Chapter 1:

Introduction
COURSE INSTRUCTOR:
ENGR. FARHEEN QAZI, ENGR. SYED HARIS MEHBOOB, MS. FALAK SALEEM

PROGRAM : SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

COURSE : OPERATING SYSTEMS (SE-204T)
BATCH : 2021F SPRING : 2023

DEPARTMENT OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

SIR SYED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Grading (subject to adjustment)

 20% Assignments/Quizzes
 3 Assignments
 3 Quizzes

 30% Mid-Term
 Pre-Mid course included

 50% Final
 Pre-Mid + Post-Mid course included
Tentative Course Outline

 Lesson 1: Introduction To Operating System

 Lesson 2: Process Concept
 Lesson 3: Threads
 Lesson 4: CPU Scheduling
 Lesson 5: Main Memory Management
 Lesson 6: Virtual Memory
 Lesson 7: Process Synchronization
 Lesson 8: Deadlock
 Lesson 9: Mass-Storage Structure
 Lesson 10: File System Overview
 Lesson 11: File System Implementation
 Books

 TEXT BOOK:
 Abraham Silberschatz, Peter B. Galvin, Greg Gagne, Operating
System Concepts, 10th Edition, 2018.

 REFERENCE BOOKS:
 William Stallings, Operating System, Design, internals and
Implementation, 9th Edition, 2018.
Chapter 1: Introduction

 What Operating Systems Do

 Computer System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating System Components
 System Calls
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Process & Job Control
 Communication Models
 Proprietary VS Open-Source Operating Systems
Objectives

 To describe the basic organization of computer systems

 To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
 To explore several open-source operating systems
 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
(Cont.)
 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
o CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do

 Depends on the point of view

 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer
must keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources
from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)

 No universally accepted definition

 “ Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
 an application program.
Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation
by causing an interrupt
Operating System Structure

 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always
has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another
job
Operating System Structure (contd.)

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches

jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out
to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
System Components

 Process Management
 Main Memory Management
 File Management
 I/O System Management
 Secondary Management
 Protection System
 Command-Interpreter System
 Process Management

 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes

 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 Main Memory Management

 Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own

address. It is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by
the CPU and I/O devices.

 Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its contents in

the case of system failure.

 The I/O operations implemented via DMA also read and write
data in memory.

 To improve both the utilization of CPU and the speed of the

computer’s response to its users, we keep several programs in
memory.
 Main Memory Management Activities

 The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connections with memory management:

 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being

used and by whom.
 Decide which processes to load when memory space
becomes available.
 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
File Management

 A file is a collection of related information defined by its

creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both source
and object forms) and data.
 Data such as text files.
 Computers can store information on several different types of
physical media.
 Magnetic tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk are the most
common media.
 Each of these media has its own characteristics and physical
organization.
File Management Activities

 The operating system is responsible for the following activities

in connections with file management:

 File creation and deletion.

 Directory creation and deletion.
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.
I/O System Management

 The I/O subsystem consists of:

 A memory management component including buffering,

caching and spooling.
 A general device-driver interface.
 Drivers for specific hardware devices.
Secondary-Storage Management

 Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small

to accommodate all data and programs permanently, the
computer system must provide secondary storage to back
up main memory.

 Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-

line storage medium, for both programs and data.
Secondary-Storage Management
Activities

 The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with disk management:
 Free space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
Protection System

 Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by

programs, processes, or users to both system and user
resources.

 An unprotected resource cannot defend against use (or

misuse) by an unauthorized or incompetent user.

 The protection mechanism must:

 distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
 specify the controls to be imposed.
Command-Interpreter System

 Many commands are given to the operating system by

control statements which deal with:

 process creation and management

 I/O handling
 secondary-storage management
 main-memory management
 file-system access
 protection
 networking
Command-Interpreter System (Cont.)

 The program that reads and interprets control statements is

called variously:
 command-line interpreter
 shell (in UNIX)

 Its function is to get and execute the next command

statement.
Operating System Services

 An operating system provides an environment for the

execution of programs.

 Program execution
 System capability to load a program into memory and to
run it.
 Program must be able to end its execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error).

 I/O operations
 Since user programs cannot execute I/O operations
directly, the operating system must provide some means
to perform I/O.
Operating System Services (Cont.)

 File-system manipulation
 Program capability to read, write, create, and delete files.

 Communications
 Exchange of information between processes executing
either on the same computer or on different systems tied
together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or
message passing.

 Error detection
 Ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the CPU
and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs.
Additional Operating System Functions

 Additional functions exist not for helping the user, but rather for
ensuring efficient system operations.

 Resource allocation
 Allocating resources to multiple users or multiple jobs running at
the same time.

 Accounting
 Keep track of and record which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources for account billing or for
accumulating usage statistics.

 Protection
 Ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled.
 Security of the system from outsiders is also important.
System Calls

 System calls provide the interface between a running program

and the operating system.
 Generally available as assembly-language instructions.
 Languages defined to replace assembly language for
systems programming allow system calls to be made
directly (e.g., C, C++)

 User processes cannot perform privileged operations thems

elves

 Must request OS to do so on their behalf by issuing syste

m calls
Passing of Parameters As A Table
System Call Implementation

 Typically, a number associated with each system call

 System-call interface maintains a table indexed
according to these numbers

 The system call interface invokes the intended system

call in OS kernel and returns status of the system call and
any return values
API – System Call – OS Relationship
System Call Parameter Passing

• Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired

system call
– Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS
and call
• Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
– Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
• In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
– Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and
address of block passed as a parameter in a register
• This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
– Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program
and popped off the stack by the operating system
– Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed
 Standard C Library Example

• C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system

call
 Types of System Calls

• Process control
– create process, terminate process
– end, abort
– load, execute
– get process attributes, set process attributes
– wait for time
– wait event, signal event
– allocate and free memory
Types of System Calls

• File management
– create file, delete file
– open, close file
– read, write, reposition
– get and set file attributes

• Device management
– request device, release device
– read, write, reposition
– get device attributes, set device attributes
– logically attach or detach devices
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

• Protection
– Control access to resources
– Get and set permissions
– Allow and deny user access

• Information maintenance
– get time or date, set time or date
– get system data, set system data
– get and set process, file, or device attributes
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Process and job control
MS-DOS Execution
Process and job control
UNIX Running Multiple Programs
Process and job control
Communication Models
 Communication Models

 Shared Memory Model

Shared memory is the memory that can be simultaneously accessed by
multiple processes. This is done so that the processes can communicate
with each other. All POSIX systems, as well as Windows operating systems
use shared memory.

 Advantage of Shared Memory Model

Memory communication is faster on the shared memory model as
compared to the message passing model on the same machine.

 Disadvantages of Shared Memory Model

Some of the disadvantages of shared memory model are as follows −
o All the processes that use the shared memory model need to
make sure that they are not writing to the same memory location.
o Shared memory model may create problems such as
synchronization and memory protection that need to be
addressed.
Communication Models (contd.)

 Message Passing Model

Multiple processes can read and write data to the message queue
without being connected to each other. Messages are stored on the
queue until their recipient retrieves them. Message queues are quite
useful for interprocess communication and are used by most operating
systems.

 Advantage of Messaging Passing Model

The message passing model is much easier to implement than the
shared memory model.

 Disadvantage of Messaging Passing Model

The message passing model has slower communication than the
shared memory model because the connection setup takes time.
 Proprietary VS Open-Source
Operating Systems

Open-Source Proprietary
 Purchased with its source code  Purchased without its source code

 User can get open operating  User must pay to get the
proprietary operating system
system for free of charge
 User can modify the OS
 User can modify the OS
 User must have a license from
 User can install OS freely into vendor before install into
any computer computer
 No one s responsible to the OS  Full support from the vendor if
anything happened to the OS
 Linux, Ubuntu, fedora etc.
 Windows Vista, Windows 10 etc.
End of Chapter 1
Thank you