Research aptitude

Research
• A careful consideration of study regarding a particular
concern or problem using scientific methods.
According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and
deductive methods.”
• Inductive research methods are used to analyze an
observed event.
• Deductive methods are used to verify the observed
event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative research and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative
research.
 Characteristics of research

• Directed towards the solution of a problem.

• > Emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles or theories helpful in predicting future
• occurrences.
• > Based upon observable experience or empirical
evidence.
• > Demands accurate observation and description.
• > Involves gathering new data from primary/first-hand
sources/using existing data for a new
• purpose.
• > Directed towards the solution of a problem.
 Characteristics of research
• A systematic approach must be followed for accurate
data. Rules and procedures are an integral part of the
process that set the objective.
• Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of
conduct while making observations or drawing
conclusions.
• Research is based on logical reasoning and involves
both inductive and deductive methods.
• The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time
from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so
that there are no anomalies associated with it.
Types of research
 Causal Research (Explanatory
research)
• Causal research, also known as explanatory
research is conducted in order to identify the
extent and nature of cause-and-effect
relationships. Causal research can be conducted
in order to assess impacts of specific changes on
existing norms, various processes etc.
• Causal studies focus on an analysis of a situation
or a specific problem to explain the patterns of
relationships between variables. experiments are
the most popular primary data collection
methods in studies with causal research design.
 Applied research
• Applied research “aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society, or
an industrial/business organization.
 Experimental Research
• Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to
a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a
variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and
variables that can be measured, calculated and
compared. Most importantly, experimental research is
completed in a controlled environment. The researcher
collects data and results will either support or reject the
hypothesis. This method of research is referred to a
hypothesis testing.
• Experimental research seeks to determine a
relationship between two (2) variables—the dependent
variable and the independent variable.
Control Group Designs
The control group is composed of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment.
When conducting an experiment, these people are randomly assigned to be in this group. They also
closely resemble the participants who are in the experimental group or the individuals who receive
the treatment.
"Before-after with control group" design
This design involves establishing two samples or groups of respondents: an experimental group that
would be exposed to the controlled variable and a control group which would not be subjected to
the controlled variable under study.
Before and after without control design:
In this design, a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured before
introduction of the treatment. Then the treatment is introduced and the dependent variable is
measured again after the treatment has been introduced.
Pre and Post Test in Experimental Research
a research design in which the same assessment measures are given to participants both before and
after they have received a treatment or been exposed to a condition, with such measures used to
determine if there are any changes that could be attributed to the treatment or condition.
 Historical research
• Historical research relates past events to one another or to
current events. Basically, historical research (or
historiography) answers the question: what is the nature of
events that have happened in the past? For example, one might
want to examine trends in treatment of mental illness or how
attitudes toward work and families have changed.

• One significant difference between historical research and

other types of research is the type of data collected and the
method of collection.
 Historical research
• Researchers who do historical research often accomplish
this goal through the use of primary sources (original
documents or information from people who have
personally experienced an event) and secondary sources
(second hand documents or information from people who
may have some knowledge about the event but did not
experience it first hand).
• Even if these sources are readily available, however, one
of the greatest challenges doing such research is in
knowing how much faith the researcher can put on the
accuracy of the sources.
 Ex-Post Facto Research
• In this kind of research, the independent variable or
variables have already occurred in which the
researcher starts with observation of a dependent
variable or variables.
• He then studies the independent variables in retrospect
for their possible relations to and effects on the
dependent variable or variables.
• The most important difference between experimental
research and ex-post facto research is control. In the
former, the investigator has a manipulative control on
the independent variable, whereas in the latter this
control is not possible, more than this, randomization is
not possible
 Ex-Post Facto Research
• This type of research has three weaknesses:
• 1) the inability to manipulate the independent variables,
• 2) lack of power to randomize,
• 3) the risk of improper interpretation
• In other words, compared to experimental research, other
things being equal, ex-post facto research lacks control. This
lack is a basis for the third weakness: the risk of improper
interpretation.
• Therefore, Ex- post facto research that is conducted without
hypothesis, without predictions, research in which data are
just collected and then interpreted is even more dangerous in
its power to mislead.
 Qualitative research
• Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is
about inquiry. It helps create in-depth understanding of
problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-
statistical method.
• Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience
of the researchers and the questions used to probe the
sample.
• The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people.
• Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that
encourages answers that lead to another question or group
of questions.
• The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as
much information as possible from the sample.
 Qualitative research
• The following are the methods used for
qualitative research:
• One-to-one interview
• Focus groups
• Ethnographic research
• Content/ Text Analysis
• Case study research
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
> Unique case orientation -- assumes that each case is special
and unique.
> Inductive analysis -- immersion in the details and specifics of
the data to discover important
patterns, themes, and inter-relationships; begins by exploring,
then confirming findings, guided by
analytical principles rather than rules.
> Holistic perspective -- the whole phenomenon under study is
understood as a complex system
that is more than the sum of its parts.
> Context sensitive -- places findings in a social, historical, and
temporal context.
> Voice, perspective, and reflexivity -- the qualitative
methodologist owns and is reflective about
her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys
authenticity and trustworthiness.
Reflexivity in Qualitative Research
Reflexivity is about acknowledging your role in the
research. As a qualitative researcher, you are
part of the research process, and your prior experiences,
assumptions and beliefs will influence the
research process. Researcher reflexivity is a type of critical
reflection about the position you are
taking as a researcher and how you have taken this stance
into account in your research. It is an
important way to establish rigour in qualitative research,
similar to the processes of defining
measurement tools for validity in quantitative research.
 Quantitative research
• Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured
way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw conclusions.
Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a
computational and statistical process to collect and analyze
data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
• Quantitative research involves a larger population — more
people means more data. With more data to analyze, you
can obtain more accurate results.
• This method uses close-ended questions because the
researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.
• Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data
collection tools used in quantitative research. There are
various methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires.
Quantitative data collection methods
> Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that
is distributed to a sample (online, in
person, or over the phone).
> Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled
and manipulated to establish cause-andeffect
relationships.
> Observations: Observing subjects in a natural
environment where variables can’t be controlled.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
> The data is usually gathered using structured research
instruments.
> The results are based on larger sample sizes that are
representative of the population.
> The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its
high reliability.
> Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which
objective answers are sought.
> All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is
collected.
> Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in
tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.
> Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict
future results, or investigate
causal relationships.
> Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer
software, to collect numerical data
Types of Qualitative Research
1. Ethnography
Ethnography, one of the most popular methods of qualitative
research, involves the researcher embedding himself or herself
into the daily life and routine of the subject or subjects. Either as
an active participant or an observer, the researcher experiences
their customs, traditions, mannerisms, reactions to situations
etc. first hand, sometimes for years. Geographical constraints
could be a hindrance for the researcher.
2. Narrative
In the Narrative method of qualitative research, the researcher
gathers data or facts from one or two subjects through
interviews, documents etc. over a period of time. Based on a
theme, these are then
pieced together (not necessarily in the same sequence) to
derive answers and suggestions.
Example of application: A business can use this method to
understand challenges faced by their target audience that can in
turn be utilised for innovation and development of products.
3. Phenomenology
The Phenomenology qualitative research method is used to study
an event or activity as it happens,
from various angles. Using interviews, videos, on-site visits etc., one
can add on to existing
information using perspectives and insights from the participants
themselves about the activity or
event. It is primarily an experience or perception based research
method.
Example of application: Universities can rely on this method to
understand how students make their
choices about applying to universities/colleges.
4. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory starts with a question or collection of data. Through
systematic data collection and
analysis, repetitive ideas or elements are coded, and codes are grouped
or categorised. New theories
may be formed based on these categories.
Example of application: A product-based company can use this method
to understand how their
customers use their products or individual features of their product or
products.
5. Case study
The case study method is used to gather in-depth and detailed
information about a subject from a
limited number of participants. The nature of this qualitative research
method can be explanatory or
exploratory. Findings based on case study research can be used to
develop research
hypotheses/questions for subsequent studies.
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Validity and Reliability
Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research.
They indicate how well
a method, technique or test measure something.
Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the
accuracy of a measure.
A reliable measurement is not always valid while a valid measurement is
generally reliable.
Internal Validity Threats
Just as there are many ways to ensure internal validity, there
is also a list of potential threats that should be considered
when planning a study.2
•Experimental mortality : Participants dropping out or leaving
a study, which means that the results are based on a biased
sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and
possibly who all have something in common, such as higher
motivation)
•Experimenter bias: An experimenter behaving in a different
way with different groups in a study, which can impact the
results (and is eliminated through blinding)
•Historical events: May influence the outcome of studies that
occur over a period of time, such as a change in the political
leader or a natural disaster that occurs, influencing how study
participants feel and act
•Instrumentation: This involves "priming" participants in a
study in certain ways with the measures used, causing them
to react in a way that is different than they would have
•Maturation: The impact of time as a variable in a study; for
example, if a study takes place over a period of time in which it
is possible that participants naturally change in some way (i.e.,
they grew older or became tired), it may be impossible to rule
out whether effects seen in the study were simply due to the
impact of time
•Statistical regression: The natural effect of participants at
extreme ends of a measure falling in a certain direction due to
the passage of time rather than being a direct effect of an
intervention
•Testing: Repeatedly testing participants using the same
measures influences outcomes; for example, if you give
someone the same test three times, it is likely that they will do
better as they learn the test or become used to the testing
process, causing them to answer differently
External Validity Threats
External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the
interaction of variables in the real world.2
Threats to external validity include:
•Pre- and post-test effects: When the pre- or post-test is in some way related to
the effect seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship
disappears without these added tests
•Sample features: When some feature of the sample used was responsible for the
effect (or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings
•Selection bias: Also considered a threat to internal validity, selection bias
describes differences between groups in a study that may relate to the
independent variable—like motivation or willingness to take part in the study, or
specific demographics of individuals being more likely to take part in an online
survey3
•Situational factors: Factors such as the time of day of the study, its location,
noise, researcher characteristics, and the number of measures used may affect
the generalizability of findings
Random error (Chance or Accidental Error) is a chance difference
between the observed and
true values of something (e.g., a researcher misreading a weighing
scale records an incorrect
measurement).
Systematic error is a consistent or proportional difference between
the observed and true values of
something (e.g., a miscalibrated scale consistently registers weights
as higher than they actually are).
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 Steps in research methodology
1. Selection of research problem
2. Extensive Literature survey
3. Making Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data Analysis
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Generalization and Interpretation
10. Preparation of Report
 Steps in research methodology
• Selection of Research Problem
• The selection of topic for research is a difficult
job. When we select a title or research statement,
then other activities would be easy to perform.
So, for the understanding thoroughly the problem
it must have to discuss with colleagues, friend,
experts and teachers. The research topic or
problem should be practical, relatively important,
feasible, ethically and politically acceptable.
 Steps in research methodology
• Literature Review or Extensive Literature
Survey
• After the selection of research problem, the
second step is that of literature mostly
connected with the topics. The availability of
the literature may bring ease in the research.
For this purpose academic journals,
conference and govt. reports and library must
be studied.
 Steps in research methodology
• Making Hypothesis
• The development of hypothesis is a technical
work depends on the researcher experience.
The hypothesis is to draw the positive &
negative cause and effect aspects of a
problem. Hypothesis narrows down the area
of a research and keep a researcher on the
right path.
 Steps in research methodology
• Preparing the Research Design
• After the formulation of the problem and
creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to
prepare by the researcher. It may draw the
conceptual structure of the problem. Any type
of research design may be made, depend on
the nature and purpose of the study. Daring R.
Design the information about sources, skill,
time and finance is taken into consideration.
 Steps in research methodology
• Sampling
• The researcher must design a sample. It is a
plan for taking its respondents from a specific
areas or universe. The sample may be of two
types:
• Probability Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling
 Steps in research methodology
• Data collection
• Data collection is the most important work, is researcher.
The collection of information must be containing on facts
which is from the following two types of researcher.
• Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the
following.
• Experiment
• Questionnaire
• Observation
• Interview
• Secondary data collection: it has the following categories:
• Review of literature
• Official and non-official reports
• Library approach
 Steps in research methodology
• Data Analysis
• When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis
which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be
divided into two main categories.
• Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.
• Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data
tabulation, Data presentation, Data measurement
• Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following
sub-categories.
• Description, Explanation, Narration,
Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions
 Steps in research methodology
• Hypothesis Testing
• Research data is then forwarded to test the
hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to
the facts or not? To find the answer the
process of testing hypothesis is undertaken
which may result in accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.
 Steps in research methodology
• Generalization and Interpretation
• The acceptable hypothesis is possible for
researcher to arrival at the process of
generalization or to make & theory. Some
types of research has no hypothesis for which
researcher depends upon on theory which is
known as interpretation.
 Steps in research methodology
• Preparation of Report
• A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done
is his work. He must keep in his mind the following points:
• Report Design in Primary Stages
• The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the
problem and background followed by acknowledgement.
There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.
• Main Text of the Report
• It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and
methodology of the research. It must be divided into
chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which
summary of the findings should be enlisted. The last section
would be clearly of conclusions to show the main theme of
the R-study.
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SAMPLING METHODS
Types of probability sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster
Systematic random
Types of Non probability sampling
Purposive
Quota
Snowball
 Self selection
Self-selection sampling is appropriate when we
want to allow units or cases, whether individuals
or organizations, to choose to take part in
research on their own accord. The key
component is that research subjects (or
organisations) volunteer to take part in the
research rather than being approached by the
researcher directly.
 Convenience
• A convenience sample is simply one where the
units that are selected for inclusion in the
sample are the easiest to access. In our
example of the 10,000 university students, if
we were only interested in achieving a sample
size of say 100 students, we may simply stand
at one of the main entrances to campus,
where it would be easy to invite the many
students that pass by to take part in the
research.
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Hypothesis
Null hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis
If method a is better than b known as.
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 Self rating scales
• Graphic rating scale:
• The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the
criterion variable to another. Example
• 0 (poor quality)1 (bad quality)5 (neither good nor bad)7 (good
quality)BRAND 1
• This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer
can occupy any position. Here one attribute is taken ex-quality
of any brand of ice cream.
• its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial
amount of time, since we first have to measure the physical
distances on the scale for each respondent.
 Itemized Rating Scales

• These scales are different from continuous rating

scales. They have a number of brief descriptions
associated with each category. They are widely used
in Marketing Research. They essentially take the form
of the multiple category questions. The most
common are - Likert, Sementic, Staple and Multiple
Dimension. Others are - Thurston and Guttman.
 Conference
• Conferences are occasional or annual meetings
organized by a committee, with a group of appointed
paper reviewers who review submissions and select the
most suitable, original, best etc. papers for publication
in a book: ‗conference proceedings‘.
• A Conference refers to a formal meeting where
participants exchange their views on various topics.
• Conference can take place in different fields, and it
need not be academic in nature all the time.
• Thus, we have parent teacher conferences, sport
conferences, a trade conference, a conference of
journalists, conference of doctors, a conference of
research scholars, and so on.
 Seminar

• Seminar is a form of academic instruction,

seminar tends to be held within one institution or
university, and will often a seminar will be a small
group of people – say, between five and ten attendees –
who come together to focus on a particular issue.
• Often seminars will be less formally structured than
conferences, so one person might give a presentation
but it will probably be brief.
• There is more of a focus on discussion at these events,
so do feel free to chime in with your thoughts on the
topic at hand.
 Symposium

• A symposium tends to focus on a particular issue rather

than a more general theme. Generally a number of
experts will come together in order to present their
ideas and papers to one another.
• Similar to a conference in that the focus is on
presentations and lectures, and less hands-on than a
workshop, a symposium is typically completed in a
single day.
• Symposiums may be more prestigious than a
conference, with an emphasis on experts presenting
their work and occasionally discussing it afterwards
(though not to the extent of a seminar).
• Finally, symposiums will generally be smaller than a
conference.
 Workshop
• A Workshop includes all the elements of the Seminar,
but with the largest portion being emphasized on
―hand-on-practice‖ or laboratory work.
• it is less structured than a conference but more formal
than a seminar.
• workshops are generally smaller than conferences, and
are usually only a day or two long and are dedicated to
discussing a specific topic.
• Workshops are a good opportunity to learn new skills
and to familiarise yourself with a topic you don't know
well.
Research ethics
 Ethics tenants
• Honesty in reporting data, results, methods and procedure and
publication status.
• Objectivity to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
interpretation, peer review.
• Accuracy in report finding precisely and taking care to avoid
errors.
Let‘s begin by considering what positivism is. In its broadest sense, positivism is a
rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if you‘re not familiar
with it). It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe
the phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to
what we can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist
would hold, is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy
of logical positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology.
These were the mythical ‗rat runners‘ who believed that psychology could only
study what could be directly observed and measured. Since we can‘t directly
observe emotions, thoughts, etc. (although we may be able to measure some of the
physical and physiological accompaniments), these were not legitimate topics for a
scientific psychology. B.F. Skinner argued that psychology needed to concentrate
only on the positive and negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predict how
people will behave – everything else in between (like what the person is thinking) is
irrelevant because it can‘t be measured.
.
In a positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth,
to understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it.
The world and the universe were deterministic – they operated by laws of
cause and effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of
the scientific method. Science was largely a mechanistic or mechanical affair.
We use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test. Based on
the results of our studies, we may learn that our theory doesn‘t fit the facts
well and so we need to revise our theory to better predict reality. The
positivist believed in empiricism – the idea that observation and measurement
was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key approach of the scientific
method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct
manipulation and observation
A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists
think and work and the way we think in our everyday life are not
distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning
are essentially the same process. There is no difference in kind
between the two, only a difference in degree. Scientists, for example,
follow specific procedures to assure that observations are verifiable,
accurate and consistent. In everyday reasoning, we don‘t always
proceed so carefully (although, if you think about it, when the stakes
are high, even in everyday life we become much more cautious about
measurement. Think of the way most responsible parents keep
continuous watch over their infants, noticing details that non-parents
would never detect).
One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy
called critical realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality
independent of our thinking about it that science can study. (This is in
contrast with a subjectivist who would hold that there is no external reality –
we‘re each making this all up!). Positivists were also realists. The difference
is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is
fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other words, the
critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty.
Hypothetico-Deductive Research
hypothetico-deductive method, also called H-D method or H-D,
procedure for the construction of a
scientific theory that will account for results obtained through direct
observation and
experimentation
Empirico-Inductive Research
In an empirico-inductive paradigm, researcher collects empirical
data (empirico) from specific
cases to generalize (inductive) it's research finding. Empirical
research makes use of quantitative
and qualitative data gathering methods which may include surveys,
experiments, and methods of
observation.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Data
Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable.
Qualitative data is interpretationbased,
descriptive, and relating to language. Quantitative data tells us how
many, how much, or how
often in calculations. Qualitative data can help us to understand why,
how, or what happened behind
certain behaviors.