Electric Circuits

Lecture Notes
By

Mohamed-Yahia Dabbagh

Winter 2021

Note: All rights for these lecture notes are reserved by the author. The lecture notes
are intended for the exclusive use and learning purposes by teaching assistants and
students who are enrolled in the course ECE 140 at the University of Waterloo.
Distribution of these lecture notes in any form is not allowed.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh
Chapter 7
Transient Analysis: First-Order Circuits

In this chapter, we study the response of circuits with sources, switches, resistors,
capacitors, and inductors.

The time-varying currents and voltages resulting from the abrupt change of the
circuit, or due to switching, are called transients.

Switching behaviour is important in many applications such as digital circuits,

timing circuits, and power systems.

In general, transient analysis requires the solution of differential equations. Here,

we only consider the analysis of RC and RL circuits since they require the solution
of a first-order differential equation, which is simple to solve.

7.1 Discharging of RC Circuit 𝑖𝐶 𝑡=0

𝐴
Before 𝑡 = 0, the capacitor is assumed to be + 𝑖𝑅
charged to an initial voltage 𝑉𝑖 , i.e.
𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑅
𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 𝑉𝑖 .
−
At 𝑡 = 0, the switch closes, and 𝑣𝐶 (0) =
𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 𝑉𝑖 (No jump).

For 𝑡 ≥ 0, the current flows through the resistor discharging the capacitor.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-1

Writing KCL at node A: 𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

or 𝐶 + =0 , 𝑡≥0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
⟹ 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 0 , 𝑡≥0
𝑑𝑡

(a differential equation (DE) of 1st order)

The solution of the DE 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) must be a function that has a form that is similar to its
derivative. The exponential function satisfies this requirement.

Assume: 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

where K and s are constants to be determined, as follows.

Substitute assumed solution in DE:

𝑅𝐶𝐾𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡 + 𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0

⟹ 𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1) = 0

For non-trivial solution 𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 ≠ 0. Therefore, 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 = 0.

1
⟹ 𝑠=− and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 𝑡≥0
𝑅𝐶

Find K from initial condition (IC):

𝑣𝐶 (0) = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐾𝑒 −0/𝑅𝐶 = 𝐾

⟹ 𝐾 = 𝑉𝑖

The solution becomes:

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 , 𝑡≥0

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-2

This exponential function is shown in the figure below. The rapidity of decay of the
function is determined by the constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, which is called the time-constant of
the circuit. The response decays faster for smaller time-constant.

The solution can be rewritten in term of the time-constant:

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

𝑉𝑖
vc(t)

0.368𝑉𝑖

0 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 2𝜏
t

For 𝑡 = 𝜏: 𝑣𝐶 (𝜏) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 −1 ≅ 0.368 𝑉𝑖 .

For 𝑡 = 5𝜏: 𝑣𝐶 (5𝜏) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 −5 ≅ 0.00674 𝑉𝑖 , which is a very small value relative to

the initial voltage 𝑉𝑖 .

For 𝑡 > 5𝜏: the capacitor is assumed practically to be completely discharged, i.e.
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) ≃ 0.

Remark: The “Discharging of RC Circuit” is also called “Source-Free RC Circuit”.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-3

Remark: The current through the capacitor is given by:

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 𝑉𝑖 𝑡
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐶 = −𝐶 𝑒 − 𝜏 = − 𝑒 − 𝜏 , 𝑡≥0
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅
𝑉𝑖
Notice the jump at 𝑡 = 0, where 𝑖𝐶 (0− ) = 0 and 𝑖𝐶 (0) = − .
𝑅

Remark: The energy 𝑤𝑅 that is dissipated by the resistor 𝑅 from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = ∞

1
is equal to the initial energy 𝑤𝐶 that is stored in the capacitor; i.e. 𝑤𝑅 = 𝑤𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉𝑖2 .
2

Remark: The resistance 𝑅 in the RC circuit can be the Thevenin equivalent

resistance of any resistive circuit with no independent sources, as shown below.

𝑡=0 𝑡=0

Resistive +
+
circuit with
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑡
𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) no
≡ 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑅
independent
− sources −

(See textbook for examples)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-4

7.2 Charging RC Circuit
The source is assumed to be a DC 𝑡=0 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑅
source, where 𝑉𝑠 = constant. 𝐴
+
The capacitor is assumed to be +
𝑉𝑠 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
initially discharged: −
−
𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 0

At 𝑡 = 0, the switch closes and 𝑣𝐶 (0) = 𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 0 (No jump).

For 𝑡 ≥ 0, the current flows charging the capacitor. By KCL at node A:

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)−𝑉𝑠

𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
⟹ 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 , 𝑡≥0 (1st order DE)
𝑑𝑡

Since right-side is a constant = 𝑉𝑠 , assume the solution:

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑒 𝑠𝑡

where 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , and s are constants to be determined.

Substitute in DE: 𝑅𝐶𝐾2 𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠

or (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)𝐾2 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 + 𝐾1 = 𝑉𝑠
(exponential) (constant) (constant)
Matching functions on both sides:

𝐾1 = 𝑉𝑠 and (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)𝐾2 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0

1
⟹ 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑠=−
𝑅𝐶

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-5

Find 𝐾2 from initial condition:

𝑣𝐶 (0) = 0 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑒 −0/𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐾2

⟹ 𝐾2 = −𝑉𝑠

The complete solution is:

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 ) , 𝑡≥0

where 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 is the time-constant of the circuit.

𝑉𝑠
vc(t)

0.632𝑉𝑠

0 𝜏
t

For 𝑡 = 𝜏: 𝑣𝐶 (𝜏) = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) ≃ 0.632𝑉𝑠

For 𝑡 = 5𝜏: 𝑣𝐶 (5𝜏) = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −5 ) ≃ 0.9933𝑉𝑠

For 𝑡 > 5𝜏: The capacitor is assumed practically to be completely charged, i.e.
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) ≃ 𝑉𝑠 . The DC value 𝑉𝑠 is called the DC steady-state value of 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡).

Remark: The “Charging of RC Circuit” is also called “Step Response of RC

Circuit”.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-6

Remark: The current through the capacitor is given by:

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑉𝑠 𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑒− 𝜏 = 𝑒− 𝜏 , 𝑡≥0
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅

𝑉𝑠
Notice the jump at 𝑡 = 0, where 𝑖𝐶 (0− ) = 0 and 𝑖𝐶 (0) = .
𝑅

Remark: If the initial value is non-zero, say 𝑣𝐶 (0− ) = 𝑉𝑖 , the complete solution
becomes:

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

Remark: The complete solution for any circuit can be decomposed into two
components:
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑡𝑟 (𝑡)

Where 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) is called the steady-state response, which persist forever, and 𝑣𝑡𝑟 (𝑡)
is called the transient response, which decays to zero after a long time.

For above RC circuit, 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑣𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 .

Remark: Instead of specifying an equation is valid for 𝑡 ≥ 0, the well-known step

function 𝑢(𝑡) is used, which is defined by:

1, 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢(𝑡) = {
0, 𝑡 < 0

Using this function, the complete solution can be rewritten as:

𝑡
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = [𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 − 𝜏 ] 𝑢(𝑡)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-7

Remark: If the switch closes at time 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 rather than 𝑡 = 0, the complete
solution becomes:

𝑡−𝑡𝑜
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 − 𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0

Remark: Instead of solving a differential equation for every first-order RC circuit,

the following “General Solution” can be used to solve the circuit.

𝑡−𝑡𝑜
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝐶 (∞) + [𝑣𝐶 (𝑡𝑜 ) − 𝑣𝐶 (∞)]𝑒 − 𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0

where 𝑣𝐶 (∞) = the final value or the DC steady-state value when 𝑡 → ∞.

𝑣𝐶 (𝑡𝑜 ) = the initial value.

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = time-constant.

The general solution can be applied for both cases of charging or discharging RC
circuirs. We only need to know or compute 𝑣𝐶 (∞), 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡𝑜 ), and 𝜏.

Remark: If the capacitor is connected to a linear circuit that involves more than
just the voltage source 𝑉𝑠 and the resistor R, Thevenin theorem can be used:

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑡 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)
+ +
Linear
Resistive 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) ≡ + 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝐶 𝐶
Circuit −
− −

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-8

The general solution can be used with:

𝑣𝐶 (∞) = 𝑣𝑡 Thevenin voltage.

𝜏 = 𝑅𝑡 × 𝐶 where 𝑅𝑡 is Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor.

7.3 RL Circuit
𝑡=0 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅
Assume 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and
+
𝑖(0− ) = 0.
+ 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑉𝑠 𝐿
At 𝑡 = 0, the switch closes and −
−
𝑖(0) = 𝑖(0− ) = 0 (No jump).

For 𝑡 ≥ 0, the current flows through 𝑅 and 𝐿. By KVL:

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡

𝐿 𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑉𝑠
⟹ + 𝑖(𝑡) = , 𝑡≥0
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅

This DE has the same form as the previous DE for RC circuit with the following
replacements:

𝐿 𝑉𝑠
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) → 𝑖(𝑡) , 𝑅𝐶 → , 𝑉𝑠 →
𝑅 𝑅

Therefore, the solution is the same with the same replacement:

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑒 , 𝑡≥0
𝑅 𝑅

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-9

 𝐿
where 𝜏 = is the time-constant of the RL circuit.
𝑅

𝑉𝑠
𝑅
i(t)

0
t

To find the voltage:

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑉𝑠
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 = 𝐿( 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝜏

⟹ 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

𝑉𝑠
v(t)

0
t

Notice the jump in 𝑣(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0 from 0 to 𝑉𝑠 .

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-10

General Solution for RL circuits:
𝑡−𝑡𝑜
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(∞) + [𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) − 𝑖(∞)]𝑒 − 𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0

where

𝑖(∞) = the final value or the DC steady-state value of the inductor current.

𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) = initial current value.

𝐿
𝜏= = time constant, where R is Thevenin equivalent resistance as seen by
𝑅

the inductor.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-11

Example
Assume switch is closed for a long time before 𝑡 = 0. Find 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑣(𝑡) for 𝑡 ≥ 0.

𝑡=0
𝑖(𝑡)

𝑅2 +
𝑅1
+ 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑉𝑠 𝐿
−
−
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Solution:
𝑖(0− )
For 𝑡 = 0− , switch is closed and the
𝑅2 +
circuit is in DC steady-state: +
𝑉𝑠 𝑣(0− )
−
𝑉𝑠
𝑖(0− ) = −
𝑅2

𝑣(0− ) = 0
𝑖(𝑡)
+
𝑅1 𝑅2
For 𝑡 ≥ 0, switch is open: +
𝑉𝑠 𝐿 𝑣(𝑡)
−
𝑡𝑜 = 0 −
𝑉𝑠
𝑖(0) = 𝑖(0− ) = (No jump)
𝑅2

𝑉𝑠
𝑖(∞) = (DC steady-state at 𝑡 = ∞)
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝐿 𝐿
𝜏= = where R = equivalent Thevenin resistance seen by L.
𝑅 𝑅1 +𝑅2

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-12

Substitute in the general solution:

𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(∞) + [𝑖(0) − 𝑖(∞)]𝑒 − 𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
⟹ 𝑖(𝑡) = +[ − ] 𝑒− 𝜏 , 𝑡≥0
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑠
𝑅2
i(t)

𝑉𝑠
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

0
t

Find the voltage:

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 =− [ − ] 𝑒− 𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑡 𝑡
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑅1 +𝑅2 −
⟹ 𝑣(𝑡) = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) [ − ]𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑉𝑠 [1 − ]𝑒 𝜏
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2

𝑅1 − 𝑡
⟹ 𝑣(𝑡) = −𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑅2

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-13

 v(t)

0 t

𝑅1
−𝑉𝑠
𝑅2

Notice the jump in 𝑣 𝑡 at 𝑡 = 0

(See textbook for more examples)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 7-14