty with or avoidance of tasks that require copying, writing, spelling,
reading and reading aloud
• inability to understand what has been read
• ability to count aloud but not to write down the numerals
• trouble following classroom discussions and expressing thoughts aloud
• difficulty understanding simple instructions
• difficulty grasping concepts despite receiving additional help and support in
school
• forgetfulness of what has been learnt
• difficulty completing homework
It is normal for most children to show one or more of these signs as they begin formal
education. However, if these difficulties persist over time, your child may have
learning difficulties.

Learning difficulties Vs Learning disabilities

Children with learning difficulties underachieve academically for a wide range of
reason, including factors such as : sensory impairment (weakness in vision or
hearing); severe behavioural, psychological or emotional issues.
Causes: high absenteeism, ineffective instructions, or ineffective curricula.
Children with learning disabilities have unexpected and persistent difficulties in
specific areas of academic achievement as a result of an underlying neuro-
developmental disorder, the origin of which includes an interaction of genetic,
cognitive and environmental factors. One of the defining features of a specific
learning disability is that the difficulty continues to exist, despite appropriate
instruction and intervention.
Causes: heredity, intellectual disability

Types of learning disability : Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia etc.

What Causes Learning Difficulties?

Learning difficulties have no apparent cause, although genetics may play a part. A
family history of learning difficulties increases the likelihood that your child will
show symptoms of learning difficulties.

Assessment and Management of Learning Difficulties

To identify a learning difficulty, a comprehensive assessment will be conducted on
your child. This includes tracking his or her developmental history and administering
standardised cognitive and academic tests to determine strengths and areas of
difficulty. Appropriate recommendations can then be made.

When teaching a child with learning difficulties,

some effective strategies include:
• setting reasonable expectations
• focussing on the strengths of the child
• dividing up instructions and tasks into small steps
• providing regular breaks between tasks
• giving regular constructive feedback
• making use of multi-sensory approaches to learning, e.g. using videos, music,
movement, actual objects, diagrams, graphics, colours and pictures to help explain
concepts and facts
• modelling positive homework completion habits
• engaging your child with questions that encourage deeper thought, e.g.“How is that
strategy working? Where else might you apply it?”
• encouraging an interest in reading through regular visits to the library, engaging your
child in storytelling or reading to your child

Diagnostic Teaching & Testing
Educational diagnostic testing is a form of assessment that occurs before instruction
begins. The purpose of administering diagnostic tests is to try to determine what
students already know about the concepts and skills to be covered by instruction.
The tests are not graded.

Diagnostic Test or Diagnostic Study Definition
A diagnostic procedure is an examination to identify an individual's specific areas of
weakness and strength in order determine a condition, disease or illness.
Diagnostic assessment is a type of assessment which examines what a student knows
and can do prior to a learning program being implemented. Assessment of students'
skills and knowledge upon entry to the program provides a baseline against which
to assess progress.

Language Development at an Early Age: Learning Mechanisms and Outcomes from

Birth to Five Years. The acquisition of language is one of the more remarkable
achievements of early childhood. By age 5, children essentially master the sound
system and grammar of their language and acquire a vocabulary of thousands of
words.
Language development is a process starting early in human life. Infants start
without language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and engage
in babbling.

Problems of the adolescents and self-identity: educational support required for

adolescents development.

During adolescence the development of autonomy accelerates due to rapid physical

and cognitive changes, expanding social relationships, and additional rights and
responsibilities (Zimmer-Gembeck, & Collins, 2006). One such definition of
autonomy underscores the freedom to make choices, pursue goals, regulate behaviour
and this may lead to an urge to experiment and take risks, which may not always lead
to socially desirable outcomes but in the long run may lead to problematic behaviour.
apart from this many other factors also affect adolescence. For instance, societal
conditions like poverty, broken home, low parental supervision, academic stress,
influence of peers, parents, community, neighbourhood, media and the like may
trigger the onset and the continuation of these problems. Most of these problems are
widespread and while some are old, a few are the outcomes of the present socio-
cultural scenario.

bullying
Bullying is an aggressive behaviour normally characterized by repetition and
imbalance of power and is socially unacceptable within the ethos of a democratic
society but it is emerging as an international issue (Sampson, 2002; Smith & Brain,
2000) as it affects the victim’s sense of security. Bullying is also not an act of one
time aggression but is repetitive and purports to hurt the victim not once but
repetitively. Sampson says that it is so widespread and common in schools that it is
considered as a prime concern for children’s safety in schools. The aggression meted
out may be verbal, with abuses, teasing and humiliation to hurt the victim emotionally
or it may include physical assaults. There may also be other subtle, covert forms of
bullying, difficult to discern.
(cyber bullying is high - According to research conducted by Symantec, nearly 8 out
of 10 individuals are subject to the different types of cyber bullying in India. Out of
these around 63% faced online abuses and insults, and 59% were subject to false
rumors and gossips for degrading their image.
substance use and abuse
The epidemic of substance abuse among the young children in India in schools and
colleges resulting in changing cultural values, increasing economic stress cannot be
ignored (Reddy & Biswas, 2013). Use of these substances, possession and
consumption of substances like alcohol and tobacco are illegal and a punishable
offence. Even possession of narcotics (drugs) is absolutely illegal. Which are these
substances? These substances are products like alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, marijuana,
pills that are not prescribed to the taker, opiates, cocaine, amphetamines,
hallucinogens, depressants, inhalants, club drugs, and performance enhancing drugs
(Goldstein, 2011, cited in Matheson & McGrath, 2015). Cigarette smoking is also on
the increase among teenagers (Windle&Windle, 2006) and so is the consumption of
chewable tobacco. Most of these substances are relatively difficult to procure but
some like cough syrup, shoe polish, glue, spirits used in ink remover and even tobacco
products are not.
teenage pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy is however discouraged in societies like India that lay down the
minimum age of marriage. Still, in-spite of access to schooling facilities and
biological science being a part of the core curriculum till secondary level, teenage
pregnancy is on the rise. In metros most teens are fully aware of their options and are
well informed to come in time for an abortion.
lack of information about contraception, lack of sex education and poverty as the
prime reasons for the rising teenage pregnancies.
sexually transmitted infections
The risk of acquiring such STI during adolescence is high (DiClemente& Crosby,
2006). The National AIDS Control Organisation of India also says that
physiologically, young people are more vulnerable to STIs than adults. It also says
that lack of access to correct information and common misconceptions about modes of
HIV transmission, tendency to experiment and an environment which makes
discussing issues around sexuality a taboo adds to their vulnerability
depression and suicide
Deliberate self- harm is common in adolescents and there are many reports that
indicate that suicide is one of the major killers of adolescents and for every adolescent
committing suicide there are hundreds more who attempt suicide (Hawton, Rodham,
Evans, Weatherall, 2002). Suicide is among the top three causes of death among youth
worldwide but it is an important, largely preventable public health problem
(Radhakrishnan, & Andrade, 2012). Why do children attempt suicide? Suicides as per
Seroczynski, Jacquez & Cole (2006) may be attempted because of three sets of risk
factors: (1) psychological, which is due to psychiatric problems like depression,
substance abuse; (2) behavioural like attempted suicide, which is a strong indicator of
future attempts; and (3)family risk factors like loss or separation from family
members, stress faced by family members, unstable home environment due to
conflicts, lack of cohesiveness. Depression is a syndrome and includes symptoms like
sadness, irritability, appetite loss, weight loss, fatigue, feeling of worthlessness, guilt,
suicidal thoughts or behaviours, and many other such symptoms. As teachers you may
also watch out for signs like social withdrawal, crying, irrational worries or fears, not
having confidence, irritability, aggression and academic problems. Depression is
linked to many factors like problems in family, academic problems, dissatisfaction
with own body image, bullying including cyber bullying, substance use and abuse,
financial problems and the like.

delinquency
Juvenile delinquency refers to crimes committed by minors, and historically juvenile
justice system focuses on rehabilitation and treatment than punishment. This
comprises acts like theft, pick-pocketing, rape, physical assaults, vandalizing property
and other such serious offences.
Young people who are at risk of becoming delinquent often live in difficult
circumstances like parental alcoholism, conflict in family, poverty, broken family,
abusive conditions, orphans, loss of parent(s), lacking the means of subsistence,
housing and other basic necessities (World Youth Report, 2003 ).

compulsive internet use

prolonged duration of usage can increase likelihood of hazards resulting from mobile
phone use like depression, anxiety, insomnia, aggressiveness and may also damage the
interpersonal skills of adolescents. It has been reported that excessive Internet use has
a significant negative impact, leading to Internet addiction.
Teachers’ role may comprise the following:
Developing hobbies in children for relaxation; Encouraging students to engage in
sports, games and other activities requiring physical activity; and Discussing the
impact of prolonged use of Internet and visiting harmful sites
Early studies underlined the need for support from the school
for the students with a strong and representative partnership
team including parents, teachers, and community members as
well as adequate time to plan and conduct productive
partnership activities
9
. Meanwhile, this kind of partnership can
have some different consequences such as:
1) Parenting-helping all families establish supportive home
environments for children;
2) Communicating-establishing two- way exchanges about
school programs and children’s progress;
3) volunteering-recruiting and organizing parents to help at
school routines, home, or other locations;
4) Learning at home –providing information to families
about how to help students with homework and other
curriculum-related materials
Early studies underlined the need for support from the school
for the students with a strong and representative partnership
team including parents, teachers, and community members as
well as adequate time to plan and conduct productive
partnership activities
9
. Meanwhile, this kind of partnership can
have some different consequences such as:
1) Parenting-helping all families establish supportive home
environments for children;
2) Communicating-establishing two- way exchanges about
school programs and children’s progress;
3) volunteering-recruiting and organizing parents to help at
school routines, home, or other locations;
4) Learning at home –providing information to families
about how to help students with homework and other
curriculum-related materials
Parenting-helping all families establish supportive home
environments for children
Facts about adolescents
 World Health Organization (WHO) defines that individuals in the age group of
10-19 are known as adolescents, in the age group of 10-24 as young people and
in the age group of 15-24 as youth.
 India has 327 million young people in the age group of 10-24 (WHO, 2007)
 Substance abuse among young people is also a matter of concern. Findings
from NFHS-3 show that in the age group of 15-24, 40% young men and 5%
young women had ever used tobacco, while 20% of young men and 1% of
young women had ever consumed alcohol.
 Although young people are considered healthy, findings from NFHS 3 indicate
that a substantial proportion of young people suffer from anaemia (56% of
females and 25% of males in the 15-24 age group) that can adversely affect
their physical growth, cognitive development, performance in school and at
work as well as reproduction.
 most youth preferred to marry after age 18; as many as 19% of young
women aged 20-24 were married before age 15, and 49% before age 18. Domestic
violence is widely prevalent within marriage, with almost a quarter young (married)
women reporting that they had been victims of one or other form of physical violence
at some point of time within their marriage.
As high as 47% of women and 16% men reported they have never received any
information on sexual matters from anybody. A large proportion of young people
(78% young women and 83% young men) were in favor of imparting sex education or
family life education to youth.
Identity
Today, the term puberty is more often used to refer to all the physical changes
occurring during the early part of adolescence, including changes in body composition
of fat and muscle; changes in the respiratory and circulatory systems, which result in
greater strength and endurance; and changes in the nervous and endocrine systems.
Equally important in understanding the concept of adolescence can be considered to
be knowledge of the psycho-social experiences of the individual during this
transitional period. From psychological viewpoint, the adolescence is affected by
many agents of socialization and other forces, some of which such as the law- are
beyond the teen’s influence and control. However, it is confusing to view adolescent
as simply buffered by parents, peers, and teacher.
Identity formation is generally believed to be related to growth and development. The
more capable adolescents become, the greater they change and expand their self-
image. Identity and physical development reach a peak during the adolescence phase.
The physical changes include changes on the emotional, cognitive, moral, sexual and
social levels inclined to threaten the adolescent’s sense of security. During the process
of change and alteration, adolescents experience identity confusion in which they lose
the stability in self-image of the childhood years while causing self-consciousness and
tension. Throughout this critical phase of identity formation, adolescents should have
ability to develop, according to Erikson, an identity to bridge the gap between who
they were as children and what they ought to become as adults. They need their
parents and teachers `guidance and support specifically to equip them with the self-
confidence to answer the identity question (who am I?) in a positive way.
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Identity definition
Identity is what makes a person different from other people, and at the same time
recognisable as the same person in different situations and at different times (Gerdes,
MooreVan Ede 1988).
Identity is a facet of the self-concept which is formed in relation to other people
(Raath & Jacobs 1993) that is to say, the presence of other people determines what
one’s identity will be.
Identity is also influenced by one’s physical body, one’s past history, sexual
orientation, and identification with male and female role models (Ganiere & Enright
1989).
Identity may also be defined in terms of three facets: personal identity, public identity
and individual Identity (Gerdes et al 1988).
identity is that powerful part of the personality which defines a person as a singular
entity with a unique set of values, interest, strengths and Weaknesss (Ochse 1983).

Concepts related to identity

Those concepts which are closely related to identity will be help in enhancing
understanding about identity.
a. Identification
The dictionary definition of identification is ‘the act of identifying a process by which
a person assumes the behaviour, ideas, etc., of someone else, particularly someone
who he admires’ – Chambers English Dictionary (1992).
If the etymology of identification is taken into account, the idea is ‘to make the same’
in Latin. Thus the child desires to make itself the same as the other, whom it admires.
Although personal traits of both parents are and could be admired, boys’ identification
with their fathers and girls’ identification with their mothers have far-reaching effects
on their sexual identification.

Laubscher (1993) provides a acceptable circumscription of identification as ‘a

psychological process in which a person assimilates (introjects) aspects of another
person into the self. In other words, a person grows to believe that he or she is like
that other person’.

Formation of Identity among children

Descriptions of "identification" may be formulated as an act of identifying with an
esteemed other person, in accordance with similarities to one’s own identity and goals
noted in that other person, and a subsequent introjections of those valued
characteristics into the self. This was given by Carol Maurine Sutcliffe.
few major components which play a critical role in identity formation being
1. personality – a person’s own distinctive character
2. the self - Whereas the "I" is regarded as subject, unconscious,
unobservable and belonging (Jacobs & Vrey 1982) The self can be
regarded as the nucleus of the personality. The self refers to the totality
with its unique qualities which are singular to the individual person -
those observable and measurable qualities according to which the person
is recognised as the same person and not somebody else (Le Roux
1979:19; Vrey 1993:79).
3. self concept: is defined as ‘a conceptualization or image of the
slef’(raath & Jacobs (1993)
4. self image: One’s own idea of oneself and image refers to ‘likeness: a
picture (not necessssarily visual) in the imagination or memory” that
which very closely resembles anything’
5. self-esteem : it denotes high estimation or value: favourable regard
‘estimation of worth’
Identity formation during adolescence
Jocobs places identity formation within a psychology of education as: Significance
attribution, experience, involvement and self-actualisation together with the
foundation of relationship-formation, life-world and educational climate, form the
basis of which the intra-psychic structure rests. The intra-psychic structure comprises
of the ‘I’, the ‘self’ identity and self-concept.

a. Identity formation as significance attribution (credict/acknowledgement)

In the process of identity formation the attribution of significance is a cognitive act
since an individual must cognitively form a concept of his or her identity in order to
answer the question ‘who am I ?’. That is to say, identity formation involves the
intellectual attribution of meaning to role models with whom one identifies. Erickson
explains that identity formation is a process of continuously judging the relevance of
other people as models in comparison to oneself. Moreover identity formation grows
out of a gradual integration of all identifications. What is required however, is the
capacity to synthesise successive identifications into a meaningful, consistent, unique
whole (Conger 1991). By attributing meaning to the self (as a result of self-
knowledge), the child forms an identity.
b. Identity formation as involvement
One of the components of the self-concept, of which identity is an integral part, is
conative action, and action implies involvement. For e.g. to be an athlete, I must train
for athletics. Therefore, identity implies action (involvement) and action implies
identity. Involvement is what one wants to do and can do is a fact which is essential
in establishing one’s identity. This action is dependent on the response of others, and
leads to subjective standards governing one’s evaluation of the self, and which affect
one’s total self-identity (Van den Aardweg 1993). As an e.g. a child becomes
involved in sports activities (conative action) if he or she does well in these activities,
has positive experiences and responses, and attributes personal meaning to these
activities. Jacobs and Very (1982) put it as the formation of identity demands an
active involvement of the physical and psychic self.
c. Identity formation as experiencing
experience of actually doing something (together with significance attribution and
involvement) is an essential factor in establishing one’s identity. By giving meaning
to the self, children form an own identity, which they evaluate through their
experience of life. For e.g. a child who receives many positive responses at school,
which are experienced as success. These positive experiences causes the child’s self-
esteem to increase, which leads to the establishment of anchor-points, on which he or
she can later fall back. In this way a child with high academic self-concept can then
rely on these anchor-points when he or she experiences failure of another aspect of the
self, such as on the sport field. In this way, the child does not experience himself or
herself as a failure, because the identity is evaluated against the self-concept through
the various experiences of life.

adolescents as a total person and identity formation

a. adolescents’ physical being and identity formation
Harre (1993) informs that the physical aspect of a person’s identity, that is one’s
distinctive bodily appearance, is what makes one uniquely identifiable in the first
place. Physical appearance and physical adequacy are perceived as important
dimensions of the self by adolescents (McCall 1990). With sudden rapid physical
growth, the demand adolescent integrate a new body image into the identity. This
evaluations is greatly subjective and at times inaccurate. This could result in a
negative physical identity.
b. adolescents’ affective being and identity formation
along with physical changes, adolescents experience corresponding emotional
responses which range from surprise and confusion to frustration and aggression
c. adolescents’ cognitive being and identity formation
Because of adolescents’ cognitive ability to reason abstractly, they inevitably begin to
question the significance of things and the meaning of life in general.
d. adolescents’ normative being and identity formation
The normative facets of adolescents’ lives also goes through intense crisis. Erickson
explains that adolescents are looking for an ideology or meaningful set of values in an
attempt to make sense out of life. Without this they will be in a state of constant
confusion as to hat they should and should not do, and the reasons for behaving in
certain way.

The importance of identity development for teens is huge. When a teen is developing

their identity they are learning what makes them unique while also feeling the need to
fit in. For teens who feel excluded from others due to their cultural, ethnic, gender, or
sexual identity, this process can lead teens to begin participating in harmful behavior.
Other factors that prevent the formation of a secure and positive self-identity include:

 Lack of attachment to parents

 Low self-esteem
 Absence or negative influence of adults
 Lack of acceptance in a positive peer group

On the psychological front

Common Problems and Behaviors Surrounding Unhealthy Teenage Identity

Issues

The causes above make a teen more likely to engage in risky behaviors such as drugs,
substance addiction, and promiscuity. These teens are also more likely to perform
poorly in school, have low self-esteem, and to act compulsively. This is due to the fact
that during this time teens are still developing cognitively which makes their thinking
process more impulsive than adults. Therefore, the simple encouragement from peers
can be enough to persuade a teen to engage in risky behavior without much thought.
The result of a teen’s participation in rebellious or promiscuous behavior can result in
the teen feeling even worse about themselves and can create a downward spiral of
unhealthy patterns and behavior.

Warning Signs of Teenage Identity Issues:

1. A distorted or unrealistic perception of oneself

2. Lack of congruent behaviors and values in different settings
3. Self-worth relies on the opinions of others
4. Poor academic performance or failure.
5. Promiscuous behavior
6. Low self-esteem
7. Putting down others (i.e., teasing, name-calling, or gossiping)
8. Dramatic or out of context behaviors
9. Glances around to monitor others
10. Putting self down
11. Keeps his or her own views or opinions to self
12. Intense emotions of anger or sadness
13. Change in peers and/or avoids positive friendships
14. Disregarding rules and limits
 15. Use of illegal substances

If your teen displays several of the above behaviors, they are likely struggling to form
their identity. The next step parents can take to encourage healthier patterns is to
ensure their teen is getting the support he or she needs at home.
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ROLE OF PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND COMMUNITY IN

ADOLESCENTS` ISSUES
Early studies underlined the need for support from the school for the students with a
strong and representative partnership team including parents, teachers, and community
members as well as adequate time to plan and conduct productive partnership
activities. Meanwhile, this kind of partnership can have some different consequences
such as:
1) Parenting-helping all families establish supportive home environments for children;
2) Communicating-establishing two- way exchanges about school programs and
children’s progress;
3) volunteering-recruiting and organizing parents to help at school routines, home, or
other locations;
4) Learning at home –providing information to families about how to help students
with homework and other curriculum-related materials;
5) Decision-making- having parents from all backgrounds serve as representatives and
leaders on school committees; and
6) Collaborating with the community –identifying and integrating resources and
services from the community to strengthen school programs
Parenting-helping all families establish supportive home
environments for children

Is your child developing age-appropriate language skills?

It’s helpful to know what basic listening and speaking skills your child should be
learning and mastering at age 3 or 4. Review the following list and note how your
child is doing in each area.
Listening skills — My child can...
 Understand most of what is said and follow directions with at least two steps.
 Understand direction words like “top,” “bottom,” “big,” and “little.”
 Recognize when words rhyme.
 Hear (and respond to) someone calling to him from another room.
 Hear the television or radio at normal volumes.
 Notice and respond to sounds in the environment (such as a car horn, clock alarm, or
the beeping of a kitchen appliance).
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Speaking skills — My child can...

 Speak in complete sentences of four or more words.
 Talk easily without stuttering or repeating words or syllables.
 Say or sing familiar songs or nursery rhymes.
 Correctly name colours, people, objects, and categories of objects.
 Speak clearly enough that strangers can understand.
 Use most speech sounds. (Remember that some speech sounds, such as l, r, s, sh, h,
y, v, z, and this, may not be fully mastered until age 7 or 8.)
 Use appropriate verb tenses.
 Use the pronouns “I,” “you,” and “me” correctly.

Encouraging language development at home

Now that you understand some of the language skills your child should have, you can
reinforce those skills and help him or her make further progress. It’s easy (and fun!) to
practice language skills with your child throughout the day. 
Here are some habits to practice and activities to try:
Speak to your child in a clear, correct, and simple manner. Avoid using baby talk.
 Make conversation with your child a two-way street. Take time each day to listen to
and talk with your child.
 When your child speaks to you, model good listening behavior. For example, pause
an activity and make eye contact.
 Encourage your child to use language (and not just gestures or actions) to express
ideas, observations, and feelings.
 Ask questions that require your child to make and express a choice.
 Try to enrich and expand your child’s vocabulary.
 Engage your child in activities and games that require listening and following
directions.
 Read and sing nursery rhymes with your child.
 Read and tell stories that have interesting characters and easy-to-follow plots.
Discuss the stories together.

S TA G E S O F L A N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T C H A RT
There are two main areas of language:
 Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of language.
 Expressive language (using language): The use of language through speech,
sign or alternative forms of communication to communicate wants, needs,
thoughts and ideas.
 Age Listening   Vocabular  Sentences Concepts Possible implications if
y milestones not achieved

 6-  Attends Babbling  No  N  May have difficulties socialising

12 to sounds and(e.g. ma-specific o specific with parents and joint attention
mo voices ma, da-da) milestones milestone  May affect muscle tone in the
nth  Recogni Takes turns s face as babbling helps to
s ses facialvocalising strengthen the muscles
 expressions andwith others
tones of voice  Recognises
names of a
few objects

 1-  Respon Babbling  No  N  May have difficulties socialising

2 ds (e.g. ma-specific o Specific with parents and joint attention
yea to familiarma, da-da) milestones milestone  May struggle to copy and learn
rs requests (e.g.
 Takes turns s from others due to poor
come here) andvocalising understanding and attention
own name with others
 Underst Recognises
ands gesturesnames of a
(e.g. wave forfew objects
‘bye’)

2-3  Follows Names  Mini  P  May have difficulties socialising

yea 2 partactions (e.g.mum of 2-3 osition: o with peers and joint attention
rs instructions go, run) words in a n; off; in;  May struggle to copy and learn
(e.g. Go to your By 2 yearssentence (e.g. out; up; from others due to poor
room and getvocabulary Daddy go down; understanding and attention
your shoes) is 250-300work under;  May have difficulties following
 words  Still top; open; instructions
  By 3 yearstalks to self shut  May have difficulties being
 uses 1000in long  S understood by peers
 words monologues ize: big;  May have difficulties being
Points to main small/littl understood by unfamiliar people
body parts, e; long  May have difficulties
clothing items,  Q expressing wants, needs,
toys and food uantity: 1 thoughts and ideas
when asked ;2
 O
ther: stop
; go/start;
loud;
quiet;
heavy;
soft; fast;
hot; cold

3-4  Follows
 By 4 years Mini 3 to early  May have difficulties socialising
yea 3 partuses nearlymum of 3-4 4 years: with peers
rs instructions 1500 words words  P  May struggle to copy and learn
(e.g. point to  Tells osition:bo from others due to poor
 the cat, the dog you what ttom; understanding and attention
and the monkey they are behind;  May have difficulties following
 Underst doing first; near instructions at home, child care,
ands longer,  Tells  S kindergarten
more complex you the ize:short  May have difficulties being
sentences function or (length) – understood by peers
use of an emerging;  May have difficulties being
object short understood by unfamiliar people
(height)  May have difficulties expressing
 Q wants, needs, thoughts and ideas
uantity:3;  May have difficulties responding
every; appropriately to questions
none  Word finding difficulties causing
 O disfluent speech
ther:hard;
slow;
light
(weight);
many
colours

4-5  Follows
 Continuing  Mini Mid-late  May have difficulties socialising
yea the meaning ofto expand mum of 4-5 4 years:  May struggle to copy and learn
rs others’  Can word  P from others due to poor
conversations generally sentences osition:m understanding and attention
understand iddle;  May have difficulties following
colour and around; instructions at home,
shape away kindergarten
words (e.g. from;  May have difficulties being
red, square) between; understood by peers
 Can sort through;  May have difficulties being
objects into next understood by unfamiliar people
simple to/beside;  May have difficulties expressing
categories last wants, needs, thoughts and ideas
(e.g.  S  May have difficulties responding
animals, ize: short appropriately to questions
food) (length);  Word finding difficulties causing
short disfluent speech
(height);
tall; fat
 Q
uantity: 4
; most;
few
Late 4-5
 years:
 P
osition: i
n front; in
a line;
corner;
middle
 S
ize: thin
 Q
uantity: 5
(emerging
); pair
 O
ther: sam
e;
different
(size);
different
(function)

5-6  Follows
 Vocabulary  Uses  T  May have difficulties socialising
yea the meaning ofcomprehens more ime: yest  May have poor attention and
rs others’ ion complex erday, concentration
conversations increases sentences tomorrow  May have difficulties following
 Follows  Uses , morning, instructions at home, school
multi-step imaginative afternoon,  May have difficulties retelling
instructions language in later events
 Vocabu play – likes  May have difficulties following
lary to pretend routines
comprehension and act out  May have difficulties being
increases stories understood by unfamiliar people
 Tells  May have difficulties expressing
several thoughts and ideas verbally and
attributes in written form
about an  May have difficulties responding
object appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties
causing disfluent speech

6-7  Ideas  Can  Give  P  May have difficulties socialising

years are shared classify s short oral osition:  May have poor attention and
 Follows objects reports left; right concentration
multi-step according  Uses  O  May have difficulties following
 instructions to morelanguage ther: instructions at home, school
specific at a higher same;  May have difficulties retelling
traits (e.g.level to make different; events
form, jokes, tease, season;  May have difficulties being
colour, useengage in time of understood by unfamiliar people
or sarcasm, day  May have difficulties expressing
compositio argue point  C thoughts and ideas verbally and
n-what it isof view, an in written form
made of) explain understan  May have difficulties responding
complex d the appropriately to questions
situations, difference  Word finding difficulties causing
talk about between disfluent speech
movies or reality  May have difficulties with
past events in and reading fluency and
detail fantasy comprehension
 Dev
elops written
language
skills and
ability to
write
descriptive
paragraphs
and stories

7-8  Can  No specific Can  C  May have difficulties socialising

yea listen for amilestones express their an  May have poor attention and
rs sustained period opinion problem concentration
of time (e.g.  Can solve  May have difficulties following
attend to a guest retell both instructions at home, school
speaker at imaginary  May have difficulties retelling
school) and real events
events  Mayhave difficulties problem
solving
 May have difficulties expressing
thoughts and ideas verbally and
in written form
 May have difficulties responding
appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties causing
disfluent speech
 May have difficulties with
reading fluency and
comprehension
Speech and language: what’s the difference?
Speech means producing the sounds that form words. It’s a physical activity that is
controlled by the brain. Speech requires coordinated, precise movement from the
tongue, lips, jaw, palate, lungs and voice box.
Making these precise movements takes a lot of practice, and that’s what children do in
the first 12 months. Children learn to correctly make speech sounds as they develop,
with some sounds taking more time than others.
Language is the words that your child understands and uses as well as how he uses
them. Language includes spoken and written language. The parts that make up
language include vocabulary, grammar and discourse:
 Vocabulary is the store of words a person has – like a dictionary held in
long-term memory.
 Grammar, or syntax, is a set of rules about the order in which words should
be used in sentences. These rules are learned through the experience of
language.
 Discourse is a language skill that we use to structure sentences into
conversations, tell stories, poems and jokes, and for writing recipes or letters.

Metalinguistics 
It is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other cultural
behaviors. It is the study of dialogue relationships between units of speech
communication as manifestations and enactments of co-existence.

Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to objectify language as a process as

well as an artifact. The concept of metalinguistic awareness is helpful in explaining
the execution and transfer of linguistic knowledge across languages (e.g. code
switching as well as translation among bilinguals). Metalinguistic awareness is a
cognitive process that allows a person to monitor and control their use of language. It
is a type of metacognition, which is an awareness and control of one's own knowledge
and cognitive processes (being able to think about thinking). Metalinguistic awareness
is the ability to see language as a code and separate it from its symbolic meaning. It is
also an ability to think about language and structure objectively. People vary in their
metalinguistic awareness capabilities with high levels being a strong predictor of
language development and ability to acquire new languages.
It refers to the ability to objectify language as a process as well as an artifact. The
concept of metalinguistic awareness is helpful in explaining the execution and transfer
of linguistic knowledge across languages (e.g. code switching as well as translation
among bilinguals). It is the ability to talk about, analyse, and think about language
independent of the concrete meaning of each word. Understanding that words and
sentences can have more than one meaning improves comprehension by allowing
readers to think flexibly about what the appropriate meaning may be. In addition,
comprehension monitoring benefits from training in recognizing and reexamining the
meaning of ambiguous sentences since students are taught to consider meaning and to
reread if necessary. To evaluate and regulate comprehension of text, it is necessary to
know that the words in a text can add up to more than one possible meaning and that
context and alternative explanations need to be considered. This ability to reflect upon
and manipulate language is crucial for reading.

Metalinguistics can be classified as the ability to consciously reflect on the nature of

language, by using the following skills:

1. an awareness that language has a potential greater than that of simple symbols
(it goes beyond the meaning)
2. an awareness that words are separable from their referents (meaning resides in
the mind, not in the name, i.e. Sonia is Sonia, and I will be the same person
even if somebody calls me another name)
3. an awareness that language has a structure that can be manipulated (realizing
that language is malleable: you can change and write things in many different
ways (for example, if something is written in a grammatically incorrect way,
you can change it)).
Meta-linguistics, or meta - awareness skill is to do with the ability of a person to
reflect on and consciously ponder about oral and written language and how it is used.
Meta is an ancient Greek term, meaning 'beyond’. This ability -
metalinguistic awareness - is a vital skill in language learning.
Development of these metalinguistic skills are essential to a child’s ability to be
successful in creating enlightening conversations that will serve as foundations for
further learning in their lives.

Some meta-linguistic skills that will have an impact on academic performance are:
• the ability to make and understand inferences
• using and understanding multiple meanings words
• using figurative language and humour
• formulating spoken or written sentences that meet cultural expectations for
conveying messages or expressing emotions or opinions.

Meta-lingustic difficulties
1.Planning for production of statements, questions, paragraphs, stories in
speaking/writing.
2. Making predictions and forming hypotheses.
3. Problem-solving for strategic language use.
4. Self-monitoring to identify errors and problems.
5. Correcting inefficient approaches and behaviours.
6. Recognising syllable, word, phrase, clause, and sentence boundaries in
speech/print.
7. Monitoring, self-correcting, editing speech and writing.
8. Playing with language (riddles, jokes, rhymes).
9. Analysing and talking about language.

ACQUISITION OF MORE THAN ONE LANGUAGE

Language is the best tool to help your child do well later in school and in life. Many
children learn more than one language. Some learn even more than two. Studies
show that children with better language skills, in any language, are more likely to:
 Develop their brain better.
 Have stronger bonds with their parents.
 Have better communication skills.
 Be better prepared for school

How Children Learn Two Languages

Learning two languages takes TIME and many OCCASIONS to practice. If your child
is learning two languages or even a third, your child needs to hear other people USE
each language often. Your child also needs to PRACTICE talking in each language.
Hearing adults talk is not enough to learn languages. Putting young children in front
of screens (television, computer and electronic games) is not recommended. Children
need to use the languages in day-to-day activities (e.g. while dressing, playing, going
to the park) while having fun with people who care about them.
Talk to your child in the language that feels natural to you. Remember you are your
child’s greatest teacher. If you use your first language often and while having fun,
your child will also want to use it.

Factors that help your child learn a second language

 Positive experiences
 Learning style
 Personality
 Attitude towards the other language
 Motivation to learn
 Quality of the language used by adults
 Amount of time hearing and talking each language

Strategies
Talk to Your Child in Your First Language
 Talking with your child in your first language gives your child the best
language model. You can better explain ideas, use more complicated words,
share jokes, ask questions and be more spontaneous in your first language.
 Keep speaking your first language, even if your child starts daycare or school
and even when he/she answers in another language.
 When your child starts daycare or school, share words from your first language
with the teacher that your child may use to talk about needs or feelings (e.g.,
“water”, “hurt”, “potty”). This helps the teacher understand your child.
 Talk about your family and your culture with your child. Talk about recent or
past family events and about traditional music, clothing or food.

Read Books in Your First Language

 Read books often. Read to them in your first language.
  Tell stories that you have learned as a child in your first language. Books and
storytelling help children develop listening, thinking, language and reading
skills.
 Talk about the pictures in the book. Take turns talking about these pictures.
Your child will learn new words in your first language.
 Keep reading materials around the house (comic books, magazines, cereal
boxes).
 Get a library card and visit the library often. Books are available in a variety of
languages.

Play and Sing With Your Child in Your First Language

 When your child plays, he/she learns to take turns, follow directions and use
words in his/her first language while having fun.
 Meet with friends and family to give your child more chances to use his/her
first language in fun activities.
 Sing traditional songs in your first language. Explain new words and talk about
the meaning behind the songs.
 Listen to songs and music in your first language or both languages, over and
over. Children learn from and love the repetition.
 Look for children’s programs in community centres or at the library that offer
activities in your first language.

DEVELOPMENT CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE VIEWS OF PIAGET,

VYGOTSKY, AND CHOMSKY ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND
LEARNING

Chomsky believed that language is innate, or in other words, we are

born with a capacity for language. ... Chomsky believed
that language is so complex, with an unlimited combination of sounds,
words, and phrases, that environmental learning is not able to account
for language acquisition alone
Culture

Let's think a minute about the different things that may be considered part of a
person's culture. What could we include? Most definitely art, clothing, food, music,
and religion, just to name a few. But why is this important? Well, no matter where we
live or what we do, our cultural background gives us a sense of identity, something we
learn when we're very young.
India is a beautiful land, infused with a variety of colors, cultures, ethnic backgrounds,
languages, and religions. However, it can be difficult to both learn and teach when
there are cultural differences. That's why it's important for educators to identify and
understand how culture impacts early childhood development in order to help all
children feel safe, confident, and loved. There are few developmental
domains through which children grow and progress, and see how they are impacted by
culture.
1. Cognitive development refers to how we learned and think. Our brains do the most
growing from ages zero to three. How is our learning impacted by our culture?
Culture influences on the choices which one makes, as it influences values,
priorities etc.
2. A child's emotional development can also be impacted by their culture. Emotional
development is how children learn to process their feelings.
3. Children who have strong religious convictions may have social and spiritual
support networks to help them develop socially and also emotionally.
4. Moral development is integrated with spirituality in the Indian context.
Unit III – Understanding the Process of Learning

 Cognition in Learning: Cognitive process-perception, attention, memory,

development of concepts, logical reasoning, critical thinking development of concepts,
strategies for teaching concepts; problem solving.
 Learning as construction of knowledge; learning as cognitive and socio-
culturally
meditative process: meta cognition, socio-cultural mediation, experimental learning,
cognitive negotiability, understanding constructivist nature of knowing, doing and
practicing in classroom/field, in community setting; critical appraisal of views of
Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky with reference to multiple school contexts of India.
 Forms of learner’s engagement in the process of knowledge construction:
observing, demonstration, exploring, discovering, analysing, contextualisation,
collaboration, multiple interpretations, critical reflection based on observation,
selected reading and discussion.
 Motivation in Learning: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; approaches to
motivation:
humanistic approach; cognitive approach (attribution theory-Weiner).
 Multiple ways of organising learning in different subject areas individualised,
self-learning, group learning, cooperative learning etc.

COGNITION IN LEARNING
Cognitive process
It is a mental or cognitive processes. Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks
the brain does continuously. They are procedures in charge of processing all the
information we receive from the environment. Thanks to these cognitive
processes, cognition exists and it allows us to explore the world.

Sensation and perception

Sensations are caused by different stimuli in our environment. The stimuli first reach
our senses and allow us to filter information from the outside world. Once we receive
this information, perception takes over and we start interpreting these stimuli.
We are continuously using our perception without even noticing it. We are conscious
of other people’s movements, messages we receive on our phone, food flavors, our
posture, etc. Our past experiences also play a part in the interpretation of different
stimuli.
Gestalt psychologists were the main researchers in perception. “The whole is greater
than the sum of the parts.”- Gestalt.
They believed that we are active human beings that process reality as a whole
comprised of different parts. They also explained how different types of perception
can happen including illusions.
Attention
Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are capable of
centering our attention on the stimuli that interest us. Some actions such as walking
and chewing require little attention. Nonetheless, other activities such as speaking and
body language require focus, especially when we are giving a lecture.
Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves towards
relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it. There are different types of attention
including arousal, focused attention, sustained attention, selective attention,
alternating attention, and divided attention.
Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we have to repeat several
times a day, making it easier to focus on other tasks. For example, at first learning to
drive and focus on all the things one must do is difficult but after a while, it is done
naturally and without thinking.
Memory
What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary school? How do
you play the guitar? Our memory has the answers to these questions and much more.
It allows us to encode the data we receive from the environment, consolidate and
retrieve it later.
We have different types of memory; sensory memory, short-term memory, working
memory, semantic memory, etc. All these types of memories interact together but they
don’t all depend on the same brain areas. An example of this is people with amnesia
still remember how to walk but can’t remember their partner’s name.
Cognitive processes such as memory are essential for daily life. Memory, as a
cognitive process, includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the
mechanism where information is changed from the moment it reaches us to a form
that our brain can store. Storage refers to how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held. 
Finally, retrieval refers to getting information out storage.

Development of concepts
Concepts help a child to understand about direction, location, position, number,
quantity, sequence, attributes, dimension, size and similarities and differences. In
order to function in society one must learn the rules and structures of the language
system. One structure of language that helps a child to become more specific in their
understanding and use of language is the knowledge of concepts.

Concept development refers to the basic understanding that is necessary to make sense

of one's world. This includes ideas about the self and others, objects, and the
environment. This foundation of understanding is crucial to communication, travel,
and independence.
What are the building blocks necessary to develop the understanding of concepts
among children?
 Hearing: A child needs to have adequate hearing abilities to ensure that they can
hear appropriate language models, and therefore use appropriate language.
 Attention and concentration: Sustained effort, doing activities without
distraction and being able to hold that effort long enough to get the task done.
 Play skills: Voluntary engagement in self motivated activities that are normally
associated with pleasure and enjoyment where the activities may be, but are not
necessarily, goal oriented.
 Receptive (understanding) language: Comprehension of language.
Understanding of language develops before expressive language. In order to be
able to use language appropriately, a child first needs to be able to understand
the specific language area. The difference between what a child understands and
what they can say is about 5:1 between the ages of 2-3½ years (i.e. the child
knows a lot more than what they can say).

Logical reasoning tests (also known as critical reasoning tests) are designed to assess

a candidate's ability at skills such as how to interpret patterns, number sequences or
the relationships between shapes.
 Deductive reasoning determines whether the truth of a conclusion can be
determined for that rule, based solely on the truth of the premises. Example:
"When it rains, things outside get wet. The grass is outside, therefore: when it
rains, the grass gets wet." Mathematical logic and philosophical logic are
commonly associated with this type of reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning attempts to support a determination of the rule. It
hypothesizes a rule after numerous examples are taken to be a conclusion that
follows from a precondition in terms of such a rule. Example: "The grass got wet
numerous times when it rained, therefore: the grass always gets wet when it rains."
While they may be persuasive, these arguments are not deductively valid, see
the problem of induction. Science is associated with this type of reasoning.
 Abductive reasoning, are inference to the best explanation, selects a cogent set
of preconditions. Given a true conclusion and a rule, it attempts to select some
possible premises that, if true also, can support the conclusion, though not
uniquely. Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass is wet. Therefore,
it might have rained." This kind of reasoning can be used to develop a hypothesis,
which in turn can be tested by additional reasoning or
data. Diagnosticians, detectives, and scientists often use this type of reasoning.
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps based on
sound mathematical procedures and given statements to arrive at a conclusion.
Geometric proofs use logical reasoning and the definitions and properties of geometric
figures and terms to state definitively that something is always true. In logical
reasoning, an if-then statement (also known as a conditional statement) is a statement
formed when one thing implies another.
 How to develop logical reasoning?
Engaging in Activities that Require Critical Thought
1. Keep trying new things. A great way to improve reasoning skills is to keep trying new
things..
2. Exercise. Physical exercise actually has an effect on memory and thinking. ...
3. Journal writing . ...
4. Read fiction. ...
5. Play games that require reasoning skills. ...
6. Create eg.draw, write, paint, .alternate thought patterns
7. Identify bias thoughts

Critical thinking 
It is the objective analysis of facts to form a judgment.[1] The subject is complex, and
there are several different definitions which generally include the rational, skeptical,
unbiased analysis or evaluation of factual evidence.
Critical thinking was described by Richard Paul as a movement in two waves (1994).
[2]
 The "first wave" of critical thinking is often referred to as a 'critical analysis' that is
clear, rational thinking involving critique. 

Etymology

In the term critical thinking, the word critical, derives from the word critic and implies
a critique; it identifies the intellectual capacity and the means "of judging", "of
judgement", "for judging", and of being "able to discern"

Definitions of critical thinking

Traditionally, critical thinking has been variously defined as:

 "the process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,

synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion"
 "disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by
evidence"
 "reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do"
 "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis,
evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that
judgment is based"
 "includes a commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs"
 the skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism
(McPeck, 1981)
 disciplined, self-directed thinking which exemplifies the perfection of thinking
appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thinking (Paul, 1989, p. 214)
 thinking about one's thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise
the efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one's own thinking. Critical
thinking is not 'hard' thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than
 'improving' one's own thinking). Critical thinking is inward-directed with the
intent of maximizing the rationality of the thinker. One does not use critical
thinking to solve problems—one uses critical thinking to improve one's process of
thinking.
 "an appraisal based on careful analytical evaluation"
Contemporary critical thinking scholars have expanded these traditional definitions to
include qualities, concepts, and processes such as creativity, imagination, discovery,
reflection, empathy, connecting knowing, feminist theory, subjectivity, ambiguity, and
inconclusiveness. Some definitions of critical thinking exclude these subjective
practices.

Strategies for teaching concepts

Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy

 Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the
development of logical reasoning & critical thinking.
 May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)
 Proceeds through 4 primary phases: ...
 Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom

Models of Instruction

Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy

 Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the
development of logical reasoning & critical thinking
 May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)
 Proceeds through 4 primary phases:
1. Clarify goals & conditions
2. Illustrate examples & nonexamples
3. Students provide examples & nonexamples to demonstrate attainment of
concept
4. Guide students to think about their own thinking (examine their
decisions, consequences of choices, how concept fits in with bigger
picture)
 Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom

o Select Big Idea concepts and determine the best approach:

 Inductive through direct presentation of the concept first, or
 Deductive (Concept Attainment) through examples/non-examples
& guided discovery
o Clarify aims/establish a “hook” to draw students in
o Proceed through the selected inductive or deductive approach using
examples & non-examples
o Get students to demonstrate their understanding
 o Employ higher-level questioning & discussion strategies -- help students
analyze their own thinking processes.

Concept Formation
Concepts are generalised images / ideas about an object, event, thing or the another.
It is mental abstractions/ categories for things in the physical world.

Jean Piaget theory (concept formation)

Stages of cognitive development
0 – 2 begin to recognize objects
2 – 7 develop language; able to think symbolically; see others’ point of view
7 – 11 able to solve concrete problems logically; able to classify
11 – 15+ able to solve abstract problems logically
Believed people adapt to their environment through assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation: Trying to understand new information by adapting it to what is already
known (Pre-existing schemata).
Accommodation: If new data does not fit into pre-existing schemata, development of
new schemata for the new data.

Problem Solving Method

Students are presented with problems which require them to find either a scientificor
technological solution. It is a student-centered strategy which require students to
become active participants in the learning 

Steps involved in problem solving

 Identification of the problem
 Analysis of the problem and gathering of information bearing on the problem
 Selection of one or more hypotheses
 Testing of hypotheses
 Arriving at a conclusion relative to the solution of the problem

Advantages
 Development of Long-Term Knowledge Retention
 Use of Diverse Instruction Types
 Continuous engagement
 Development of Transferable Skills:
 Improvement of Teamwork and Interpersonal Skills

Disadvantages
 Potentially Poorer Performance on Tests
 Student Unpreparedness
 Teacher Unpreparedness
 Time-Consuming Assessment
 Varying Degrees of Relevancy and Applicability
LEARNING AS CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge through our thoughts, experiences,
and senses. Learning involves acquiring knowledge through experience, study, and
being taught. These two concepts are almost identical and cannot occur without each
other. The first step in cognitive learning is paying attention

Cognitive Processes and Learning

One way we use the cognitive processes in our daily lives is with learning.
Learning is not just something we do in school or in formal settings. We learn every
day. Sometimes our very survival depends on how well we can learn. That may
mean unlearning our learned limitations and regaining confidence in our ability to
direct our own learning.
In today's world, someone who doesn't know how to learn is left behind. By
exploring your own learning process and determining your natural learning style,
you can find the best ways for you to learn. Then you, not the instructor or the
situation, are in charge of your learning.
Learning is broadly defined as change. The focus can be on what we learn (the
product of learning) or on how we learn (the process). It is about how we change and
how we adapt, grow, and develop. This adaptation, growth, and development occur
from the inside out.
All eight cognitive processes play a role in our learning. We enter a learning
situation with some perceptions already formed and some judgments already made.
We are more open to certain kinds of information and more inclined to organize that
information in certain ways.
What if we all could learn how we learn? Then if some kinds of learning were harder
than others, we could find the source of that difficulty rather than rejecting what is
being taught or feeling bad about ourselves for not learning.
Socio-culturally mediative process
I. One issue in cognitive psychology that has received considerable attention in
recent years has to do with the extent to which learning and cognition is
SITUATIONAL and CULTURALLY SPECIFIC rather than something that is
largely independent of the specific domain and situation in which it occurs
(e.g., Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
A. It has been suggested, for example, that:
1. meaningful learning and knowledge is situated in a particular
cultural context (culture on a small, not large, scale),
2. knowledge evolves by being used in "authentic" activities,
3. useful knowledge is embedded in action and consists of
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE rather than the
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE traditionally taught in
school, and
 4. there are substantial differences between school learning and
learning in the real world.
I. With regard to this model, Collins, Brown, & Newman (1989) suggest a
framework for designing learning environments (socio-cultural) in which
students:
A. observe and model the desired performance in an environment similar to
the ones in which the performance is to occur;
B. receive external support from a tutor or expert in the form of coaching
and/or conceptual scaffolding;
C. experience the gradual fading of that support,
D. articulate and reflect upon the knowledge, reasoning, and problem-
solving processes in the domain being studied; and
E. forced to explore new ways in which the knowledge or skill can be used.
F. The learning experience is sequenced with regard to:
1. increasing complexity,
2. increasing diversity, and
3. the acquisition of global before local skills

Classroom Applications of Vygotsky's Theory

Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is based on the idea that
development is defined both by what a child can do independently and by what the
child can do when assisted by an adult or more competent peer (Daniels, 1995;
Wertsch, 1991). Knowing both levels of Vygotsky’s zone is useful for teachers, for
these levels indicate where the child is at a given moment as well as where the child is
going. The zone of proximal development has several implications for teaching in the
classroom.

According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the

teacher must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of
doing on their own but what they can learn with the help of others (Karpov &
Haywood, 1998).

Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only
instruction and activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example,
if a child cannot identify the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may
not benefit immediately from instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known
skills and introduction of concepts that are too difficult and complex have little
positive impact. Teachers can use information about both levels of Vygotsky’s zone of
proximal development in organizing classroom activities in the following ways:

 Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal

development for individual children or for groups of children. For example,
hints and prompts that helped children during the assessment could form the
basis of instructional activities.
 Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at
different levels who can help each other learn.
  Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in
his or her zone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and
prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task,
but the role of the learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of
the teacher” (Greenfield, 1984, p. 119).

For example, a child might be shown pennies to represent each sound in a word (e.g.,
three pennies for the three sounds in “man”). To master this word, the child might be
asked to place a penny on the table to show each sound in a word, and finally the child
might identify the sounds without the pennies. When the adult provides the child with
pennies, the adult provides a scaffold to help the child move from assisted to
unassisted success at the task (Spector, 1992). In a high school laboratory science
class, a teacher might provide scaffolding by first giving students detailed guides to
carrying out experiments, then giving them brief outlines that they might use to
structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up experiments entirely on their
own. 

Meta-cognition: 
Metacognition is “cognition about cognition”, or “thinking about thinking”. In other
words, it is a deeper level of thinking that includes our ability to think about our
thinking; how we understand, adapt, change, control, and use our thought processes. It
comes from the root word “meta”, meaning beyond. It can take many forms; it
includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for
problem solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: knowledge
about cognition, and regulation of cognition.

Metacognition also involves thinking about one’s own thinking process such as study
skills, memory capabilities, and the ability to monitor learning. This concept needs to
be explicitly taught along with content instruction. Metacognitive knowledge is about
our own cognitive processes and our understanding of how to regulate those processes
to maximise learning

Experiencing Learning and Reflection: Broadly, experiential learning is any learning

that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to
real-world problems or situations where the instructor directs and facilitates learning.
In experiential learning, individuals deepen their knowledge through repeatedly acting
and then reflecting on this action and develop skills through practice and reflection.
Social Mediation: According to Vygotsky, learning is fundamentally a socially
mediated and constructed activity. Human beings interact with their environment
primarily through mediational means; and these mediational means such as the use of
cultural artefacts, tools and symbols, including language, play crucial roles in the
formation of human intellectual capacities. According to him, knowledge is
constructed through mediation.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING 
Experiential learning is the process of learning through experience, and is more
specifically defined as "learning through reflection on doing". Hands-on learning is a
form of experiential learning but does not necessarily involve students reflecting on
their product.
If we are to know if “significant learning” is taking place in the classroom, we must be
capable of recognizing it when it occurs. If you look up the definition of “learn” in a
dictionary, you will likely find the following: 1) to acquire knowledge of a subject
or skill through education or experience, 2) to gain information about somebody or
something, or 3) to memorize something, for example, facts, a poem, a piece of music,
or a dance. This definition is not particularly insightful, although it reminds us that
the word can be used to describe the acquisition of both knowledge and skill, and
that acquisition can be by a variety of means, including education, experience, or
memorization. Still, we are left without a clear understanding of what it means to
“acquire knowledge or skill.” Other things that “we acquire” are obtained by physical
means. How does this relate to learning? Are there different degrees of
“acquisition” and, if so, do they represent equal types of learning? For
example, is memorizing a fact the same as learning to interpret a complex text? How
about learning to play a musical instrument? The Oxford English Dictionary also
provides a definition that acknowledges the importance of teaching as a vehicle for
learning, a welcome reminder for teachers. Taking a different view, Atkinson et al.
(1993) describe learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior that results
from practice." Others (e.g., Simon 1996) have pointed out that the purpose of
learning has recently shifted from being able to recall information (surface learning) to
being able to find and use it (deep learning).
Knowledge was ‘transmitted’ from an authority (the teacher) to a learner (the student),
generally by lecture. This thinking and practice are firmly entrenched in most
classrooms despite the fact that the ineffectiveness of lecture-based teaching has been
known for quite some time. Modern cognitive psychology tells us that learning is a
constructive, not receptive, process (Glaser 1991). This theory of learning
(constructivism) holds that understanding comes through experiences and interaction
with the environment, and that the learner uses a foundation of previous knowledge to
construct new understanding. Consequently, the learner has primary responsibility
for constructing knowledge and understanding, not the teacher. In a constructivist
classroom, the teacher is no longer the “authority” but instead is a guide or facilitator
who assists students in learning.
According to Kolb (1984), the learning cycle begins when the learner interacts with
the environment (concrete experience). Sensory information from this experience
is integrated and compared with existing knowledge (reflective observation).
New models, ideas, and plans for action are created from this information (abstract
hypotheses), and finally new action is taken (active testing). The Kolb cycle is
consistent with the earlier work of Piaget and others who pointed out that learning has
both a concrete (active) and an abstract (intellectual) dimension (Figure 2).
Learning involves building mental models (schema) consisting of new and existing
information. The richer the links between new and existing information, the deeper
the knowledge and the more readily it can be retrieved and applied in new situations.
Building rich links involves an iterative process of building, testing, and refining
schema that organizes knowledge into conceptual frameworks. If existing knowledge
serves as a foundation for new learning, then it is also essential that existing
misconceptions, preconceptions, and naive conceptions are acknowledged and
corrected during the learning process.

Figure 2. Kolb’s learning cycle.

Cognitive Negotiability
Characteristic of a document (such as a check, draft, bill of exchange) that allows it to
be legally and freely (unconditionally) assignable, saleable, or transferable. It allows
the passing of its ownership from one party (transferor) to another (transferee) by
endorsement or delivery.

A learner constructs meanings on the basis of his/her experiences and level of

cognitive negotiability. Students tend to learn and understand things faster if they see
it the practical way, rather than learn it from textbooks and listen to what the teacher
teaches. Cognitive negotiability is about providing authentic, real world experiences to
the individuals.

Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeship

Situated learning “takes as its focus the relationship between learning and the social
situation in which it occurs”. At its simplest, situated learning is learning that takes
place in the same context in which it is applied. Learning should not be viewed as
simply the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another, but a social
process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; such learning is situated in a specific
context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment.
Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory that honours the situated nature of knowledge.
Cognitive scientists maintain that the context in which learning takes place is critical.
So, in cognitive apprenticeships, the activity being taught is modelled in real-world
situations. Situations might be said to co-produce knowledge through activity.

UNDERSTANDING CONSTRUCTIVIST NATURE OF KNOWING, DOING

AND PRACTICING IN CLASSROOM/FIELD, IN COMMUNITY SETTING

Take Charge of Your Learning

We are born to learn. Learning is how we grow and develop. It is how we adjust
and adapt to an ever-changing and demanding world.
When we look at learning, we need to examine three factors:
 What - the content or skill to be learned
 How - the learning context
 Who- the learning style of the learner
When all of these factors are congruent, the result is effective, efficient learning.
When they are not congruent, at best we have a high energy cost, and at worst we
have no learning.
To take charge of your own learning, capitalize on lessons from the past to plan for
the future. Think about the cognitive processes we just explored, as well as your
descriptions of your best and worst learning experiences. Answer the following
questions and then think of your preferred learning pattern to anticipate what will
make your next learning experience better.
I. Current conceptions of knowing, doing and practicing stress that learning is:
(constructivist way)
A. ACTIVE "in that the student must do certain things while processing
incoming information in order to learn the material in a meaningful
manner" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
* The task of the teacher is to create a learning environment that will
engage those psychological processes of the student that are responsible
for learning.
B. CONSTRUCTIVE "in that new information must be elaborated and
related to other information in order for the student to retain simple
information and understand complex material" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
C. CUMULATIVE "in that all new learning builds upon and/or utilizes the
learner's prior knowledge in ways that determine what and how much is
learned" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
D. SELF-REGULATED in that the learner must make various decisions as
learning progresses as to what should be done next (e.g., rehearse a
particular piece of information, seek an answer to a question that just
came to mind) and make periodic checks on how well he or she
understands the material being learned.
E. GOAL ORIENTED "in that learning is most likely to be successful if
the learner is aware of the goal (at least in a general sense) toward which
he or she is working and possesses expectation that are appropriate for
attaining the desired outcome" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
F. SOCIO-CULTURAL in nature, in that what students learn and how they
learn it is dependent on a variety of social and cultural factors. That is,
meaningful learning involves more than purely cognitive operations.

CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF VIEWS OF PIAGET, BRUNER AND

VYGOTSKY WITH REFERENCE TO MULTIPLE SCHOOL CONTEXTS OF
INDIA
Type of schools

 ICSE / CISE – Indian Certificate of secondary education / council of Indian

School certificate examinations.
 CBSE – Central Board of Secondary Education, India
 State Board – followed by all state governments
 Matriculation Board - followed

Concept Piaget Bruner Vygotsky

/educationist
views
learning Active Learning should be Collaborative
construction, reconstruction of construction of
restructuring prior experience. This is socially defined
knowledge occurs done in ICSE board knowledge &
through multiple and to a certain values occurs
opportunities and extent CBSE through socially
diverse process to schools constructed
connect to what is opportunities in the
already known. form of group work
This principal is and projects in
accepted by Govt. ICSE Schools only
Matric and CBSE
schools in India,
but followed only
in ICSE board.
Teaching method Challenge students, Teach through Co- construct
guide students effective strategies, knowledge with
thinking towards correct students is
understanding is misconceptions are prioritised in ICSE
done at ICSE prioritised in CBSE board.
boards boards.
Role of teacher Facilitator, guide, Allow the student Facilitator, guide,
listens for students into the path of co-participant is
current conception, discovery. ABL adopted in ICSE
ides, thinking is not and ALM method
followed by any followed in State
board except boards (at the
partially by ICSE primary level in
Tamil Nadu)
Role of students Active participants Co-operate and Co-construct,
in the learning discover (active collaborate in
process (active thinker, explainer, learning process,
thinker, explainer, interpreter etc.) is active thinker,
interpreter etc.) is also seen in ICSE explainer,
 found mostly in and certain extent interpreter,
CBSE and ICSE CBSE boards questioner, etc.
boards seen in ICSE
boards
knowledge Changing body of It is innate and Built on what
knowledge intellectual participants
individually development move contribute construct
constructed in from enactive together.
social world. Based (activity) to ISCE board mostly.
on learners symbolic
exposure and (language).
interest. This is (Followed in some
seen in Govt. state boards e.g.
Matric, ISCE and Tamil nadu),
CBSE matric, CBSE &
ICSE board
Law of readiness Only when the Opposed law of Children are ready
child is ready, readiness: to learn if they are
learning takes place Child can be appropriately
effectively. Based prepared to learn by exposed to social
on the age group adopting effective learning situations.
learning concept strategies. Hence He supports
has to be arranged. age is not a factor Piaget’s views.
Followed in State, for learning. Followed in State,
Matric and CBSE Followed in ICSE Matric and CBSE
board board board
Concept through Learning through Social cultural
formation assimilation and experience influence
accommodation (enactive-action (scaffolding, zone
and complex based{0-1 yrs}, proximal
cognitive iconic-image based development,
development occurs {1-6 yrs} and cultural clues)
through equilibrium symbolic-language
based{7 yrs and
above}) and
concept formation
is natural and over
the age it develops.
Supports vygotsky
view of mature
person influence
immature person in
concept formation
Interaction Self talk is good at Interpersonal and Self talk is given
lower level but as intra personal more importance as
the child grows it relations are it acts in cognition
 reflects his/her poor emphasised. and also outlet for
mental health. Learning is through stress. Self talk
cooperation. leads to
ICSE follows this development of
method. interpersonal
relations
Language Language Language Takes place when
development development takes development is a students are
place. Mother cause not a learning in groups.
tongue is a priority consequence of Mother tongue is a
only state boards cognitive priority only state
follow. CBSE development. boards follow.
gives hindi and Mother tongue is a
English medium priority only state
while ICSE offers boards follow.
English medium
only.
Cultural effect Culture influences Culture influence Culture influence
learning hence state learning CBSE learning CBSE
board and matric gives mild gives mild
boards bring in preference but preference but
culturally sensitive ICSE doesn’t give ICSE doesn’t give
topics in syllabus. preference preference
Level of Easy to difficult No formats. To a Easy to difficult
difficulty followed in state certain extent followed in state
board, matric and followed by ICSE board, matric and
CBSSE boards CBSSE
Learning All round All round All round
objective development of the development of the development of the
individual – individual – Able to individual – Able to
interaction and self invent new things solve problems
sufficient and solve problems keeping socio-
personality. State is followed in ICSE cultural aspects in
board and board mind. ICSE and
matriculation CBSE focus on
focuses on this this.
India being a big country is not able to cater to all the principles discussed by
educationist and psychologist. But our system of education has progressed
remarkably within the broad boundaries and has contributed to the growth and
development of science and technology. For a diverse country like India providing
equal opportunity to all its learners is a challenging task. But education sector gets
prime allocation of funds to improve the quality of teaching and learning and in the
due course of time the views of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner etc. will be addressed
effectively by incorporating them into the education system to a greater extent
possible. As teaching and learning is an evolving process, things will improve for the
better in the future.

FORMS OF LEARNER’S ENGAGEMENT IN THE PROCESS OF

KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION:

Constructivist theory avers that the learning method leads the construction of
personal knowledge and cognitive skills. For decades, the promotion of students’
cognition has been the focus of educational studies and programs (Boddy, Watson, &
Aubusson, 2003; de Bono, 1976; Ennis, 1996; Watts, Jofili, & Bezerra, 1997). Many
students may not be interested in the curriculum, but everybody is interested in the
parts of the world that they believe relate to their own existence. This basic self
interest, if it is allowed to flourish intellectually, can lead to a wide variety of
discoveries motivated by curiosity based on internal needs.

If we want to allow students to pursue their own interests, we need to provide them
with a way to get their questions answered. Many of the teaching architectures are, in
fact, specifically designed to bring students to the point that they want to know
something. How are we to help them?
Teacher cannot possibly know the answers to all questions a student might develop.
The idea that any one teacher knows all there is to know is ludicrous. The one-on-
thirty model of learning should be exactly the other way around--thirty teachers to one
student. Students should have access to experts, technology and a variety of
experiences. They should be able to access various resources easily and quickly, and
should have the opportunity to compare and contrast the different opinions of their
learning experiences. Hence learners have to be exposed to different means of
learning. Experience makes a man perfect and cognition is strengthened by providing
different experiences to the learner. The following are some of the forms of learners’
engagement in the process of knowledge construction.

OBSERVATION
Observational learning, or modeling, is a type of learning most associated with the
work and social learning theory of psychologist Albert Bandura. Observational
learning is thought to be particularly important during childhood. The action or
process of closely observing or monitoring something or someone.

Learning that occurs as a function of seeing, retaining, and, in the case of imitation
learning, replicating novel behavior executed by other people. Albert Bandura- A
psychologist and learning theorist who first proposed social learning theory and can be
credited for first noting observational learning. Observational or social learning is
based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura (1977). He and his colleagues were
able to demonstrate through a variety of experiments that the application of
consequences was not necessary for learning to take place. Rather learning could
occur through the simple processes of observing someone else's activity. This work
provided the foundation for Bandura's (986) later work in social cognition.
Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive
view and an operant view of learning.
1. Attention -- the individual notices something in the environment. 
2. Retention -- the individual remembers what was noticed. 
3. Reproduction -- the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was
noticed. 
4. Motivation -- the environment delivers a consequence that changes the
probability the behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment)

Bandura's work draws from both behavioral and cognitive views of learning. He

believes that mind, behavior and the environment all play an important role in the
learning process.
e.g. observing experienced teachers by student-teachers.

Types of Observation
1. Casual and Scientific observation
2. Natural Observation 
3. Subjective and Objective observation
4. Direct and Indirect observation
5. Participant and Non Participant observation
6. Structured and Unstructured observation
7. Controlled and Non Controlled observation

Advantages
 Understands the process of the event or activity with better clarity.
 Makes learning more informative and interesting
 Lively experience
 Active participation
 Develops cognition

Disadvantage
 Not everything can be observed
 Time consuming
 Sometimes self-motivation is needed to stay focussed.

Demonstration
An act of showing that something exists or is true by giving proof or evidence. "This
demonstration of the need for computer corpora in language study is convincing"
eg. Students demonstrate presentation....

Steps / stages
1. Introduction: In this step objectives of the lesson are stated. The teacher
may be called demonstrator. He demonstrates the activity before the
student that is to be developed.
 2. Development. Students try to initiate the demonstrated activity. If there is
any query the teacher tries to satisfy them by further demonstration and
illustrations.
3. Integration. At this step, the teacher integrates all the activities and then
these activities are rehearsed revised and evaluated.
This teaching strategy is based on the following principles
1. Learning by doing maxim is followed
2. Skills can be developed by limitation
3. The perception helps in imitation

Advantages
 It helps in involving various sense to make learning permanent
 It invites the cooperation of pupils in teaching learning process.
 It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active
participation
 It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives
 Simple and complex concepts, still becomes easy to understand.
 Experiment presented through demonstration strengthens abilities like
observation and indicates this inference.
 It makes the pupils familiar with the nature and use of apparatus.
 Psychologically children learn from role modelling of teacher in terms of
values, behaviour, personality etc. Which shape as well as model cognition.

Disadvantages of Demonstration Method

1. It can be used only for skills subjects
2. Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity demonstrated.
They are not free to discuss about it
3. Due to poor economic conditions of the government schools, there is scarcity of
audio-visual aids and equipment and the teachers are not so creative to produce
handmade models for demonstration
4. There is a general lack of sincerity and diligence among teachers who wish to
complete the syllabus or syllabi at the earliest without putting sincere efforts

Exploring
Learning by Exploring simply means enabling students to pursue their own interests.

Definition
To investigate, study, or analyze :  look into explore the relationship between
social class and learning ability —sometimes used with indirect questions

We often talk about the five senses, these are:

Taste – the stimulation that comes when our taste receptors react to chemicals in our
mouth.
Touch – the stimulation that comes from touch receptors in our skin that react to
pressure, heat/cold, or vibration.
 Smell – the stimulation of chemical receptors in the upper airways (nose).
Sight – the stimulation of light receptors in our eyes, which our brains then interpret
into visual images.
Hearing – the reception of sound, via mechanics in our inner ear.
Exploring helps to know about the content, its level, its relevance, its impact and its
relations with the surrounding. This knowledge is useful for better understanding and
hence enhances cognition. It brings in the skills of searching, persistence, goal
directed behaviour, independent analysis, creative articulation of analysis, etc. E.g.
exploring about a particular topic from the books available in the library and prepares
assignment. Eg. Students work on case studies, book reviews, field visits, etc.

Steps For Exploring

Below are some steps for exploring and declaring majors. 

o Reflect:  Piece together important information about yourself – your interests, values,
abilities – before you begin exploration so you can really focus your attention on areas
that will complement you.  It does not help you to pursue a major that does not suit
your skills or interests, so please be honest with yourself throughout this process. 
o Collect: Gather information about the majors and opportunities available relevant to
the task.
o Narrow:  It’s impossible to do thorough research on every major on campus, so try to
narrow it down to 5 or 6 options. 
o Investigate:  Carry out the research in terms of finding the core objective of
exploration based on scientific methods and procedures.
o Document: This is an important process of exploration. It is not just exploring which
matters, but the ability to document the investigation is equally important.
Documentation can be in the form of photographs, videos, printed materials,
documents, objects, fossils, specimens, history, data’s etc. Some of these majors
include: art, business, computer science, construction management, engineering,
political science, hospitality industry, and technical journalism.
o Evaluation: Make sure you’re satisfied with your decision and you are successful in
the major. 
 How does your major feel to you?
 Do you enjoy what you are doing in college?
 Do you enjoy your courses and professors?
 Are you earning the grades you expect or desire?
 Are you looking forward to pursuing internships?
 If you are not satisfied then ask yourself with what in particular you feel
uncomfortable. If you do not like what you are doing or your major courses, or
if you are not motivated, talk to your advisor about your misgivings.

Advantages of learning through exploring

 Active learning, develops curiosity, interest, enhances levels of aspiration etc.
 Independent analysis – self phased, individualised, and need based.
 Creative and problem solving ability develops
 Goal oriented learning
  Sense of achievement
 Group learning and learning through cooperation
 Meta-cognitive skills develop
 Development of Independence and confidence.

Discovering
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place
in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past
experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths
to be learned. Discovering something can also have a myriad of meanings. Firstly it
can be used to refer to the first to learn something. Here are some examples.
Penicillium was discovered by the Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. Radium was
discovered by Marie Curie.
Discover can also be used when we want to refer to something that we have learnt or
become aware of. This does not have to be a first form of discovery but can even refer
to our day to day activities.

Discovery learning
1961 - Jerome Bruner, an American psychologist, introduces the Discovery Learning
Model.
What is Discovery Learning?
Discovery Learning was introduced by Jerome Bruner, and is a method of Inquiry-
Based Instruction. This popular theory encourages learners to build on past
experiences and knowledge, use their intuition, imagination and creativity, and search
for new information to discover facts, correlations and new truths. Learning does not
equal absorbing what was said or read, but actively seeking for answers and solutions.
Discovery learning is a kind of teaching that is based on the student finding things out
for themselves, looking into problems, and asking questions. Essentially, it's all about
students coming to their own conclusions and asking about things in their course that
might not make particular sense. Obviously, as soon as enquiries are made, they can
learn new things and hence will have become part of an innovative, thought-
provoking and interesting educational journey. Top psychologists in the country have
promoted this kind of learning.
Discovery learning is used in the classroom during problem solving exercises and
educational programs. Students will undergo discovery learning when they are
looking at their own experiences and knowledge in their studies, and enquiring about
further information to improve their understanding. Discovery learning will also be
used in terms of answering controversial and tricky questions, asking other people
what they think, and generally discussing things. Experiments are also key to
discovery learning, for instance in sciences, where students will be able to experience
science right in front of them - and discover things that may occur, which hence
prompts them to ask the question 'why?'
In a regular classroom, a teacher who is trying to enforce new innovative methods of
teaching might give students different problems, and try and get them to work together
to come up with a solution to this problem. This can be implemented in nearly any
kind of class and consistently proves to be an effective way of teaching. It provides
numerous benefits, and of course is a great way of integrating special needs students
with other students in conventional educational facilities.
The 5 Principles of Discovery Learning Model
The Discovery Learning Model integrates the following 5 principles:
 Principle 1: Problem Solving.
 Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining
existing and newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way,
learners are the driving force behind learning, take an active role and establish
broader applications for skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-
solving and probing.
 Principle 2: Learner Management.
Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn
at their own pace. This flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static
sequencing of lessons and activities, relieves learners from unnecessary stress, and
makes them feel they own learning.
 Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting.
Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and
encourage them to connect to the real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis
of new information, encouraging learners to extend what they know and invent
something new.
 Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation.
Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on
the assumption that learning is not a mere set of facts. Learners in fact learn to
analyze and interpret the acquired information, rather than memorize the correct
answer.
 Principle 5: Failure and Feedback.
Learning doesn’t only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through
failure. Discovery learning does not focus on finding the right end result, but the
new things we discover in the process. And it’s the instructor’s responsibility to
provide feedback, since without it learning is incomplete.

Discovery learning has many key advantages

 encourages active engagement
 promotes motivation
 promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
 It can be adjusted to the learner’s pace
 It ensures higher levels of retention
 develops creativity and problem solving skills.
 tailors learning experiences

What is the difference between Explore and Discover?

Definitions of Explore and Discover:
Explore: Explore something is to travel through an unfamiliar area in order to learn
about it or else to examine something. It involves divergent thinking skills.
Discover: Discover is to find something or else to gain knowledge or become aware
of something. It involves convergent thinking skills.
Characteristics of Explore and Discover:
 Individual:
Explore: Explore cannot be used for individual potential.
Discover: Discover can be used to refer to individual potential.
 Initial form:
Explore: Explore is not particularly used when referring to the first to learn about
something.
Discover: Discover is particularly used when we want to refer to the first to learn
something.

ANALYSING
Analysis skill is the ability to visualize, articulate, conceptualize or solve both
complex and uncomplicated problems by making decisions that are sensible given the
available information. Analysis skills refer to the ability to collect and analyze
information, problem-solve, and make decisions. Must be able to identify and define
problems, extract key information from data and develop workable solutions for the
problems identified in order to test and verify the cause of the problem and develop
solutions to resolve the problems identified.

Behaviour indicators of analysis

1.Collects information and data.
2. Extracts relevant data in order to identify possible causes for the problem.
3. Critically examines issues by breaking them down into manageable parts.
4. Analyses information to determine and ascertain the most likely cause of the
problem.
5. Identifies the logical, factual outcomes based on the data, information and analyses
conducted.
6. Identifies action to prevent the problem from occurring partially or totally.

Analytical Thinking – analysis needs analytical thinking

LEVEL I
• Undertakes a process of information and data collection and analysis for integration
purposes.
• Identifies and makes sets of information and determines their relationships.
• Codifies this data to detect trends and issues in the data and information in a logical
and factual manner.
• Makes logical deductions from data.
• Identifies a solution for resolving the problem.
LEVEL II
• Collects all the relevant information and data needed to address the problem.
• Organizes, classifies and synthesizes the data into fundamental issues.
• From the information, identifies the most probable causes of the problem.
• Reduces the information down into manageable components.
• Identifies the logical outcomes from the analyses of the data collected
. • Identifies the options and solutions for addressing the problems analyzed.
LEVEL III
• Collects, integrates and analyses all relevant data and information and reduces that
information down to manageable components and/or charts, diagrams or graphs.
• Identifies a number of solutions to complex problems integrating findings from
several different disciplines, identifies and evaluates the various options developed
and selects the most effective solution.
• Draws logical and objective conclusions from the data and validates them as the
prime cause and contributing causes.
• Identifies a number of solutions to the problem by identifying and evaluating the
various options developed and selects the most effective solution

Advantages of Analysing ability/skill

 Developing communication
 Creativity
 Problem solving
 Critical thinking
 Research

Contextualisation
Contextualization is the process of assigning meaning as a means of interpreting the
environment within which a text or action is executed. To place (something, such
as a word or activity) in a context. 
The definition of contextualize means to analyze a word or event in terms of the
words or concepts surrounding it. An example of contextualize is to keep feminist
perspectives in mind when reading a novel written during the women's civil rights
movement.
Contextual learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning.
Learning takes place when teachers are able to present information in a way that
students are able to construct meaning based on their own experiences. Contextual
learning experiences include internships, service learning, and study abroad programs,
among others.
Contextual learning may be useful for child development if it provides learning
experiences in a context in which children are interested and motivated. Various
experiential learning theorists have contributed to an understanding of contextual
learning.
Contextual learning has the following characteristics:
 emphasizing problem solving
 recognizing that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contexts
 assisting students in learning how to monitor their learning and thereby become
self-regulated learners
 anchoring teaching in the diverse life context of students by encouraging students
to learn from each other
 employing authentic assessment

Benefits of contextualization learning

 Both direct instruction and constructivist activities can be compatible and effective
in the achievement of learning goals
 Increasing one’s efforts results in more ability. This theory opposes the notion that
one’s aptitude is unchangeable. Striving for learning goals motivates an individual
to be engaged in activities with a commitment to learning.
 Children learn the standards values, and knowledge of society by raising questions
and accepting challenges to find solutions that are not immediately apparent. Other
learning processes are explaining concepts, justifying their reasoning and seeking
information. Therefore, learning is a social process which requires social and
cultural factors to be considered during instructional planning. This social nature
of learning also drives the determination of the learning goals.
 Knowledge and learning are situated in particular physical and social context. A
range of settings may be used such as the home, the community, and the
workplace, depending on the purpose of instruction and the intended learning
goals.
 Knowledge may be viewed as distributed or stretched over the individual, other
persons, and various artifacts such as physical and symbolic tools  and not solely
as a property of individuals. Thus, people, as an integral part of the learning
process, must share knowledge and tasks

Collaboration
The action of working with someone to produce something. "he wrote a book in
collaboration with his son".

Collaboration Cognition
Certain problems in real life require collaboration (cooperation, competition, or
coordination) from multiple agents (human or machines) in a social machine to take a
decision that maximizes an overall or public goal or utility. Every agent in such a
collaborative setting has its own private goal or utility. It is often a challenge
to maximize the public utility while balancing each agent's individual private utilities.
Collaborative Cognition (e.g., Sensing, Learning, and Decision Making) framework
provides solution for such real world problems. Collaborative Cognition refers to an
analytic viewpoint that looks beyond an individual’s cognition to include interactions
of individuals with others (including other non-human cognitive agents) in order to
develop far superior collective intelligence through computational
modeling/evaluations of strategic interactions among the agents.

Collaborative Learning
In a collaborative model, students become teachers, which students team together to
explore a significant question or create a meaningful project, asking questions of each
other, discussing, and drawing conclusions that they may then demonstrate to the
class. By the same token, teachers become students—we learn from our students’
questions and their ways of thinking, which differ from our own. students from
different schools working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both
examples of collaborative learning.
We also listen to them articulate their ideas to group members and negotiate meaning
as we circulate to answer questions and observe. They learn aloud, and we can hear
them creating knowledge together, rather than hoping they are learning as we stand at
the front of the room and speak. With group work, we know quickly when students
are confused or off-task, which allows us to change course. In a teacher centered
classroom, we can only guess or assess after the fact. And most important, students
must take responsibility for their own learning.
In collaborative learning the team has a mandate and the success of the team will
reflect on the them and not so much on the individuals efforts. i.e. collective
responsibility is emphasised whereas in cooperative learning, is a specific kind of
collaborative learning, in which, students work together in small groups. Individually
accountable is greater for their work. Collaborative groups work face-to-face and learn
to work as a team.
It is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of students
working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product.

Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that

involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or
create a product. Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally
social act in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that
learning occurs.

Characteristics / Principles to collaborative learning:

1. Learning is an active process whereby learners assimilate the information and

relate this new knowledge to a framework of prior knowledge.
2. Learning requires a challenge that opens the door for the learner to actively
engage his/her peers, and to process and synthesize information rather than
simply memorize and regurgitate it.
3. Learners benefit when exposed to diverse viewpoints from people with varied
backgrounds.
4. Learning flourishes in a social environment where conversation between
learners takes place. During this intellectual gymnastics, the learner creates a
framework and meaning to the discourse.
5. In the collaborative learning environment, the learners are challenged both
socially and emotionally as they listen to different perspectives, and are
required to articulate and defend their ideas. In so doing, the learners begin to
 create their own unique conceptual frameworks and not rely solely on an
expert's or a text's framework.

Thus, in a collaborative learning setting, learners have the opportunity to converse

with peers, present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other
conceptual frameworks, and be actively engaged.

Advantages
Collaborative learning small groups provide a place where:
 learners actively participate;
 teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
 respect is given to every member;
 projects and questions interest and challenge students;
 diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
 students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
 members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
 goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
 research tools such as Internet access are made available;
 Students are invested in their own learning.

Multiple Interpretation
An explanation of the meaning of another's artistic or creative work; an elucidation:
an interpretation of a poem. ..a charitable interpretation of his tactlessness.

Characteristics
 It needs diverse thinking (divergent thinking)
 Creative thinking
 Different outlook
 Based on exposure the interpretation varies
 Reflects on how the logics has been recognised
 Logical reasoning and rational thinking
 Governed by cause and effect relationships

Critical Reflection  (convergent thinking)

Critical reflection is a reasoning process to make meaning of an experience. It is
descriptive, analytical, and critical, and can be articulated in a number of ways such as
in written form, orally, or as an artistic expression. ... Often, a reflection activity is
guided by a set of written prompts.

The Importance of Critical Reflection

Why Reflect?
According to John Dewey, "truly educative" experiences generate interest, are
intrinsically worthwhile, present problems that awaken new curiosity and create a
demand for new information, and take sufficient time to foster development.
Reflection is an essential process for transforming experiences–gained from the
service activities and the course materials–into genuine learning. It is crucial for
integrating the service or experience with the classroom topics. It fosters learning
about larger social issues such as the political, economic, and sociological
characteristics of our communities. It enhances students’ critical understanding of the
course topics and their ability to assess their own values, goals, and progress.
What is Critical Reflection?
Reflection is a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of
experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is "a process by which service-
learners think critically about their experiences." It is the process of looking back on
the implications of actions taken - good and bad - and determining what has been
gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future actions and larger
societal contexts. Through reflection students analyze concepts, evaluate experiences,
and postulate theory. Critical reflection provides students with the opportunity to
examine and question their beliefs, opinions, and values. It involves observation,
asking questions, and putting facts, ideas, and experiences together to derive new
meaning.
What Are the Benefits of Reflection?
Reflection improves basic academic skills and promotes a deeper understanding of
course subject matter and its relations to the non-academic world; it improves higher
level thinking and problem solving and students’ ability to learn from experience.
Critical reflection promotes personal development by enhancing students’ self-
awareness, their sense of community, and their sense of their own capacities.

How Can Reflection Be Facilitated in the Classroom?

Effective reflection depends on appropriate contexts and real problems and issues. The
culture of the class community must be one in which students feel included, respected,
and safe. The dialogue between instructor and students must be meaningful to the
students. Students are helped to feel respected and included in the class community
through small groups in which they can exchange concerns, experiences, and
expectations about the service/activity and the class. By involving them in real
community problems, service-learning provides students with a need to know, a desire
to enhance their skills and a commitment to solving problems of importance to them.

Effective Community-Based Learning Reflection Will Be:

 Continuous: Reflection is ongoing, occurring before, during, and after
students' service experiences. Connected: Reflection provides opportunities
 to integrate learning from service with academic content or personal
development, including ways in which service experiences illustrate concepts,
theories, and social trends.
 Challenging: Reflection both supports and challenges student to engage issues
by thinking critically, pushing them to pose stimulating questions and to
develop alternative explanations for their initial perceptions and observations.
 Contextualized: Reflection relies for analysis on the context of issues being
discussed and the service setting. It occurs in various forms and settings.

Engaging Students in Critical Synthesis

One of the purposes of service-learning is to bring life and relevance to key course
concepts. Many students do not immediately see the connection between the vivid,
complex experiences in their service and the important ideas in a college course. They
need help making the link through structured critical synthesis. A variety of activities
can be used to facilitate student reflection. Faculty can require students to keep
journals, organize presentations by community leaders, encourage students to publicly
discuss their service experiences and the learning that ensued, and require students to
prepare reports to demonstrate their learning.
The ORID Model
The ORID model provides a progression of question types designed to move students
from reflecting on the concrete experience to analytical and subjective reasoning. It
mirrors the Kolb learning cycle and may be used to create journal or discussion
questions and to guide assignments and activity types.
The progression may be completed within one assignment and/or over the whole
semester.
 Objective: Begin with questions related to the concrete experience.
What did students do, observe, read, and hear? Who was involved? What was
said? What happened as a result of their work?
 Reflective: Next introduce questions that address the affective experience.
How did the experience feel? What did it remind them of? How did their
apprehension change or their confidence grow? Did they feel successful, effective,
and knowledgeable?
 Interpretive: Then ask questions that explore their cognitive experience.
What did the experience make them think? How did it change their thinking
about…? What did they learn? What worked?
 Decisional: Finally, students are prepared to incorporate their experience into a
new paradigm. They may have a shift in knowledge, awareness, or understanding
that affects how they see things and, ultimately, how they will act. What will they
do differently next time? What decisions or opinions have they formed? How will
 the experience affect their career path, their personal life choices, or their use of
new information, skills or technology?

Motivation
Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Motivation,
like intelligence, can't be directly observed. Instead, motivation can only be inferred
by noting a person's behavior. Researchers have proposed theories that try
to explain human motivation.
Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. In other
words, the motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual
because it is intrinsically rewarding.
Intrinsic motivation is derived from intangible factors. For example, someone who
writes music for his own listening pleasure is relying on intrinsic motivation. A person
who writes music to sell for profit is using extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation
Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some
examples:
 Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by
our co-workers.
 Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
 Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
 Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.
 Order: We all need to be organized.
 Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.
 Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.
 Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
outside. In other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside
source. Note that even though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result of
performing the task will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task.

Extrinsic motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated
motivation is money. Below are some other examples:

 Employee of the month award

 Benefit package
 Bonuses
 Organized activities

Extrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by external factors, as opposed to the

internal drivers of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives me to do things
for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.
Intrinsic motivation is when you do something because you enjoy it or find it
interesting. Compare that to Dani, whose reason for running involves extrinsic
motivation, or doing something for external rewards or to avoid negative
consequences.

Humanistic approach
Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole
person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of
the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Sometimes
the humanistic approach is called phenomenological.

The humanistic perspective is an approach to psychology that emphasizes empathy

and stresses the good in human behavior. In politics and social theory, this approach
calls for human rights and equality.
The Humanistic Theory of Motivation
Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole
person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of
the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Sometimes
the humanistic approach is called phenomenological.
The major theorists considered to have prepared the ground for Humanistic
Psychology are Otto Rank, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. Maslow
was heavily influenced by Kurt Goldstein during their years together at Brandeis
University. Psychoanalytic writers also influenced humanistic psychology.
The Humanistic Theory of Motivation is a type of motivational theory that addresses
the meaning of behavior, and the nature of healthy human development. 
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in
Psychological Review. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his
observations of humans' innate curiosity.
Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology
comprising a five tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels
within a pyramid.
Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs
take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will
be the first thing that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is fulfilled the next
level up is what motivates us, and so on.
This five stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first
four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is
known as growth or being needs (B-needs).
The deficiency needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need
to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For
example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
One must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level
growth needs. When a deficit need has been satisfied it will go away, and our
activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we
have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs
continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged. Once
these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the
highest level called self-actualization.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of
self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower
level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job may cause an
individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will
move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth
between the different types of needs.
Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our
society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom
from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance,
receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family,
friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
self-respect, respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences.

Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage
model and a eight-stage model, both developed during the 1960's and 1970s.
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for
meaning and predictability.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences.
8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.

Self-actualization
Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow
(1943) formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what
goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential.
He stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change
through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who were fulfilled and
doing all they were capable of. The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962)
refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a
person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always 'becoming' and never remains static in
these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to find a meaning to life that is
important to them.
As each individual is unique the motivation for self-actualization leads people in
different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-actualization can be
achieved through creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the
classroom, or within a corporate setting.
Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of
peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it
is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy and wonder. It is important to note that self-
actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches
of a 'happy ever after' (Hoffman, 1988).

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:

'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to
become actualized in what he is potentially.
The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to
person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in
another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in
painting pictures or in inventions' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383).
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3. Spontaneous in thought and action;
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of humor;
6. Able to look at life objectively;
7. Highly creative;
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12. Peak experiences;
13. Need for privacy;
14. Democratic attitudes;
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
Behavior leading to self-actualization:
(a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
(b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
(c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of
tradition, authority or the majority;
(d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest;
(e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the
majority;
(f) Taking responsibility and working hard;
(g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.

Educational applications

Maslow's (1968) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching
and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in
the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and
learning. Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual
qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning.
Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are
obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their basic
physiological needs. For example a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to
focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted
within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.
Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the
classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with
a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-
esteem is strengthened.

Critical evaluation

criticism concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before
a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always the case, and
therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some aspects has been falsified.
 Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g. Rembrandt and Van
Gogh) lived in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they
achieved self-actualization.
Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby needs
can operate on many levels simultaneously. A person may be motivated by higher
growth needs at the same time as lower level deficiency needs.
The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist
regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the
hierarchy was not correct.

Cognitive approach to Motivation

Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person's motivation is influenced
by their cognitions or mental processes. Of particular interest is the role of
cognitive dissonance on motivation. ... These contradictory cognitions may be
attitudes, beliefs, or awareness of one's behavior.
The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the Goal-
Setting Theory. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an
individual chooses one behavioural option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-
Setting Theory states the importance of creating goals in motivation a person.

I. Expectancy Theory

Proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explicates the

behavioural process in which a person selects a behavioural option over another, and
how this decision is made in relation to their aim of achieving their goal. In this
theory, three variables were introduced by Vroom to explain the said behavioural
process. These include “V” for valence, “E” for expectancy, and “I” for
instrumentality.
Expectancy
Expectancy is a variable that represents the belief that the effort (E) of an individual is
an outcome of a a need to attain the performance (P) goals that he desires. The theory
states that there are three factors that influence the expectancy perception of a person,
which include:
1. Self efficacy – the individual’s belief regarding his own ability to perform a specific
behaviour successfully.
2. Goal difficulty – occurs when the desired performance goals are too high that might
result to low expectancy perceptions.
3. Control – the degree of a person’s perceived control over his performance.
Valence
Valence refers to the value that a person sets on the reinforcements or rewards. Setting
values are usually based on an individual’s values, needs, goals and intrinsic or
extrinsic sources of motivation. Valence include -1, which means the person is trying
to avoid the outcome, 0, which means the person feels indifferent towards the results,
and +1, which means that he welcomes the results.
Instrumentality
Instrumentality refers to the notion that a person will get a reward upon the
satisfaction of the expected performance. The reward may present in various forms –
it can be intrinsic or extrinsic, monetary or non-monetary. If this reward is similar for
all the activities that a person must perform, instrumentality is said to be low. There
are three factors influencing instrumentality: policies, control and trust.
Motivational Force
The product of the three aforementioned variables – expectancy, valence and
instrumentality – is called the motivational force. This is the proper formula for
motivational force:
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If these three variables are “high” or strong in an individual, then his motivation is
also greater.

II. Goal-setting theory

Another cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal-Setting Theory was proposed by

Edwin Locke in the 1960s. The theory explains that goal setting has an influence on
task performance. Specific and challenging goals are more likely to motivate a person
and lead to a better execution of tasks, whereas vague and easy goals may result to
poor task performance. In application, therefore, the goals should be set must be
SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Bound.

Attribution Theory Of Motivation (Weiner)

Attribution Theory attempts to explain the world and to determine the cause of an
event or behavior (e.g. why people do what they do). Originator: Bernard Weiner
(1935- ). Attribution Theory is a theory about how people explain things. The theory
is really quite simple despite its rather strange sounding name. A synonym for
"attribution" is "explanation".

Attribution theory Definitions

Attribution Theory: Attribution theory is a social cognitive theory of motivation
centered upon the belief that retrospective causal attributions have bearing on present
and future motivation and achievement (Weiner, 1972). The basic assumption of
attribution theory is that man is motivated to understand the causal structure of his
environment, to know why an event has occurred, and to what source the event can be
ascribed.
Causal attribution: In the study of motivation for achievement, causal attributions
refer to the perceived reasons for success and failure (Weiner, 1974b). For example, a
student may attribute poor grades to such causes as insufficient effort, lack of ability
or bad luck.
Attributional Style: The tendency for individuals to consistently make particular kinds
of causal attributions over time is referred to as attributional style (Metalsky &
Abramson, 1981). For example, a self-enhancing attributional style is one that
habitually gives credit to hard work for success and attributes failure to a lack of
effort. Locus of Control: Subjective personal beliefs about the extent to which one’s
 actions determine outcomes are referred to as locus of control. In attribution theory,
these are two different variables and the preferred way of discussing them is as locus
and control rather than locus of control (Weiner, 2000).

Attribution Theory (Weiner)

Weiner developed a theoretical framework that has become very influential in social
psychology today. Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people
do what they do, that is, interpret causes to an event or behavior [1]. A three-stage
process underlies an attribution:

1. behavior must be observed/perceived

2. behavior must be determined to be intentional
3. behavior attributed to internal or external causes
Weiner’s attribution theory is mainly about achievement. According to him, the most
important factors affecting attributions are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.
Attributions are classified along three causal dimensions:

1. locus of control (two poles: internal vs. external)

2. stability (do causes change over time or not?)
3. controllability (causes one can control such as skills vs. causes one cannot control
such as luck, others’ actions, etc.)
When one succeeds, one attributes successes internally (“my own skill”). When a rival
succeeds, one tends to credit external (e.g. luck). When one fails or makes mistakes,
we will more likely use external attribution, attributing causes to situational factors
rather than blaming ourselves. When others fail or make mistakes, internal attribution
is often used, saying it is due to their internal personality factors.

1. Attribution is a three stage process: (1) behavior is observed, (2) behavior is

determined to be deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to internal or external
causes.
2. Achievement can be attributed to (1) effort, (2) ability, (3) level of task difficulty, or
(4) luck.
3. Causal dimensions of behavior are (1) locus of control, (2) stability, and (3)
controllability.

Application

Weiner's theory has been widely applied in education, law, clinical psychology, and
the mental health domain. There is a strong relationship between self-concept and
achievement. Weiner (1980) states: "Causal attributions determine affective reactions
to success and failure. For example, one is not likely to experience pride in success, or
feelings of competence, when receiving an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives only that
grade, or when defeating a tennis player who always loses...On the other hand, an ‘A’
from a teacher who gives few high grades or a victory over a highly rated tennis
player following a great deal of practice generates great positive affect." (p.362).
Students with higher ratings of self-esteem and with higher school achievement tend
to attribute success to internal, stable, uncontrollable factors such as ability, while they
contribute failure to either internal, unstable, controllable factors such as effort, or
external, uncontrollable factors such as task difficulty. For example, students who
experience repeated failures in reading are likely to see themselves as being less
competent in reading.  This self-perception of reading ability reflects itself in
children's expectations of success on reading tasks and reasoning of success or failure
of reading.  Similarly, students with learning disabilities seem less likely than non-
disabled peers to attribute failure to effort, an unstable, controllable factor, and more
likely to attribute failure to ability, a stable, uncontrollable factor.

MULTIPLE WAYS OF ORGANISING LEARNING IN DIFFERENT

SUBJECT AREAS INDIVIDUALISED
Self-learning:
Self-learning allows each student to tackle problems based on their own capabilities.
In that sense, students own their knowledge as opposed to relying on external devices
such as calculators or tutors.
Definition
Learning done by oneself, without a teacher or instructor
How to Do It – self learning
 Get interested
 Set realistic goals
 Find what works for you
 Review materials the same day you learn it
 Study in short, frequent sessions
 Expect problems and you won’t be disappointed.
 Anytime is learning time
 Prepare and maintain your study environment
Self directed learning:
“In its broadest meaning, ’self-directed learning’ describes a process by which
individuals take the initiative, with our without the assistance of others, in diagnosing
their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identify human and material
resources for learning, choosing and implement appropriate learning strategies, and
evaluating learning outcomes.” (Knowles, 1975, p. 18)
Group learning
Definition of a learning group
A collection of persons who are emotionally, intellectually, and aesthetically engaged
in solving problems, creating products, and making meaning—an assemblage in
which each person learns autonomously and through the ways of learning of others.
A collection of persons who are emotionally, intellectually, and aesthetically engaged
in solving problems, creating products, and making meaning—an assemblage in
which each person learns autonomously and through the ways of learning of others.
By group, we refer both to the learning of individuals that is fostered by being in a
group and to a more distributed kind of learning that does not reside inside the head of
any one individual. Rather than focusing only on what the individual knows, the goal
is to build a collective body of knowledge; learning groups strive to create publicly
shared understandings. By learning, we refer to the learning processes and outcomes
involved in solving problems and creating products that are considered meaningful in
a culture (Gardner, 1983). Rather than focusing on discrete bits of information that
can be produced via simple-answer questions, this type of learning is situated in real-
world problem solving and engages students cognitively, emotionally, and
aesthetically.
FOUR FEATURES OF GROUP LEARNING
1. The members of learning groups include adults as well as children.
2. Documenting children’s learning processes helps to make learning visible and
shapes the learning that takes place.
3. Members of learning groups are engaged in the emotional and aesthetic as well as
the intellectual dimensions of learning.
4. The focus of learning in learning groups extends beyond the learning of individuals
to create a collective body of knowledge.

Other aspects of learning groups

• The make-up of the group (size, age, competencies, interests, friendships, the
children’s own suggestions, etc.) is an important consideration in how the group
functions and learns.
• Learning groups also share a focus on learning how to learn in a group and
understanding the understanding of others.
• What a learning group learns is often connected to how the group learns.
• Learning in groups is central to how individual learning is constructed.

Group learning theory - Lev Vygotsky and Social Learning Theories

Social learning theories help us to understand how people learn in social contexts
(learn from each other) and informs us on how we, as teachers, construct active
learning communities.  Lev Vygotsky (1962), first stated that we learn through our
interactions and communications with others.  Vygotsky (1962) suggested that
learning takes place through the interactions students have with their peers, teachers,
and other experts.  Consequently, teachers can create a learning environment that
maximizes the learner's ability to interact with each other through discussion,
collaboration, and feedback.  Moreover, Vygotsky (1962) argues that culture is the
primary determining factor for knowledge construction.  We learn through this
cultural lens by interacting with others and following the rules, skills, and abilities
shaped by our culture. 
Developing Learning Communities
1. Community of Learners Classroom
2. Collaborative Learning and Group Work
3. Discussion-based Learning (Socratic Questioning Methods)

Instruction that supports social learning:

 Students work together on a task
 Students develop across the curriculum
 Instructors choose meaningful and challenging tasks for the students to work
 Instructors manage socratic dialogue that promote deeper learning. 

The teacher, or local topic expert, plays the important role of facilitator, creating the
environment where directed and guided interactions can occur.  Many other
educational theorists adopted Vygotsky's social process ideas and proposed strategies
that foster deeper knowledge construction, facilitate socratic student discussions, and
build active learning communities through small group based instruction.

In essence, Vygotsky recognizes that learning always occurs and cannot be separated
from a social context. Consequently, instructional strategies that promote the
distribution of expert knowledge where students collaboratively work together to
conduct research, share their results, and perform or produce a final project, help to
create a collaborative community of learners. Knowledge construction occurs within
Vygotsky's (1962) social context that involves student-student and expert-student
collaboration on real world problems or tasks that build on each person's language,
skills, and experience shaped by each individual's culture" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102).

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different ability levels, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. By using this method, each of your students will feel that
he or she is an important member of the class.
Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom
activities into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more
to cooperative learning than merely arranging students into groups, and it has been
described as "structuring positive interdependence."
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different ability levels, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible, not only for
learning what is taught, but also for helping his or her teammates learn—thus creating
an atmosphere of achievement.

Characteristics of cooperative learning

In cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:
  learners actively participate;
 teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
 respect is given to every member;
 projects and questions interest and challenge students;
 diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
 students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
 members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
 goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
 research tools such as Internet access are made available;
 students are invested in their own learning.

Elements of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning researchers David and Roger Johnson have identified five
elements that define cooperative learning:
 Face-to-Face Interaction
 Positive Interdependence
 Individual Accountability
 Group Processing
 Collaborative Skills
The success of cooperative learning is based on three interrelated factors:
 Group goals. Cooperative learning teams work to earn recognition for the
improvement of each member of a group.
 Individual accountability. Each member of a team is assessed individually.
Teammates work together, but the learning gains of individuals form the basis
of a team score.
 Equal opportunities for success. Individual improvement over prior
performance is more important than reaching a pre-established score
However, the ultimate success of cooperative learning is based on a single and very
important principle: students must be taught how to participate in a group situation.
Teachers cannot assume that students know how to behave in a group setting.
Steps to Prepare for Cooperative Learning
Once you’ve decided to use small groups in your class, you need to make sure you are
adequately prepared in order to be successful using this teaching method. When
preparing, keep these five steps in mind:
1. Plan
Obviously you want to have goals and objectives for the academic task at hand, but
there’s another element of planning that needs to happen with cooperative learning.
You also need to consider objectives for social skills, such as team work or peer
accountability. Other things to think about include group size and composition. Think
about how long your groups will be formed and how many students will make up each
group. (See this post for more information on types of groups.) Will you have a group
leader? Will all the work be evenly distributed? Plan for all of these elements
beforehand. You also need to consider which types of assessment are most appropriate
for the assignment and how the students will help with that aspect.
2. Introduce
Clearly communicating your goals and objectives to your students is vital. You will
need to explain criteria for the academic task, as well as behavioral expectations for
working with peers. Time limits, accountability, and decision making within the group
all need to be discussed before the project even starts. It may be helpful to develop an
assessment rubric and go over it with your students so they know exactly what to
expect. Allow time for questions from your students to ensure that everything is
clearly understood. This step is very important, for if your students do not know what
is expected of them academically and behaviorally, their cooperative learning
experience may not be successful.
3. Monitor
Once students have begun to work in their groups, it is your job to monitor and
observe. You should be available to answer questions and provide clarification as
needed but you should also be spending some amount of time in each group listening
and monitoring. Observe how the students are working together and ask questions to
stimulate thinking if necessary. Make notes about each group to assist you in the
assessment step.
4. Assess
With cooperative learning, assessment can be tricky at times. You want to hold both
individuals and the group accountable for the academic work and possibly even the
social objectives. Using a mixture of self assessment, group assessment and your own
judgement usually works well to determine a final grade.
5. Process
Allow time for your students to reflect upon their cooperative learning experience and
give feedback on the academic assignment and the group structure. Hear what worked
well and look for ways to improve upon next time.

Benefits of cooperative learning:

 Students achievement
 Students retention
 Improved relations
 Critical thinking
 Oral communication
 Social skills
 Heightened self-esteem

Cooperative vs Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students team
together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. A group of
students discussing a lecture or students from different schools working together over
the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of collaborative learning.

Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is a specific
kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work together in small
groups on a structured activity. They are individually accountable for their work, and
the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. Cooperative groups work face-to-
face and learn to work as a team.

Differences between collaborative learning and cooperative learning

There has been a split regarding to the differences between collaborative and
cooperative learning. Some believe that collaborative learning is similar, yet distinct
from cooperative learning. While both models use a division of labour, collaborative
learning requires the mutual engagement of all participants and a coordinated effort to
solve the problem whereas cooperative learning requires individuals to take
responsibility for a specific section and then coordinate their respective parts
together. Another proposed differentiation is that cooperative learning is typically
used for children because it is used to understand the foundations of knowledge while
collaborative learning applies to college and university students because it is used to
teach non-foundations of learning. Another believed difference is that cooperative
learning is a philosophy of interaction where collaborative learning is a structure of
interaction.
However, many psychologists have defined cooperative learning and collaborative
learning similarly. Both are group learning mechanisms for learners to obtain a set of
skills or knowledge.
Unit IV- Learning Environment and Assessment
 The physical environment.
 The instructional time.
 Respecting the rights of the children.
 Space for the parents and the community: identification of barriers, strategies
for strengthing partnership between school and parents and community.
 Inclusive environment in the classroom for all learners.
 Discipline and participatory management.
 Learning paths and learning styles.
 Assessment-continuous and comprehensive evaluation, assessment during
teaching, designing good test items, open book examination, self-assessment.

The physical environment

The term physical environment refers to the overall design and layout of a given
classroom and its learning centers. Teachers should design the environment by
organizing its spaces, furnishings, and materials to maximize the learning
opportunities and the engagement of every child. To effectively do so, teachers can
apply a concept known as Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which stresses that
the environment and its materials in it should be accessible to everyone. Creating this
accessibility might involve providing books at different reading levels, placing
materials within easy reach on a shelf, or creating ample space so that a child who
uses a wheelchair can maneuver around the classroom.

When they set out to design an effective physical environment, teachers should
consider all of that environment’s various aspects. Once they have selected child-
sized, age-appropriate furnishings, teachers should then think about each of the
following. 

Arrangement of Furnishings and Floor Coverings

A well-designed physical environment has different activity areas with clear, physical,
and visual boundaries, defined by the furnishings and floor coverings. These
furnishings and floor coverings should create spaces that are comfortable and that lend
themselves to their intended purpose. For example, a block area might have
bookshelves to set it off as a block center, and carpeting or foam flooring to muffle the
sound when blocks fall on the floor. Also, the library area should have a soft,
comfortable floor covering for young children and adults to sit on while they look at
the books. When they arrange furnishings, teachers should:

 Make sure that all children are visible to adults and that adults are visible to
children, to ensure proper supervision.
 Design areas with spaces for children to work and play independently or in small
groups, and to gather as a community.
 Establish clear boundaries to indicate where the center space begins and ends.
 Consider the location of centers. Centers with high activity levels (e.g., block
centers, dramatic play areas, music centers) should not be located close to centers
with quieter activities (e.g., listening centers, computer areas).
 Consider the number and size of centers. Make sure there is enough room that
children can be engaged without being crowded.
 Create cozy, private spaces. Create safe spaces where children can retreat to rest,
observe, and recharge emotionally throughout the day.

Selection and Placement of Materials

Another aspect of the physical environment includes the selection and placement of
materials. The selection of materials includes choosing toys and other physical objects
that are age- and developmentally appropriate, as well as linguistically and culturally
relevant, for the young children in the classroom. For example, the block area should
include a variety of blocks to allow children with varying motor skills to manipulate
them, and these materials should be placed so that they are easily accessed. Teachers
should also take care when it comes to:

 Organizing materials and keeping them in appropriate places (e.g., art materials in
art center, sensory table near sink), taking into consideration children’s
development of independence skills.
 Providing enough materials within the centers so that children can be engaged and
not arguing over limited resources.
 Having centers organized and ready to go when children arrive.
 Making sure the materials represent the diversity and the ability levels of the
children.
 Placing heavier items on lower shelves so that children do not get hurt when they
take them down.
 Providing safe play items that offer developmentally appropriate challenges to
promote the growth of problem-solving skills.
 Encouraging children to help make decisions about materials.
 Rotating materials both to promote children’s interest and to keep the materials
novel.

Design and Display of Visual Materials

Another important aspect of the physical environment is the design and display of
visual materials. Visual material— such as posters for displaying classroom rules,
daily schedules, and steps to complete a routine (e.g., hand washing)—help young
children to know what to do and to better understand their environments. For example,
in the block area, the teacher can label the center and use visuals of the different
blocks to indicate where they belong on the shelves. This can aid the children when
the time comes to clean up the center. Other considerations include:

 Displaying children’s work so that they can take pride in it and can feel a sense of
ownership of the room. Doing this also offers opportunities for language
development: When children talk about their work or comment on other children’s
work, teachers can use these opportunities to build their language skills.
 Posting visuals at the eye-level of children so that they can see them.
 Using visuals to indicate when a center is closed (e.g., visual prompts such as sheets
or blankets, circles with a slash through them).
 Displaying materials that are representative of the environment’s diversity (e.g.,
culture, disability, language, family structures).
 Labeling centers and frequently used materials in languages that represent the home
languages of the children in the classroom.
 Having children bring in pictures of their families for display in the classroom so
that they feel comfortable and at home in their environment.

Lighting and Sound

When they design the physical environment, teachers should also consider its lighting
and sound. Teachers can use lighting and sound to create a comfortable environment
that is conducive to the different activities that occur throughout the day. For example,
so that children can engage in both quiet and more active play activities during center
time, the block area can be carpeted to reduce noise. Teachers can also keep in mind:

 Natural lighting, or light from windows, is best when available.

 Lighting can be used to create moods (e.g., small lamps in home living areas to
resemble a home environment).
 Using flooring materials that muffles sound can reduce noise from active centers.
Chairs with rubber leg bottoms or chairs with tennis balls over metal bottoms can
also help to reduce sound, as can wall hangings, drapes, and soft furnishings.
 Because some children are sensitive to loud sounds and bright lights, teachers might
need to find ways to minimize noise and to create a dimly lit space for them.

Instructional time—what is it?

Instructional time definitions, simply put, instructional time can be described as being
time spent by teachers working directly with students to achieve mastery and learning
of the Alberta Program of Studies. That being said, there are some nuances depending
on what grade level is being taught. The specific definitions from the Guide to
Education are provided below.

Definition of Instruction Time for Adolescence

Instruction is the process in which teachers take responsibility for ensuring that
learning activities for students are directed toward achieving the outcomes of
approved programs of study and/or Individualized Program Plans through: interaction
with students, either face-to-face or using information and communication technology,
for the purpose of teaching and assessing student achievement of outcomes, and/or
interaction with students who are engaged in classroom learning, self-directed
instructional resources, independent study, online education and/or distributed
learning, and/or supervision of student workplace learning.

Instructional time:
Instructional time includes time scheduled for purposes of instruction,
examinations/testing and other student activities where direct student–teacher
interaction and supervision are maintained. Instructional time does not include:
 teacher convention days
 professional development days
 parent–teacher interview days
 teacher planning days
 staff meetings
 statutory and school authority-declared holidays
 lunch breaks
 breaks between classes
 supervised study halls
 time taken for the registration of students
 extracurricular activities
 graduation/commencement rehearsals and ceremonies.

Respecting children’s rights

Why children’s rights?
Children’s rights are defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as
conditions children should have for optimal survival, development and protection. It
outlines children’s rights to participate in family, school and community life. Schools
are the closest public institutions to the daily lives of children, in which the protection
and provision of children’s rights shapes their potential. The following are UNICEF
recommendations on children’s rights
Non-discrimination
 Have your child tell you the ways in which she is special because she is a
unique individual. Then discuss other children in your life and how they are
unique. Discuss what it means to respect another person and what it means to
be respected.
 Explore something new about an unfamiliar culture. Visit an unfamiliar place
of worship, attend a cultural festival, read a book together that is set in another
country, or find a recipe from another culture and try making it at home.
Best interests of the child
 Discuss decision-making based on ‘best interests’. For example, look at
conscious choices you make in your home that are in the best interest of the
environment. Make some conscious decisions together for energy conservation
or waste reduction and talk about how these are in the best interest of the
planet.
 Make a wants vs. rights list. Discuss the differences with examples such as
wanting a bag of candy and having the right to nutritious food. Fill in the list
and post it in the kitchen.
Right to life, survival and development
 Explore your home and community for evidence of action to keep children safe
– such as a cross-walk guard, car seats, bike helmets, or lifeguards at the
swimming pool.
 Talk about the health-care system during your child’s next visit to the doctor.
Respect for the views of the child
 Encourage your children to express their thoughts and feelings. Ask if there are
environments in which they find it hard to express themselves, and ask if there
are ways you can support them in making their voices heard.
  Find opportunities for your child to take the lead in planning an activity. Help
him solicit the opinions of others and then make decisions.
 Discuss the difference between the right to have your opinion heard and
considered versus wanting to have things your own way. Revisit previous
discussions about wants versus rights, best-interests, and respect.

Benefits For Children

• There is a decline in bullying and less disruption
• Children’s approach to resolving conflict with each other and with adults is less
adversarial
• Children show greater concern for themselves, each other and children in other parts
of the world • Children are more likely to use higher order thinking
• Children are less likely to be excluded
• Children are more likely to attend school
• Children learn the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.

Space for Parents and Community:

The school needs to explore opportunities for active engagement by parents and
communities in the process of learning. This can be done in many ways. For instance,
parents and community members could come into the school as resource persons and
share their knowledge and experiences in relation to a particular topic. Schools should
allow community to transfer oral history (e.g. folklores, migration, environmental
degradation, traders, etc.) and traditional knowledge (sowing and harvesting,
traditional crafts etc.) to children; influence the content of subjects by providing local,
practical and appropriate examples; support children in their exploration and creation
of knowledge and practise of democracy; monitor the realization of children’s rights
as well as violations of these rights; and participate in setting criteria for vocational
training. There can be an understanding that school space can be shared with the
community for local events. Community involvement can also be sought for
maintaining the school and its facilities.

Building a framework for parental engagement in your school

Parental engagement recognises that both parents and teachers play an important role
in children’s learning, development and wellbeing, and that children generally do
better when there are positive connections between the different spaces they learn in.
A key aspect of parental engagement involves family-school partnerships.
Family-school partnerships involve the ways families and schools work together to
support children’s academic achievement. This includes connecting what children are
learning at school with how they learn at home; helping families to respond early to
children’s learning challenges; and extending children’s learning around the things
they are passionate about.

Parental Engagement in School

Parental engagement recognises the important role that both parents and teachers play
in developing positive attitudes towards learning and education for children, building
their motivation and confidence as learners, and fostering their enjoyment of learning.
Benefits of parental engagement
Research shows that family-led learning is vital. This involves all the ways that
parents support learning through everyday activities, and during the time their children
aren’t at school. This idea lies at the heart of what is meant by parental engagement.
Schools benefit significantly through the effect of successful parental engagement on
student learning outcomes. Benefits include improved connections with the
community, improved school image within the community, and improved family and
community satisfaction with the school. Well targeted and widespread parent and
community participation can contribute to school improvement in a number of ways,
including:
• Sending clear signals to students about the value of education
• Ensuring school decisions are broadly representative of the school community
• Ensuring school activities and actions are respectful and representative of local
cultures
• Building mutual commitment by families to take action in the home that
supports learning at school
• Enabling teachers and school leaders to access expertise and perspectives that
support curriculum.
an increased confidence in schools;
• self-confidence to dialogue with school officials about their children;
• improved relationships with their own children;
• a decrease in the feeling of isolation they often feel when dealing with the
issues facing their children; and
• the ability to better understand their children in light of learning about the
issues that interest and affect youth

The most common barriers to family involvement include:

 Lack of teacher time
 Lack of understanding of parents’ communication styles.
 Teachers’ misperceptions of parents’ abilities. 
 Limited family resources.
 Parents’ lack of comfort
 Tension in relationships between parents and teachers.
 Parents felt that teachers waited too long before telling them about a problem
and that they only heard from teachers when there was bad news. 
 Teachers believed parents didn’t respect them, challenged their authority, and
questioned their decisions
 Mobility. 
Strategies for strengthening partnership between school and parents and
community
 Offer programs, events and activities related to encouraging parent
involvement
 Communicate with parents frequently, using a variety of methods
 Create a warm, respectful, and welcoming school environment
 Be flexible in accommodating parents and families
  Provide a variety of resources for parents
 Support parents in helping their children at home
Inclusive environment in the classroom
Establishing a classroom tone that is friendly, caring and supportive, and that lets
students explore the relationship between course material and personal and social
experiences enhances, rather than undermines, students' learning.
Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address
the needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning styles, and abilities.
These strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment, in which
students feel equally valued.
Creating and maintaining a successful inclusive classroom requires much thought and
collaboration. This lesson will introduce the concept of inclusive classrooms and how
you can make your classroom successful for inclusion.
Schools need to provide a welcoming experience for all students, not just those who
struggle, so that effective classroom strategies can be successfully employed. Here are
three tactics to consider when creating an inclusive learning environment:

1. Differentiating: We know that everyone learns differently, so move past the

“one-size-fits-all” approach to instruction and assessment. Try allowing students
to engage with information in a variety of formats, such as websites, videos, and
podcasts. Books, magazines, and periodicals provide rich nontech ways for
students to progress through materials as well. Provide small group or individual,
direct instruction so you can tailor content delivery more accurately for specific
learners’ needs. Assessment choices represent an opportunity for students to
showcase their understanding in various ways. Examples include portfolios,
presentations, and oral exams. When we customize students’ experiences in our
classroom, we can build upon their strengths and help to develop and improve
their understanding of topics with which they are struggling.
2. Healthy Grading: Stop taking off points for behaviors like lateness,
unpreparedness, or talking out of turn. While these and other behaviors are
important to manage, they shouldn’t be used to mask or reflect students’
understanding of a topic. Instead, focus on what the students do know and let that
show in your grade book. The components of an enlightened grading philosophy
include
1. Regular formative assessments in which quality, descriptive feedback is
generated and personalized for each student.
2. Opportunities for reiteration that are embedded within tests and quizzes.

Once satisfactory understanding is demonstrated on formative assessments, students

are ready to attempt a summative test. Ensuring that students are prepared for an exam
increases the likelihood of initial success—which builds confidence and purpose.

3. Relationships: The most effective way to build an inclusive learning environment

comes from forming meaningful connections with your students. Simple, time-
honored techniques such as not raising your voice and saying their names
 correctly are great ways to start building relationships. By taking some extra time
and effort to view each pupil as an individual and truly believing that each student
can succeed, you’ll become partners in success.

Putting your students’ emotional needs first is important because without feeling safe
and understood, no instructional strategy will be effective. By building relationships in
the classroom, students will feel comfortable enough to come out and tell us what is
on their minds without having to wait for an opportunity from you to do so. Students
want to feel valued and like they are a part of a larger school community. By forming
a bond between you and your students and providing a sound educational framework
for success, real learning will occur.
Creating An Inclusive Classroom Environment
According to research, traditional teaching methods are often ineffective for learners
outside of the majority culture (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg 147). For example, studies
have shown that many students, including women and students of color, may be more
likely to prosper academically in settings with more collaborative and “connected”
modes of learning- ones that acknowledge personal experience, examine the
relationships between persons and ideas, and encourage students to work together to
produce knowledge (Belenky et al). Wlodkowski and Ginsberg point out, for that
matter, that “[m]ost human beings-European Americans, people of color, women,
international students-favor learning experiences that are collaborative and
participatory” (69). Establishing a classroom tone that is friendly, caring and
supportive, and that lets students explore the relationship between course material and
personal and social experiences enhances, rather than undermines, students’ learning.
 
Analyzing the type of learning environment you are creating for your students is one
way to begin. As you prepare for class, consider the following questions (adapted
from Wladkowski & Ginsberg 16-17):

 Are the classroom norms clearly stated, so that students accustomed to different
norms in their homes or communities are able to understand and negotiate them?
(You can model these and give examples.)
 What implicit values of your discipline might disturb or bewilder some
students? (You can encourage students to present alternative perspectives, to
debate ideas, or to create panels representing different viewpoints.)
 Do your examples or illustrations acknowledge the experiences of people from
different backgrounds in non-stereotypical ways?
 Are the students welcome to share from their own lives and interests? Are they
treated as individuals?
 Have you examined your own conscious or unconscious biases about people of
other cultures? That is, how would you answer the following questions: Am I
comfortable around students from a culture or background different than my own?
Do I have different expectations of students of color than I do of white students?
Of male or female students?
Studies also suggest that some students do better or participate more frequently in
classrooms with cooperative learning projects and open discussions. For those
students from supportive and interdependent ethnic minority communities,
competitive learning environments can cause feelings of isolation or alienation. In
such environments, class discussion can seem like a game where one “wins” access to
the conversation by speaking up or raising one’s hand more quickly than others
(Krupnick 21). Classrooms that operate solely according to this model risk alienating
some students and reward others who speak quickly, often at the expense of fully
worked-out thought. Ways to help make competitive learning environments seem less
intimidating include explaining the implicit rules and stakes clearly (e.g., who can
speak when, how you will respond, that it’s safe to make mistakes or ask questions
because that helps teachers know when students do or don’t understand a point, etc.)
and injecting a sense of fun or healthy competition into them by using games or staged
debates as learning tools.
 
Another way to create an inclusive classroom is to use cooperative learning
techniques. Under this system, the teacher provides clearly structured small-group
activities that encourage everyone to participate. These techniques incorporate varied
learning preferences and styles of participation and help create learning environments
accessible to all students (see Johnson et al.). Care does need to be taken to make sure
that such groups do not reproduce the social dynamics of the classroom on a smaller
scale, so, for the best results, the teacher must not only form groups consciously, but
must also monitor group work carefully. Whichever methods you choose to make
your classroom more inclusive, know that remaining sensitive to and flexible about
the ways diverse populations communicate, behave and think, will help create a
supportive learning environment for all students.

Discipline and Participatory Management:
Maintaining discipline in schools is usually the prerogative of teachers. Frequently
they engage children as monitors and prefects, and delegate the responsibility of
maintaining order, and ensuring control. Punishment and reward of play an important
role in school practices. Disciplining learners using corporal punishment and verbal
and non-verbal abuse of learners can be seen in many schools even today. Such
practices humiliate learners in front of their peers. Teachers need to reflect on the
rationale of such practices or the rules and conventions that govern schools, and
examine whether they are consistent with our aims of education. Inculcating the habit
of self-discipline has greater meaning today. Discipline should enable freedom, choice
and autonomy for both teacher and learner. Involving learners in evolving rules is
necessary, so that they understand the rationale behind a rule and feel a sense of
responsibility in ensuring that it is followed. This would pave the way for learners to
learn the process of setting codes of self-governance and the skills required to
participate in decision making and democratic functioning. Similarly, they can be
encouraged to evolve mechanisms for conflict resolution between teachers and
students, and among students. School authorities can be unreasonably strict about
punctuality, which can demoralize children, their parents and also teachers. In fact, a
system for participatory management of the school involving children and school
teachers and administrators need to be evolved.

Learning Path
definition of a learning path is defined by the Learning Pathsmethodology for
employee training developed by Jim Williams and Steve Rosenbaum, which uses a
performance improvement approach to learning and defines a Learning Path as the
ideal sequence of learning activities that drives employees to ...
Learning paths are structured frameworks that use a building-block approach to
learning. We call the idea "Learning paths." You could also call it "Learn by
definition." The idea is simply to read a series of definitions related to the same topic
in sequence, one definition at a time, as a way to learn (or relearn).

Here's how one can go about their learning path

1. Choose one of the subject categories listed below, such as "Learning Path: Basic
Computer Concepts."
2. Clicking on it will take you to another page with words listed and intended to be
read in the sequence presented, left to right.
3. Clicking on a word will take you to that definition. After you read that definition,
simply press the BACK key at top left and return to the reading sequence list.
4. Proceed one at a time through each word in the list until you reach the end!
We're still improving the Learning Paths. As time goes by, they'll each get longer and
we will add new Paths with more focused subject categories. In fact, we expect to be
updating the Paths continuously.

Learning style
It is an individual's unique approach to learning based on strengths, weaknesses, and
preferences. All Students Are Created Equally (and Differently.) The term “learning
styles” speaks to the understanding that every student learns differently. Technically,
an individual's learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student
absorbs, processes, comprehends and retains information.
The term “learning styles” speaks to the understanding that every student learns
differently. Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in
which the student absorbs, processes, comprehends and retains information. 

Definition of Learning Styles

You have probably noticed that when you try to learn something new you prefer to
learn by listening to someone talk to you about the information.  Or perhaps you
prefer to read about a concept to learn it, or maybe see a demonstration.
 
Learning styles can be defined, classified, and identified in many different
way.  Generally, they are overall patterns that provide direction to learning and
teaching.  Learning style can also be described as a set of factors, behaviors, and
attitudes that facilitate learning for an individual in a given situation.   
 
Styles influence how students learn, how teachers teach, and how the two
interact.  Each person is born with certain tendencies toward particular styles, but
these biological or inherited characteristics are influenced by culture, personal
experiences, maturity level, and development.  Style can be considered a “contextual”
variable or construct because what the learner brings to the learning experience is as
much a part of the context as are the important features of the experience itself.
 
Each learner has distinct and consistent preferred ways of perception, organization and
retention. These learning styles are characteristic cognitive, affective, and
physiological behaviors that serve as pretty good indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning environment.
 
Students learn differently from each other and it has been determined that brain
structure influences language structure acquisition. It has also been shown that
different hemispheres of the brain contain different perception avenues.  Some
researchers claim that several types of cells present in some brains are not present in
others.
 
A frequently-mentioned learning style model is the VAK/VARK model proposed by
Neil Fleming in 1992, which divides people into visual, auditory, read/write or
kinesthetic learners. You may have even filled out a quick questionnaire, sometimes
called a learning styles inventory, to see if you were one of these four styles.
Teachers often look to student learning styles as a guide to help them make their
lessons more effective. The VAK/VARK model is one way to categorize learners by
how they take in information, which makes it easily applicable to classroom
instruction. For example, those who prefer the visual mode get a lot from maps, webs,
charts, and graphs. It is not primarily about videos or photographs as you might think,
but information organized in visual form. A visual learner likes how a visual
depiction, like infographics, makes big ideas accessible through colorful, clear
depictions.
Auditory learners take in information best when it is spoken or heard. These are the
people who can get a lot from classroom lectures or talking things over with a friend.
They also tend to explain things well, so they would do well on oral exams. Some
even say that email falls under the auditory category because it mirrors human speech
more than other forms of writing.
While visual learners prefer graphic representations of information, read/write
learners are the ones who love to learn from the written word. They are the kind of
students who can read a textbook and be ready for the test. This often makes them
strong students, as so much of school is about being able to get information from
different texts. They are also the kind of people who like dictionaries, quote books and
reading everything they can on the Internet. Likewise, read/writers get just as much
from writing as they do from reading, and writing notes and flashcards are a good way
for them to study.
Finally, we have kinesthetic or tactile learners. These are the students who prefer to
connect what they are learning with real-life experiences. They benefit from the
concreteness of what is presented to them. Often kinesthetic learning is defined as
using one's hands and doing an activity, like learning to drive by actually driving or
learning about computer programming by actually playing around with a computer.
However, kinesthetic learners also benefit from just thinking of how a concept is
applicable in the real world.

Learning and the Senses

Effective teaching usually combines several approaches, or multi-sensory instruction,
so the child uses more than one sense at a time while learning.  Multi-sensory
approaches work well because of the way our brain is organized.  When we learn,
information takes one path into our brain when we use our eyes, another when we use
our ears, and a yet a third when we use our hands.  By using more than one sense we
bombard our brain with the new information in multiple ways.  As a result we learn
better.  Rief (1993) says that students retain:
         10% of what they read
         20% of what they hear
         30% of what they see
         50% of what they see and hear
         70% of what they say
         90% of what they say and do

Continuous and comprehensive evaluation

Examinations are an indispensable part of the educational process as some form of
assessment is necessary to determine the effectiveness of teaching learning processes
and their internalization by learners. Various Commissions and Committees have felt
the need for examination reforms. The have all made recommendations regarding
reducing emphasis on external examination and encouraging internal assessment
through Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation. This aspect has been strongly
taken care of in the National Policy on Education- 1986 which states that “Continuous
and Comprehensive Evaluation that incorporates both scholastic and non-scholastic
aspects of evaluation, spread over the total span of instructional time”
What is `Continuous' and `Comprehensive' Evaluation ?
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based
evaluation of students that covers all aspects of students development. It is a
developmental process of assessment which emphasizes on two fold objectives. These
objectives are continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad based learning and
behaviourial outcomes on the other.
In this scheme the term `continuous' is meant to emphasise that evaluation of
identified aspects of students `growth and development' is a continuous process rather
than an event, built into the total teaching-learning process and spread over the entire
span of academic session. It means regularity of assessment, frequency of unit testing,
diagnosis of learning gaps, use of corrective measures, retesting and for their self
evaluation.
The second term `comprehensive' means that the scheme attempts to cover both the
scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of students' growth and development. Since
abilities, attitudes and aptitudes can manifest themselves in forms other then the
written word, the term refers to application of variety of tools and techniques (both
testing and non-testing) and aims at assessing a learner's development in areas of
learning like : Knowledge Understanding/Comprehension Applying Analyzing
Evaluating Creating.
The scheme is thus a curricular initiative, attempting to shift emphasis from testing to
holistic learning. It aims at creating good citizens possessing sound health, appropriate
skills and desirable qualities besides academic excellence. It is hoped that this will
equip the learners to meet the challenges of life with confidence and success.
The objectives of the Scheme are :
To help develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills. To lay emphasis on
thought process and de-emphasise memorization To make evaluation an integral part
of teaching-learning process To use evaluation for improvement of students
achievement and teaching – learning strategies on the basis of regular diagnosis
followed by remedial instruction To use evaluation as a quality control devise to
maintain desired standard of performance To determine social utility, desirability or
effectiveness of a programme and take appropriate decisions about the learner, the
process of learning and the learning environment To make the process of teaching and
learning a learner-centered activity
Features of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
The 'continuous' aspect of CCE takes care of 'continual' and 'periodicity' aspect of
evaluation. Continual means assessment of students in the beginning of instructions
(placement evaluation) and assessment during the instructional process (formative
evaluation) done informally using multiple techniques of evaluation. Periodicity
means assessment of performance done frequently at the end of unit/term(summative)
The 'comprehensive' component of CCE takes care of assessment of all round
development of the child's personality. It includes assessment in Scholastic as well as
Co-Scholastic aspects of the pupil's growth. Scholastic aspects include curricular areas
or subject specific areas, whereas co-scholastic aspects include Life Skills, Co-
Curricular, attitudes, and values.
What is an Open Book Examination?
An "open book examination" is one in which examinees are allowed to consult their
class notes, textbooks, and other approved material while answering questions. This
practice is not uncommon in law examinations, but in other subjects, it is mostly
unheard of. Radical and puzzling though the idea may sound to those who are used to
conventional examinations, it is ideally suited to teaching programmes that especially
aim at developing the skills of critical and creative thinking.
Two Types of Open Book Examinations
 One may think of two kinds of open book examinations, say the restricted type and
the unrestricted type. In the restricted type of open book examinations, students are
permitted to bring into the examination room one or more specific documents
approved by the course instructor. In the unrestricted type of open book examinations,
students are free to bring whatever they like. In the restricted open book examination,
students may be permitted to consult printed documents such as the logarthmic tables,
dictionaries, or complete works of Shakespeare, but no handwritten material or printed
documents which have not had prior approval. One may also need to make sure that
the printed documents that students bring do not contain any scribbles on the margin.
In this type of examination, the approved documents function more or less as
appendices to the question paper itself . These examinations are not radically different
from closed book examinations. They do not present any special problems,
irrespective of the nature of the course. As I said earlier, there are no restrictions on
what the students can bring in an unrestricted open book examination. They may bring
any books (with or without scribbles on the margin), lecture handouts of the course
instructor, or their own handwritten notes. The use of such examinations presupposes
certain teaching strategies and types of questions. In particular, it demands that the
course focuses on a set of intellectual skills , rather than on the information content ,
and that no content based questions be asked in the examination. If the course
instructor has concentrated on handing down currently available knowledge, and the
quesiton paper contains traditional content based questions like "Write an essay on the
differencee between British and American English", the use of the unrestricted open
book examinations would be disastrous. When used properly, it will be pointless for
students taking the unrestricted open book examinations to consult any material they
have brought, because the questions will be designed in such a way the answers will
not be found in the textbooks, handouts or class notes. An intelligent student who has
had the experience of such examinations once will not bother to bring anything for the
next examinatin, since (s)he will know that no prepared material will be of any use.
The use of these examinations then acts as symbolic gesture that makes the students
realise the nature of the course and the examinations, and shocks them into a mode of
studying that does not involve cramming.
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