d dT J Lq L dx dx: q=J (Π - Π) q=J (Π - Π)

2.
57 Nano-to-Macro Transport Processes Fall 2004 Lecture 21 Last time we talked about the current density as
d dT Je = L11 ' q + L12 , dx dx

For electrons, q = e and = e
. Here e is electrostatic potential, which is related e to the electrical field. Chemical potential is related to diffusion. Their combination is electrochemical potential, indicating the total driving force of charges. The current density can be rewritten as d d J e = L11 + L12 . dx dx dQ d 1 d and may be Note: The second term L12 = L12T is similar to S = T dx T dx compared with entropy flux.
The heat transferred is 2 dT d J q = vx ( E ) f = L21 + L22 V kx k y kz dx dx

For open circuits, Je=0. We obtain d / dx V L S = = = 12 , dT / dx Th Tc L11 where S is called the seebeck coefficient.
Note: (1) S is dependent on the density of states. Therefore, it can be enhanced by using nanostructures such as thin films or nanowires. This effect is also the principle of thermal couples. (2) In the summation, we cannot use integral for quantized directions. y
J 1
q=J(1-2)
q=J(2-1)
2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21
d / dx , T should be the electron temperature Te. In equilibrium cases, Te is dT / dx close to phonon Tp and we can use this effect to measure Tp. However, for extreme cases such as laser ablation, the two temperatures are not in equilibrium. Cautions should be taken. (3) For an on-chip thermocouple, the measured temperature does not correspond to the junction point, but closer to the average temperature from 1 to 3. This is different from the normal thermocouples.
(2) In S =
When dT/dx=0, we have d L21 J q = L21 J e = J e , = dx L11 where the Peltier coefficient = TS , L21=TL12. Note one thermoelectric coefficient (S here) can be used to express all other coefficients. This is a requirement of the time reversal invariance of the mechanical equations of motion, i.e., the particles retrace their former paths if all velocities are reversed. Based on this principle, Onsager (1931) derived the famous Onsager reciprocity relations. The flux of any extensive variable, Jk, of a system (such as energy flux, particle flux) or at a local point of a system can be expressed as a linear combination of all the generalized driven forces Fj, J k = L jk F j .
j
Onsager got a Nobel Prize for his work. Now apply the above equation to the small control volume shown in the following figure. The energy conservation yields Q j = J q 2 J q1 = ( 2 1 ) J e , which is positive (absorbing heat from the ambient) for 2 > 1 . Je
Qj Another phenomenon is the Thomson effect. Along the following bar, we have
dS 1 dq / dx = =. dT J e dT / dx
Je
dQ/dx
The overall energy equation is . dJ d dT q = q + Je = Je2 + k + Thomson term . dx dx dx And thermal conductivity is ke = L12 L21 / L11 L22 . The Wiedemann-Franz law states ke = const = L = 2.45 E 8 W / K 2 , T where the constant L is Lorenz number.
Now consider the Boltzmann equation under the relaxation time approximation g f o F F g + + v r f o + v r g + v f o + v g = , g =f-fo. t t m m By neglecting some terms, we have obtained F g = v r f o + v f o . m fo f
(1) Assume that f only has small deviation from f0, indicating local equilibrium. Now we have g=f-f0<<f0. This yields v r f o fo df dT dT dT or v o 1 / L 1, should not be too large. fo dx dT dx T dx (2) Within v r f o , v r g , we ignore the latter one. This implies r f o r g
(3) We ignore f o t g
f o g on the LHS compared with on the RHS. This indicates t
Now consider the above transient process in which an infinite wall is heated suddenly. T k 2T The theoretical solution of is T = exp x / t , which indicate that T is = t c t 2 nonzero at any long distance from the wall. Since the thermal wave propagates with a limited velocity (sound velocity), this is obviously impossible. To compensate for the error, the Cattaneo equation is introduced J q T + J q = k t x where is a weighed average of the relaxation time relative to the heat flux expression.
Combining this equation with the energy conservation equation (no heat generation considered), T J q = c t and eliminating Jq, we arrive at the following governing equation for the temperature distribution,
T k 2T = , t c t 2 t 2 which is a hyperbolic type of equation. + 2T
However, the Cattaneo equation is not applicable in most experimental situations. Under fast heating, the temperature gradient is usually very large, and thus the condition that (/T dT/dx) cannot be satisfied. There is no convincing experimental data showing the validity of the hyperbolic equation. In femto-laser heating, the temperature of electrons is raised much higher than that of the phonons and after the relaxation time electrons exchange energy with phonons (the following figure).
Te
Tp time
An experiment that is often cited as the proof for the validity of the hyperbolic equation is the second sound, which is encountered in low-temperature physics. However, the second sound is due to a different physical mechanism. At low temperatures, the umklap scattering is weak and normal scattering is strong, such that phonons have a nonzero average momentum (velocity). Equations for phonon hydrodynamics can be developed and the second sound can be described by these equations rather than the hyperbolic equation.
The derivations so far are for constitutive equations. We can also derive conservative equations from the Boltzmann equation. I will not go to details. Such conservative equations can be developed for gas molecules (Navier-Stokes equations), for electrons and phonons. Note: (1) In the 80s, people also conducted research based on NavierStokes type of equations for electron transport. However, it is not valid at nanoscale because just as Newtons shear stress law is not valid for rarefied gas flow, the driftdiffusion equation is not applicable to electrons. Chapter 7 Classical Size Effects y
When the electron and/or phonon mean free paths are comparable to or larger than the thin film thickness, they will collide more with the boundaries. The previous requirement / L 1 is not satisfied in this case. Most reflection on the wall is elastic. Two possibilities occur here: specular reflection, diffuse reflection. First we have the Boltzmann equation
v r f +
f fo F v f = m
or
v r f 0 + v r g +
g F F v f0 + v g = . m m vx g g . Therefore, , vz x z
F g v g . Magnitude comparison suggests that v y y m we obtain df F g g , vx 0 + v f 0 = v y dx m y
Ignore
vx
df 0 F df g + x 0 = g v y . y dx m dvx
Note: For boundary scattering, the function g ( v) is unchanged but g (r ) is changed by scattering. For statistical calculation, caution needs to be taken when summation is conducted.

d dT J Lq L dx dx: q=J (Π - Π) q=J (Π - Π)

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d dT J Lq L dx dx: q=J (Π - Π) q=J (Π - Π)

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2.

d dT Je = L11 ' q + L12 , dx dx

The heat transferred is 2 dT d J q = vx ( E ) f = L21 + L22 V kx k y kz dx dx

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

f o g on the LHS compared with on the RHS. This indicates t

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

F g v g . Magnitude comparison suggests that v y y m we obtain df F g g , vx 0 + v f 0 = v y dx m y

2.57 Fall 2004 Lecture 21

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