Research Process

Dr. Rajwinder Singh

Assistant Professor
School of Management Studies
Punjabi University, Patiala
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
The systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or
problem in order to generate new knowledge or
validate existing knowledge.
 MOTIVATION FOR RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a
question of fundamental importance. The possible motives
for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
–Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
–Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
–Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
–Desire to be of service to society;
–Desire to get respectability.
 Characteristics of good topics

1. Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it throughout the

research process

2. Researchable – can be investigated through the collection and analysis of

data

3. Significant – contributes to the improvement and understanding of

educational theory and practice

4. Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level of research skills, needed

resources, and time restrictions

5. Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants

 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
• What we expect to achieve by a project.
• May be linked with a hypothesis or used as a statement
of purpose in a study that does not have a hypothesis.
• A statement of research objectives can serve to guide
the activities of research. Consider the following
examples.
– To describe what factors farmers take into account in making such
decisions as whether to adopt a new technology or what crops to grow.
– To develop a budget for reducing pollution by a particular enterprise.
– To describe the habitat of the giant panda in China.
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it

(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies);
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known
as diagnostic research studies);
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies
are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
• To get research degree for promotion.
• To become esteemed personality.
RESEARCH PROCESS IN RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY (What & How)
RESEARCH PROCESS
 1. Formulating research problem

• Research problems: Relating states of nature and relationships.

• Single out problems to study: General area of interest or aspect
of a subject matter.

• Start with broader general problem then resolve

ambiguity (Scientific enquiry)
• Consider feasibility of problem-understanding the problem
???? and rephrasing into meaningful way.
– Understanding the problems- Literature, discussion, verify objectives,
Here we need to follow a sequential pattern where a number of formulations are set
up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more
analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
 1. Ways to Formulate research problem
❖Specify research objectives:
➢ will help to develop effective research
➢ Evaluate research questions
➢ Evaluate research method
➢ Two or three goals will help to keep research focused and relevant
❖Review the environment in context of research problem
❖Explore the nature of the problem
❖Define the variable relationships
❖Consequences of alternative courses of action
 Ways to formulate research problem

1. Focus on the type of study design to be used

2. Sampling strategy to be applied
3. Research instrument to be used
4. Type of analysis to be undertaken
5. Sources of problem (People, problems, programs, phenomena)
6. Selection of problem (interest, magnitude, measurement of concepts,
level of expertise, relevance, data available, ethical issues)

7. Objective characteristics ( Clear, complete, identify main variables

to be correlates, specific, identify direction of relationship)
 Statement of research purpose
• The purpose of this study is to . . . (it should imply the question, define the
variables for the purpose of the study, and define the population of the study).
• It communicates: (1)the focus & importance of the problem; (2)the context &
scope; & (3) the framework for reporting the results.
• Purpose (Exploration->Description->Explanation)

• To clarify the focus and logic of the problem decide on:

– major construct
– variables
– Population & then the logic to use for the problem
 Statement of research purpose (example)

The purpose of this project is to create four

different WebQuests which employ constructive active
learning pedagogy, teach higher order thinking skills, and that
introduce feminist issues to 6th 8th grade art students. I will
pilot the WebQuests over a period of 3 months and document
student written responses, my observations of their process,
and student WebQuest products in order to evaluate student
learning and interest in the feminist technological art
curriculum.
 Statement of research purpose (logic)
Deductive Logic:
1. Select an abstract construct
2. Select the variables - Are the variables logically deduced from the
construct?
3. Select observations - How will you study/observe the variables?

Quantitative - a priori categories to collect data in the form of

numbers. Used in experimental, descriptive, & correlational
designs.
 Statement of research purpose (logic)
Inductive Logic:
1. Select a site, population, or an event and then develop constructs from data
analysis.

Qualitative - the goal is to capture the richness and complexity of behavior that
occurs in natural settings. The data is analyzed inductively to generate findings.

Three general types of qualitative analysis include: concept analysis (linguistic

analysis of attributes), historical analysis (examines causes, trends & often relates
past to current events), or legal analysis (law and court decisions to better
understand the "law" and legal issues).
 NARROWING & REFINEMENT of the problem

• Narrowing the focus

• Population
• Situation (time, condition, subject availability,
researcher’s readiness, resources available, etc.)
• Measurements
• Issue(s) dealt with?
• Setting the scope of the problem (“this is my
line…I won’t go beyond it…”)
 A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied
3. The testability of the question
 Examples of good questions
• Does GST implementation produced more satisfaction in clients than previous tax
policy? (experimental design)

• Does behavior modification reduce aggression in corporate employees? (single-

subject experimental design)

• Are the descriptions of people in social studies discussions biased? (grounded

theory design)

• What goes on in an elementary school classroom during an average week?

(ethnographic design)

• Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (causal-

comparative design)

• How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (survey design)

• How can a Principal improve faculty morale? (interview design)

 Steps in formulating the research questions
• Ask these questions
– Do I known the field and its literature well?
– What are the important research questions in my field?
– What areas need further exploration?
– Could my study fill a gap? Or lead to greater understanding?
– Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
– Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?
– Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it
becoming obsolete ?
– Will the study have a significant impact on the field?
 Guidelines to evaluate research questions

• Is the research question one that is of interest to the

researcher and potentially to others?
• Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it
attempting to shed light on previously researched topic ?
• Is the research question researchable? Consider the
available time frame and the required resources.
• Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
• Is the research question measureable and will the process
produce data that can be supported or contradicted?
• Is the research question too broad or too narrow?
 Template to evaluate research questions

Research Data Justification Practicalities Ethical

Question Source •Relevant, (e.g. resources Issues
and •Manageable, and skills)
Method •substantial and original,
•fit for assessment,
•clear and simple,
•interesting
 Flawed and well designed research questions
Too narrow: What is the childhood obsesity rate in Rajpura, Patiala?
This is too narrow because it can be answered with a simple
statistic. Questions that can be answered with a "yes" or a "no" should also
typically be avoided.
Less narrow: How does the education level of the parents impact childhood
obesity rates in Rajpura, Patiala?
This question demonstrates the correct amount of specificity and the results
would provide the opportunity for an argument to be formed.
Unfocused and too broad: What are the effects of childhood obesity in the
South Asia?
This question is so broad that research methodology would be very difficult
and the question is too broad to be discussed in a typical research paper.
More focused: How does childhood obesity correlate with academic
performance in elementary school children?
This question has a very clear focus for which data can be collected, analyzed,
and discussed.
 Flawed and well designed research questions
• Too objective: How much time do young children spend doing physical activity per day?
This question may allow the researcher to collect data but does not lend itself to
collecting data that can be used to create a valid argument because the data is just
factual information.
• More Subjective: What is the relationship between physical activity levels and
childhood obesity?
This is a more subjective question that may lead to the formation of an argument based
on the results and analysis of the data.
• Too simple: How are school systems addressing childhood obesity?
This information can be obtained without the need to collect unique data. The question
could be answered with a simple online search and does not provide an opportunity for
analysis.
• More Complex: What are the effects of intervention programs in the elementary
schools on the rate of childhood obesity among 3rd - 6th grade students?
This question is more complex and requires both investigation and evaluation which will
lead the research to form an argument that may be discussed.
 Case study I: Formulating statement of the problem

In Maharashtra urban area, many smallholders sell milk at low prices despite
stiff competition for milk between the formal and informal market outlets.
Consequently, farmers have low returns to external inputs, which they use to
support intensive milk production. The access, timeliness, reliability and use of
market information between producers and traders could explain why some
producers are sell milk competitively while others are not. Knowledge of the
flow and use of market information on milk prices would be useful in designing
effective price information dissemination strategies to help farmers sell their
milk at profitable prices and realize positive returns to their investment for
improved income and food security from dairy production.

What is overall objective ?

What is specific objective ?
What is the research question ?
Hypothesis Ha ?
What is hypothesis Ho ?
 Solution
• Overall objective: To enable milk producers access competitive market price in
order to produce milk profitably and increase income and food security for the
households
• Specific objectives: To determine the influence of market information sourcing
on the milk sale price
• Research question: Do producers sourcing market information sell their milk
at more competitive prices than those who do not?
• Hypothesis Ha: Milk producers that source market information about milk
price sell milk at more competitive prices than those not sourcing for market
information
• Hypothesis Ho: Market milk sale price is not different between producers
sourcing market information and those not sourcing
 2. Extensive Literature survey
•Focus on the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies.
•Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
• Here one source will lead to another.
•The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in and
should be carefully studied.
• Visit good library
 3. Development of working hypotheses
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research
hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research
• Guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the
right track
• Discuss with colleagues
• Examine data records
• Review similar studies
• Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
 Types of Hypothesis

First, we must take a moment to

define independent and dependent variables. Simply
put, an independent variable is the cause and the
dependent variable is the effect. The six most common
forms of hypotheses are:
1. Simple Hypothesis
2. Complex Hypothesis
3. Empirical Hypothesis
4. Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "Ho")
5. Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "Ha")
6. Logical Hypothesis
7. Statistical Hypothesis
8. Working Hypothesis
 Types of Hypothesis
1. A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables:
the independent variable and the dependent variable.
“Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity”

2. A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more

independent variables and two or more dependent variables.
Overweight adults who (1) value longevity and (2) seek happiness are more likely
than other adults to (1) lose their excess weight and (2) feel a more regular
sense of joy.

3. A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no

relationship between the two variables, or there is a lack of information to
state a scientific hypothesis. This is something to attempt to disprove or
discredit.
There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green
tea only or root beer only.
 Types of Hypothesis

4. This is where the alternative hypothesis (Ha) enters the

scene. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researchers
will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
My health improves during the times when I drink green tea
only, as opposed to root beer only.

5. A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing

limited evidence. Generally, you want to turn a logical hypothesis
into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or
postulations to the test.
Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on
Mars. (Until we're able to test plant growth in Mars' ground for
an extended period of time, the evidence for this claim will be
limited and the hypothesis will only remain logical.)
 Types of Hypothesis

6. An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a

theory is being put to the test, using observation and experiment. It's no
longer just an idea or notion. It's actually going through some trial and
error, and perhaps changing around those independent variables.
Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with
liquid Vitamin E. (Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)

7. A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population.

If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Punjabis, you
would want to examine every single resident of Punjab. This is not
practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical
hypothesis, or a sample of the Punjabi population.
8. Working hypothesis is a proposed solution to a problem that's accepted
pending further studies or a better idea. It can be used to take provisional
actions so that business can progress while you're still uncertain as to the
optimal solution to a problem.
 Working Hypothesis

verview: Working Hypothesis

Function Problem Solving
Decision Making

Value Choosing a direction to investigate

further or making decisions in
uncertain conditions.

Related Techniques Abductive Reasoning

Test and Learn
Peer Review
 Parameters of a Good Hypothesis
In order for a hypothesis to be sound, hold tight to these tips:
Ask yourself questions.
Brainstorm. Define the independent and dependent variables very specifically, and don't
take on more than you can handle. Keep yourself laser-focused on one specific cause-and-effect
theory.

Be logical and use precise language.

Keep your language clean and simple. State your hypothesis as concisely, and to the point, as
possible. A hypothesis is usually written in a form where it proposes that, if something is done, then
something else will occur. Usually, you don't want to state a hypothesis as a question. You believe in
something, and you're seeking to prove it. For example: If I raise the temperature of a cup of water,
then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased.

Make sure your hypothesis is testable with research and experimentation.

Any hypothesis will need proof. Your audience will have to see evidence and reason to believe your
statement. For example, I may want to drink root beer all day, not green tea. If you're going to make
me change my ways, I need some sound reasoning and experimental proof - perhaps case studies of
others who lost weight, cleared up their skin, and had a marked improvement in their immunity by
drinking green tea.
 An Example of How to Write a Hypothesis
•A worker on a fish-farm notices that his trout seem to have more fish lice in the summer, when
the water levels are low, and wants to find out why. His research leads him to believe that the
amount of oxygen is the reason - fish that are oxygen stressed tend to be more susceptible to
disease and parasites.
•He proposes a general hypothesis.
•“Water levels affect the amount of lice suffered by rainbow trout.”
•This is a good general hypothesis, but it gives no guide to how to design
the research or experiment. The hypothesis must be refined to give a little direction.
•“Rainbow trout suffer more lice when water levels are low.”
•Now there is some directionality, but the hypothesis is not really testable, so the final stage is
to design an experiment around which research can be designed, i.e. a testable hypothesis.
•“Rainbow trout suffer more lice in low water conditions because there is less oxygen in the
water.”
•This is a testable hypothesis - he has established variables, and by measuring the amount of
oxygen in the water, eliminating other controlled variables, such as temperature, he can see if
there is a correlation against the number of lice on the fish.
•This is an example of how a gradual focusing of research helps to define how
to write a hypothesis.
 Steps to write a hypothesis
1. Select a topic
❖ Pick a topic that interests you, and that you think it would be good to know
more about.
❖ If you are writing a hypothesis for a school assignment, this step may be taken
care of for you.
e.g. effects of caffeine on different populations

2. Read existing research

➢ Gather all the information and become an expert on the subject.
➢ Focus on academic and scholarly writing.
➢ You need to be certain that your information is unbiased, accurate, and
comprehensive.
➢ Scholarly search databases such as Google Scholar and Web of Science can
help you find relevant articles from reputable sources (Google, library,
teachers, peers etc.)
e.g. Learn how caffeine affects body. Read studies testing effect of caffeine on
people
 Steps to write a hypothesis

3. Analyze literature
❑ Come up with questions no one has answered
❑ Look for results that make you skeptical
❑ Look for statements suggesting future research
e.g. A recent study calls for researching the effect of caffeine on
women as compared to men.
A claim that caffeine improves math skills
4. Generate questions
✓ Fill gaps in existing literature
✓ Useful or interesting topics
e.g. How caffeine affects women and men differently ?
 Steps to write a hypothesis

5. Look for clues as to what the answer might be

Once you have generated your research question or questions, look in the
literature to see if the existing findings and/or theories about the topic provide
any clues that would allow you to come up with ideas about what the answers to
your research questions might be. If so, these clues can form the basis for your
hypothesis.
Following the examples above, if you discover in the literature that there is a
pattern that some other types of stimulants seem to affect females more than
males, this could be a clue that the same pattern might be true for caffeine.
Similarly, if you observe the pattern that organic fertilizer seems to be associated
with smaller plants overall, you might explain this pattern with the hypothesis
that plants exposed to organic fertilizer grow more slowly than plants exposed to
non-organic fertilizer.
 Steps to write a hypothesis

6. Formulate your hypothesis: Choose dependent variable

(to be tested) and independent variables (predictive variables).
Formulate explanatory hypothesis.
e.g. Independent Variable: Caffeinated drink and non-caffeinated drink
Dependent Variable: Heart rate change in men and women
7. Write simple hypothesis: General, not specific
“[Factor]” is related to “[effect]”
e.g. Generalizing Hypothesis, “A person’s gender is related to how caffeine
affects his or her heart rate”.
8. Make it directional: A research based proposal about the
direction of the factor’s effect.
e.g. Directional generalizing hypothesis, “Caffeine has greater stimulant effect
on women than men”.
 Steps to write a hypothesis

9. Get specific with prediction: If you suspect pattern is

real, what can you predict for the result of an experiment ?
e.g. Prediction, “ Women who are given caffeinated drink will have a greater
increased heart rate than men who are given a caffeinated drink, as well
as en and women who are given non-caffeinated drink (Placebo control)

10. Confirm the topic is testable:

Is this experiment feasible ?
Will the data allow for clear answer ?
-Make sure it is testable (Explanatory hypothesis) in the real and observable
world.
 Steps to write a hypothesis

11. Write a research hypothesis: Often, hypotheses are stated

in the form of if-then sentences. For example, "if children are given caffeine, then
their heart rates will increase." This statement is not a hypothesis. This kind of
statement is a brief description of an experimental method followed by a
prediction and is the most common way that hypotheses are misrepresented in
science education. An easy way to get to the hypothesis for this method and
prediction is to ask yourself why you think heart rates will increase if children are
given caffeine. Your explanatory hypothesis in this case may be that caffeine is a
stimulant. At this point, some scientists write a research hypothesis, a statement
that includes the hypothesis, the experiment, and the prediction all in one
statement.
e.g. , If caffeine is a stimulant, and some children are given a drink with caffeine
while others are given a drink without caffeine, then the heart rates of those
children given a caffeinated drink will increase more than the heart rate of
children given a non-caffeinated drink.
 Steps to write a hypothesis

12. Contextualize your hypothesis. It may sound strange, but

researchers rarely ever prove that a hypothesis is right or wrong. Instead, they look for
evidence that the opposite of their hypotheses is probably not true. If the opposite
(caffeine is not a stimulant) is probably not true, the hypothesis (caffeine is a stimulant)
probably is true.

➢Using the above example, if you were to test the effects of caffeine on the heart rates of
children, evidence that your hypothesis is not true, sometimes called the null hypothesis,
could occur if the heart rates of both the children given the caffeinated drink and the
children given the non-caffeinated drink (called the placebo control) did not change, or
lowered or raised with the same magnitude, if there was no difference between the two
groups of children.

➢It is important to note here that the null hypothesis actually becomes much more useful
when researchers test the significance of their results with statistics. When statistics are
used on the results of an experiment, a researcher is testing the idea of the null statistical
hypothesis. For example, that there is no relationship between two variables or that there
is no difference between two groups.
 Steps to write a hypothesis
13. Test your hypothesis. Make your observations or conduct your
experiment. Your evidence may allow you to reject your null
hypotheses, thus lending support to your experimental
hypothesis. However, your evidence may not allow you to reject
your null hypothesis and this is okay. Any result is important, even
when your result sends you back to the drawing board. Constantly
having to go "back to the drawing board" and refine your ideas is
how authentic science really works!
 The Next Stage - What to Do with the Hypothesis

• Once you have your hypothesis, the next stage is

to design the experiment, allowing a statistical
analysis of data, and allowing you to test your
hypothesis.
• The statistical analysis will allow you to reject
either the null or the alternative hypothesis. If
the alternative is rejected, then you need to go
back and refine the initial hypothesis or design a
completely new research program.
 Good Hypothesis Poor Hypothesis
When there is less oxygen in the water, rainbow Our universe is surrounded by another, larger
trout suffer more lice.Kristin says: "This hypothesis universe, with which we can have absolutely no
is good because it is testable, simple, written as a contact.Kristin says: "This statement may or may
statement, and establishes the participants (trout), not be true, but it is not a scientific hypothesis. By
variables (oxygen in water, and numbers of lice), its very nature, it is not testable. There are no
and predicts effect (as oxygen levels go down, the observations that a scientist can make to tell
numbers of lice go up).” whether or not the hypothesis is correct. This
statement is speculation, not a hypothesis.“

Aphid-infected plants that are exposed to Ladybugs are a good natural pesticide for
ladybugs will have fewer aphids after a week treating aphid infected plants.Sandra says: "This
than aphid-infected plants which are left statement is not 'bite size.' Whether or not
untreated.Sandra says: "This hypothesis gives a something is a 'good natural pesticide' is too vague
clear indication of what is to be tested (the ability for a science fair project. There is no clear
of ladybugs to curb an aphid infestation), is a indication of what will be measured to evaluate
manageable size for a single experiment, mentions the prediction."
the independent variable (ladybugs) and the
dependent variable (number of aphids), and
predicts the effect (exposure to ladybugs reduces
the number of aphids).”