Module 2 - Complex Integration

Complex Analysis Probability and Statistical
Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Methods-18MAT41
MODULE 2
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION AND COMPLEX

INTEGRATION
Integration of complex valued functions, defined along the curve in a complex plane is
called complex integration.
Complex line Integral: Consider a continuous function 𝑓(𝑧)of the complex variable 𝑧 =
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined at all points of the curve C, extending from P to Q. Divide the curve C in to
n parts by arbitrary taking points.
Let 𝑃 = 𝑝0 (𝑧0 ), 𝑝1(𝑧1), 𝑝2 (𝑧2 ) … … … . . 𝑝𝑘 (𝑧𝑘 ) … … … . . 𝑝𝑛 (𝑧𝑛 )

On the curve 𝑐. Let ∝𝑘 be any point on the are of the curve from 𝑃𝑘−1 to 𝑝𝑘 and let 𝛿 𝑧𝑘 =
𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1, where 𝑘 = 1,2,3 … . . 𝑛
n
Then
𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑛 → ∞ k 1

𝑓(∝𝑘 )𝛿𝑧𝑘
Where max |𝛿𝑧𝑘 | → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞ is defined as the complex integral along the path c.
Usually denoted by ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
Properties of complex integral:-
1) If −𝐶 denotes the curve traversed from Q to P, then

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
−𝑐 𝑐
2) If C is split into number of parts 𝑐1, 𝑐2, 𝑐3 ………, then
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 +…
𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
3) If a & b are constants, then
Prepared by: Dr Gangavathi P, Jyothi B, Venkatesha P Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 1
∫ {𝑎𝑓 (𝑧) + 𝑏𝑓 (𝑧)}𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + 𝑏 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

1 2 1 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Line Integral of a complex valued function:-
Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) be a complex valued function defined over R and C be a
curve in the region. Then
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝑐 𝑐
= ∫ ⌊𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦⌋ + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 )

𝑐 𝑐
Problems:-
1) Evaluate ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧, where c is a square with the following vertices,
𝑐
(0,0), (1,0), (1,1)&( 0, 1)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: → Given ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝑐 𝑐
∴ |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
The curve c is as shown in the following fig.
∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑅𝑂
Along 𝑂𝑃 ∶ 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑜 ⟹ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 Varies from 0 to 1
Along 𝑃𝑄 ∶ 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑜 ⟹ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = (1 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Varies from 0 to 1
Along 𝑄𝑅 ∶ 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑜 ⟹ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥

Along RO: 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 ⟹ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑦 2 (𝑖𝑑𝑦)

𝑦 Varies from 1 to 0
1 1 0 0
∴ ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫(1 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 + ∫(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

𝑐
0 0 1 1
0
3 1 0
𝑥3 1 𝑦 𝑥3 𝑦 3
= | +𝑖 (𝑦 + ) + ( + 𝑥) + 𝑖 |
3 0 3 0 3 1
3
1
1 1 1 1
= + 1 (1 + ) − ( + 1) −
3 3 3 3
1 4 4 𝑖
= + 𝑖− −
3 3 3 3
1 + 4𝑖 − 4 − 𝑖 −3 + 3𝑖
= =
3 3
⟹ ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖
𝑐
2+𝑖
2) Evaluate ∫0 (𝑧̅)2 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔:
a) The line 𝑥 = 2𝑦
b) The real 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 upto 2 and then vertically to 2 + 𝑖
→ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 (𝑧̅)2 = (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 & 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦

𝑎) Along 𝑥 = 2𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑦 & 𝑧 varies from o to 2+ i
⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) varies from (0,0) 𝑡𝑜 (2, 1)

2+𝑖 2+𝑖
∴ ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑖2𝑥𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

0 0
1
=∫𝑦=0[(2𝑦) 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑖 (2(2𝑦)𝑦)] (2𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
1
=∫𝑦=0 (3𝑦 2 − 𝑖4𝑦 2 )(2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦
1
=∫𝑦=0 (3 − 4𝑖)𝑦 2 (2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦
1
= (3 − 4𝑖 )(2 + 𝑖) ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
1
𝑦3
= (6 + 3𝑖 − 8𝑖 + 4) [ ]
3 0
10−5𝑖
= ( )
3
5
= (2 − 𝑖)
3
b) Real axis ⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 → (2, 0) & 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 ⟹ (2, 1)
Along OP: 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 varies from 0 to 2
Along PQ: 𝑥 = 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 & 𝑦 varies from 0 to 1
∴ ∫ (𝑧̅)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧 + ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧

𝑐 𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝑄
2+𝑖 2 1
∫ (𝑧̅)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − 𝑦 2 − 4𝑖𝑦)(𝑖𝑑𝑦)
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑥3 2 𝑦3 4𝑦 2 1
= ] +𝑖 (4𝑦 − −𝑖 )
3 0 3 2 0
8 1
= + 𝑖 [4 − − 2𝑖]
3 3
8 𝑖 14 11
= + 4𝑖 − + 2 = + 𝑖
3 3 3 3
1
= (14 + 11𝑖)
3
(3) Evaluate ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑐
(a) Along the straight line from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖
(b) Along the curve mode up of two line segments, one from
𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 and another from 𝑧 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → Given ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 & 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
𝑐
∴ ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
2
𝑐
a) Straight line equation is

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0
=
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
Given 𝑍 varies 0 to 3 + 𝑖
⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) varies from (0, 0) to (3, 1)
𝑥−0 𝑦−𝑜 𝑥
∴ = ⟹𝑦=
3−0 1−0 3
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 varies from 0 to 3
3 3
3
∫ 2 2
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 − + 2𝑖 ) (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 )
𝑐 9 3 3
0
8 8𝑖 2𝑖 2 𝑥3 3
= ( + + − ) |
9 27 3 9 3 0
2 26𝑖 27
=( + ).( )
3 27 3
∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = (6 + 26𝑖 )
𝑐 3
b) Segment 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3
⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3, 0) & 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3, 1)
Along OP : 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Along PQ : 𝑥 = 3 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑦 varies from 0 to 1
3 1
∴ ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫(9 − 𝑦 2 + 6𝑖𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑐
0 0
3𝑥3 𝑦3 6𝑖𝑦 2 1
= | + 𝑖 (9𝑦 − + )
3 0 3 2 0
27 1
= + 𝑖 (9 − + 3𝑖)
3 3
26
= 9+𝑖( + 3𝑖)
3
26𝑖
=9+ −3
3
∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 6 + 26𝑖
𝑐 3
(𝟐,𝟒)
∫
4)Evaluate (𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + (𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚)𝒅𝒚
(𝟎,𝟑) 𝟐𝒚 +
Along the following paths
(a) The parabola 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟑
(b) The straight line from (𝟎, 𝟑)𝒕𝒐 (𝟐, 𝟒)
(2,4)
∫
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 → Given (
(0,3) 2𝑦 + 𝑥 2)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
⟹ 𝑥 varies from 0 to 2
𝑦 varies from 3 to 4
𝑎) Given 𝑥 = 2𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑡2 + 3
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑑𝑡
At 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2 ⟹ 𝑡 = 2
At 𝑦 = 3 ⟹ 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦=4 ⟹𝑡=1
⟹ 𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 9 𝑡𝑜 1
(2,4)
∫
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 (0,3)
(2𝑦 + 𝑥 2)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
1
= ∫𝑡=0{[2(𝑡 2 + 3) + 4𝑡 2] 2𝑑𝑡 + (6𝑡 − 𝑡 2 − 3)2𝑡𝑑𝑡}
1
= ∫𝑡=0[4𝑡 2 + 12 + 8𝑡 2 + 12𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 − 6𝑡]𝑑𝑡
1
= ∫𝑡=0[24𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 + 12]𝑑𝑡
24𝑡 3 2𝑡 3 6+2 1
= − − + 12𝑡 |
3 3 2 0
1
= 8 − − 3 + 12
2
33
=
2
b) The straight line equation for (0, 3) (2, 4)

𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑥−0 𝑦−3
= ⟹ =
𝑥1−𝑥0 𝑦1 −𝑦0 2−0 4−3
𝑥
⟹ = 𝑦−3
2
⟹ 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 6
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑦
(2,4) 4
∴ ∫ (2𝑦 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [2𝑦 + (2𝑦 − 6)2 ] 2𝑑𝑦 + [3(2𝑦 − 6) − 𝑦]𝑑𝑦
(0,3) 𝑦=3
4
= ∫3 [4𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 + 72 − 48𝑦 + 6𝑦 − 18 − 𝑦]𝑑𝑦
4
= ∫3 [8𝑦 2 − 39𝑦 + 54]𝑑𝑦
𝑦3 39
=8 − 𝑦 2 + 54𝑦|43
3 2
8 39 8 39
= {3 (64) − 2
× 16 + 54 × 4} − {3 × 27 − 2
× 9 + 54 × 3}
296 273 97
= − + 54 =
3 2 6
𝟐+𝒊
5. Evaluate ∫ (𝟐𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 + 𝟏)𝒅𝒛 along the paths
𝒊−𝒊
(i) 𝒙 = 𝒕 + 𝟏 and 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒕𝟐 − 𝟏
(ii) Straight line joining (𝟏 − 𝒊) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟐 + 𝒊)
2+𝑖
Solution: → Given ∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑧
𝑖−𝑖
⟹ 𝑥 varies from 1 to 2
𝑦 varies from -1 to 1
𝑎) Given 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1 & 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑡𝑑𝑡
At 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑡 = 0 & ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 ⟹ 𝑡 = 1
⟹ 𝑦 = −1 ⟹ 𝑡 = 0 & 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑡 = 1
⟹ 𝑡 Varies from 0 to 1
2+𝑖
∴ ∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

𝑖−𝑖
1
= ∫ [2(𝑡 + 1) + 𝑖 (2𝑡 2 − 1) + 1] (𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖4𝑡𝑑𝑡)
𝑡=0
1
= ∫ [(2𝑡 + 2 + 1) + 𝑖(2𝑡 2 − 1) + 1](𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖4𝑡𝑑𝑡)
𝑡=0
1
= ∫ [(2𝑡 + 2 + 1) + 𝑖 (2𝑡 2 − 1)][1 + 4𝑖𝑡]𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
1
= ∫ [2𝑡 + 3 + 𝑖(2𝑡 2 − 1)] + 4𝑖 [2𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 + 𝑖 (2𝑡 3−𝑡 )]𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
1
= ∫ [2𝑡 + 3 + 2𝑖𝑡 2 − 𝑖 + 8𝑖𝑡 2 + 12𝑖𝑡 − 8𝑡 3 + 4𝑡]𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
1
= ∫ [−8𝑡 3 + 10𝑖𝑡 2 + 12𝑖𝑡 + 6𝑡 + (3 − 𝑖)]𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
1
8𝑡 4 𝑡3 𝑡 2 6𝑡 2
= [− + 10𝑖 + 12𝑖 + + (3 − 𝑖)𝑡]
4 3 2 2 0
10 𝑖
−𝒊 = −2 + + 6𝑖 + 3 + 3
3
25 𝑖
=4+
3 𝒙−𝒙𝟎 𝒚−𝒚𝟎
b. Equation of straight line is =
𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟏−𝒚𝟎
At the points (1, −1) & (2, 1)

𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑦+1
⟹ = ⟹𝑥−1=
2−1 1+1 2
⟹ 𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥 − 2
⟹ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑑𝑥
2+1 2
∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫[2𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) + 1] [𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑑𝑥 ]

1−𝑖 1
2
= ∫1 [2𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑥 − 3𝑖 + 1] [1 + 2𝑖] 𝑑𝑥
2
= ∫1 [2𝑥 + 2𝑖𝑥 − 3𝑖 + 1 + 4𝑖𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑖] 𝑑𝑥
2
= ∫1 [6𝑖𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 𝑖 + 7] 𝑑𝑥
2
6𝑖𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
= − − 𝑖𝑥 + 7𝑥|
2 2 1
= [3𝑖 × 4 − 4 − 2𝑖 + 14] − [3𝑖 − 1 − 𝑖 + 7]
= 8𝑖 + 4
= 4(1 + 2𝑖)
6) If 𝑐 is a circle with centre ′0′ and radius ′𝑟 ′ then show that

(𝑎) ∫ (b) ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑧
(𝑧−0)
= 2𝜋𝑖 if 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑐 𝑐
Solution:→ On the given circle |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟,
WKT 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 with centre at the origin

We have 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , with centre at a
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 varies from 0 to 2𝜋
2𝜋 𝑖𝜃
a) ∫ 𝑑𝑧
= ∫
𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
0
2𝜋
= 𝑖 ∫0 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖 [𝜃 ]2𝜋
0
⟹∫
𝑑𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖
𝑐 𝑧−0
𝑛
b) ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝑐
2𝜋
𝑛+1
= 𝑖 ∫ 𝑟 𝑛+1 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃
0
2𝜋
𝑛+1
𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃
= 𝑖𝑟 [ ]
𝑖 (𝑛 + 1) 0
𝑛+1
𝑖𝑟
= [𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)2𝜋 − 𝑒 0]
𝑖(𝑛 + 1)
But 𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)2𝜋 = cos(𝑛 + 1)2𝜋 + 𝑖 sin(𝑛 + 1)2𝜋

=1+𝑖0
=1
∫ 𝑛
𝑖𝑟 𝑛+1
∴ (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑧 = [1 − 1] = 0
𝑐 𝑖(𝑛 + 1)
7) Evaluate ∫ (𝒛𝟐 + 𝒛)𝒅𝒛 along the straight line joining the point (𝟏, −𝟏) & (𝟐, 𝟑)
𝟏−𝒊
2 + 3𝑖 2 + 3𝑖
Solution: → Given ∫ (𝑧 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ {(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 + 𝑥 + 𝑦}(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
2
1−𝑖 1−𝑖
2 + 3𝑖
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
1−𝑖
The straight line joining points are (1, −1) & (2, 3)
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑥−1 𝑦+1
∴ = ⟹ =
𝑥1 −𝑥0 𝑦1−𝑦0 2−1 3+1
𝑦+1
= 𝑥−1 =
4
⟹ 𝑦 + 1 = 4𝑥 − 4
⟹ 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 5
⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑑𝑥
2 + 3𝑖
∫ (𝑧 2 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 =
1−𝑖
2
= ∫ {𝑥 2 − (4𝑥 − 5)2 + 2𝑖𝑥 (4𝑥 − 5) + 𝑥 + 𝑖(4𝑥 − 5)}(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖4𝑑𝑥 )
𝑥=1
2
= ∫𝑥=1[𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 2 − 25 + 40𝑥 + 8𝑖𝑥 2 − 10𝑖𝑥 + 4𝑖𝑥 − 5𝑖] (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖4𝑑𝑥 )
2
= (1 + 4𝑖) ∫ [−15𝑥 2 + 8𝑖𝑥 2 − 6𝑖𝑥 + 40𝑥 − 25 − 5𝑖] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=1
2
15𝑥 3 8𝑖𝑥 3 6𝑖𝑥 2 40𝑥 2
= (1 + 4𝑖) [− + − + − 25𝑥 − 5𝑖𝑥]
3 3 2 2 1
8𝑖
= (1 + 4𝑖) {[−5 × 8 + × 8 − 3𝑖 × 4 + 20 × 4 − 25 × 2 − 5𝑖 × 2]
3
8
− [−5 × 1 + 𝑖 − 3𝑖 + 20 − 25 − 5𝑖]}
3
56
= (1 + 4𝑖) { 𝑖 − 14𝑖}
3
56𝑖 − 42𝑖
= (1 + 5𝑖) { }
3
14𝑖
= (1 + 4𝑖) { }
3
14𝑖 56
= { − }
3 3
1+𝑖
8) Evaluate ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧
0
(i) Along the straight line from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖
(ii) Along the real 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 and then along the line parallel to imaginary
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 1
(iii) Along the imaginary 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝑖 and then along line parallel to real
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 from 𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖
1+𝑖 1+𝑖
Solution: → Given ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
2
0 0
Prepared by: Dr Gangavathi P, Jyothi B, Venkatesha P Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page |
10
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0
(i) The straight line equation =
𝑥1 −𝑥0 𝑦1 −𝑦0
Given 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖
⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) 𝑡𝑜 (1, 1)
𝑥−0 𝑦−0
⟹ = ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦
1−0 1−0
1+𝑖 1
∴ ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑥 )

0 0
= (1 + 𝑖) ∫ 𝑖𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝑥3
= (1 + 𝑖)𝑖 ( )
3 0
𝑖−1
=
3
ii) Along real axis 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1
⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1, 0)
Along parallel to imaginary 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (1, 1)
Along OP : 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 varies from 0 to 1

Along PQ : 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 varies from 0 to 1
1+𝑖 1 1
∴ ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(1 − 𝑦 + 𝑖) 𝑖𝑑𝑦

0 0 0
2 3 1 2 1
𝑥 𝑖𝑥 𝑦
= [ + ] + 𝑖 [𝑦 − + 𝑖𝑦]
2 3 0 2 0
1 𝑖 𝑖
= + +𝑖− −1
2 3 2
11
1 5𝑖
= − +
2 6
(iii) Along Imaginary 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝑖

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (0, 1)
Along parallel to real 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (1, 1)
Along OR : 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑦 varies from 0 to 1
Along RQ : 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 varies from 0 to 1
1+𝑖 1 1
∴ ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ −𝑦(𝑖𝑑𝑦) + ∫(𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝑦2 1 𝑥2 𝑖𝑥 3 1
= −𝑖 | + −𝑥+ |
2 0 2 3 0
𝑖 1 𝑖
= − + −1+
2 2 3
1 𝑖
=− -
2 6
Green’s Theorm in a plane :

If R is a closed region of the 𝑥𝑦 −plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if M & N
are two continous functions of 𝑥 & 𝑦 having continuous first order partial derivatives in the
Region R .
Then ∲ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝑐 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Couchy’s Theorm :
Statement :
12
If 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic at all points insdie and on a simple closed curve ‘c’ then
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 → Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic

⟹ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
⟹ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖∫ (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦) → (1)
𝑐
From Green’s theorem we have

∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬ (𝜕𝑁 − 𝜕𝑀 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ (1) ⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ ∫ (− − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫ ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑐 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
From C-R equation’s
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= & =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
∴ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ ∫ (− + ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫ ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖 0
𝑐
Consequences of Couchy’s Theorem :-
1) If 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two points in it then
𝑄 𝑄
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is Independent of the path joining P and Q. that is ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is
𝑃 𝑃
same for all curves joining P and Q
∫ ( ) ∫
i.e 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐1 𝑐2
2) If 𝑐1,𝑐2 are two simple closed curves, such that 𝑐2 lies entirely 𝑐1 and if 𝑓 (𝑧)
is analytic on 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and in the region bounded by 𝑐1, 𝑐2 then
13
∫ ( ) ∫
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐1 𝑐2
(3) If c is a simple closed curve enclosing non overlapping simple closed curves
𝑐1, 𝑐2 … . 𝑐𝑛 and if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the annular region between c and these curves
then.
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
Couchy’s Integral formula :-
Statement : If 𝑓 (𝑧)is analytic inside and an ‘0’ is any point within c, then
𝑓 (0) =
1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝑧−0
→ Given 𝑍 − 𝑎 is circle with centre at a, we shall enclose it by a circle c, with radius and
𝑐1 lies entirely within c.
14
𝑓(𝑧)
The function is analytic inside and an the boundary of the annular region between c
𝑧−𝑎
and 𝑐1
From Consequence of Couchy’s theorem
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐1 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝑐1 is circle with centre at a and redius r
⟹ 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
⟹ 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
& 𝜃 varies from 0 to 2𝜋
2𝜋
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
0
2𝜋
𝑓 (𝑧)
∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
0
If r is very small ⟹ 𝑟 → 0
2𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑎)𝑑𝜃
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
0
= 𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) 𝜃|2𝜋
0
𝑓(𝑧)
⟹∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
1 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)
⟹ 𝑓 (𝑎 ) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝑧 − 𝑎
Generalized couchy’s integral formula :-
Statement : If 𝑓 (𝑧) is a analytic inside and on a simple closed curve c and if ‘a’ is a point
within c,then
𝑛! ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
→ we have couchy’s integral formula

1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−0)
differentiating partially w.r to ‘a’
15
1 ∫ 𝜕 1
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑧) ( ) 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝜕𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎
=
1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) { −1 (−1)} 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)2
1 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2
Againing Differentiating partially w.r to ‘a’

1 ∫ −2
𝑓"(𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑧) { (−1)} 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 3
=
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)3
similaraly continuing like this, Differentiating n times
𝑛! ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)
⟹ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
Problems :
(1)Verify couchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2, wherec is the square
having vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) & (0, 1)
Solution: From couchy’s theorem, we have ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐
Now along the curve [ square OABC] & 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2
⟹ ∫ 𝑍 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑍2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = 0
0𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝑂
WKT 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 & 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
16
∴ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
Along OA:- 𝑌 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1
∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = ∫1 (𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥3 1 1
𝑋=0
| =
𝑂𝐴 3 0 3
Along AB: 𝑥 = 1 𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1

1 1
∵ ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (1 + 𝑖𝑦)2𝑖𝑑𝑦 = 𝑖 ∫ (1 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝐵
𝑦=0 𝑦=0
𝑦3 2𝑖𝑦 2 1
= 𝑖 [𝑦 − + ]
3 2 0
1
= 𝑖 [1 − + 𝑖]
3
2 2
= 𝑖 [ + 𝑖] = 𝑖−1
3 3
Along BC: 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 varies from 1 to 0

0 0
∴ ∫ 𝑍 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑖)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 − 1 + 2𝑖𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐵𝐶
𝑥=1 𝑥=1
𝑥3 2𝑖𝑥 2 0 1
= −𝑥+ | = 0 − [ − 1 + 𝑖]
3 2 1 3
2
= −𝑖
3
Along CO : 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 & 𝑌 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 0
0 0
∴ ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑖𝑦) 2 (𝑖𝑑𝑦) = −𝑖 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

𝑐𝑜
𝑦=1 𝑦=1
0
𝑖𝑦 3
= − |
3 1
1
= −𝑖 [0 − ]
3
⟹ ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 =
𝑖
𝑐𝑜 3
∴ ∫ 𝑍 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑍2 𝑑𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = + 𝑖 − 1 + − 𝑖 + = 0
1 2 2 𝑖
0𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜 3 3 3 3
⟹ ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐
17
Hence couchy’s theorem is verified.
2) Verify Couchy’s theorem for the fucntion 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 over the unit circle
with origin as the centre
Solution:→ Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 , where c is the circle |𝑧| = 1 i.e 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1

Consider ∫ 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 & 𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 in polar form
𝑐
since c is a unit circle ⟹ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 & 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 ∵ 𝑟 = 1
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
∴ ∫ 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑒 (𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
𝑖𝜃
𝑐
𝜃=0
Put 𝑡 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑖𝜃
When 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝑡 = 1
𝜃 = 2𝜋 ⟹ 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ⟹ 𝑡 = 1
∫ 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
(3) Given ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 − 1 where c is the square having Vertices

𝑐
(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), give the reason why cauchy’s theorem is not being satisfied
Solution→ According to cauchy’s theorem we must have ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = 0

𝑐
We know the cauchy’s theorem imposes the condition or 𝑓 (𝑧)
i.e. 𝑓 (𝑧)should be analytic.

2
Here 𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|2 ⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 & 𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑢𝑦 = 2𝑦, 𝑣𝑥 = 0, 𝑣𝑦 = 0
Hence C-R equations 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 ≠ −𝑣𝑥

Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is not analytic
Hence couchy’s theorem not satisfied
18
Problems on cauchy integral formula :-

If given integral of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑧 & ∫ (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 Over a simple closed curve c:
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐
Step (1) :- First find out whether the point 𝑧 = 0 Lies inside (or) outside the curve c.
Step(2): Case (i) :- If 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies outside the curve c,
Then ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0 & ∫
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
(𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐
Case (ii): If 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies inside the curve c
Then ∫
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎 ) & 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
Also ∫ (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 =
𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖 𝑛
𝑓 (𝑎) & 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑐 𝑛!
𝑒 −𝑧
1) Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑧, where c is the circle
𝑐 𝑧+1
(i) |𝑧| = 2 (𝑖𝑖)|𝑧| = 1⁄2
𝑒 −𝑧
Solution: → Given ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧+1
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑧 & 𝑧 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = −1 [𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧 = 0]
(i) |𝑧| = 2 is a circle of radius 2 & with centre at origin
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 |𝑧| = 2
∮ 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 (𝑎) ⟹ ∮
𝑓(𝑧)
WKT 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(−1)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐 𝑧+1
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑓 (−1) = 𝑒 −(−1) = 𝑒
∮ 𝑒 −𝑧
∴ = 2𝑒𝜋𝑖
𝑐 𝑧+1
(ii)|𝑧| = 1⁄2 is a circle of radius 1⁄2 & with centre at origin
19
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 lies outside the circle |𝑧| = 2
∮ 𝑓(𝑧) ∮ 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑤𝑘𝑡 = 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
2) Evaluate ∮
𝑑𝑧
where c is the circle |𝑧|=3
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−2)
Solution: → Given ∮
1
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−2)
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑧−2)+𝐵𝑧
Consider = + =
𝑧(𝑧−2) 𝑧 𝑧−2 𝑧(𝑧−2)
⟹ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑧)
Put 𝑧 = 0 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−2) + 𝐵(𝑜) ⟹ 𝐴 = −1⁄2
Put 𝑧 = 2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (2) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄2
1 1⁄2 1⁄2 1 1 1
∴ = + = [ − ]
𝑧(𝑧 − 2) 𝑍 𝑧−2 2 𝑧−2 𝑧
1 1 1 1
∴ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = {∮ 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑑𝑧}
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧 − 2) 2 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐𝑧
Consider ∮
1
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧−2
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 & 𝑧 − 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = 2
Given |𝑧| = 3 , 3 is radius of circle & centre at origin
⟹ 𝑧 = 2 Lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3

𝑓(𝑧) 1
∴ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎) ⟹ ∮ = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 (2)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐 𝑧−2
20
1
& 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1, 𝑓 (2) = 1 ∴ ∮ = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−2
Consider ∮ 𝑑𝑧
1
𝑐𝑧
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 & 𝑧 = 0
Given |𝑧| = 3, 3 is the radius of the circle & centre at origin
𝑧 = 0 Lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
∴ ∮
1
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) & 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 ⟹ 𝑓 (0) = 1
𝑐 𝑧
∴ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖
1
𝑐𝑧
1 1
∴ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = [2𝜋𝑖 − 2𝜋𝑖] = 0
𝑐 𝑧 (𝑧 − 2) 2
𝒆𝒛
3) Evaluate ∮ 𝒅𝒛 over each of the following circle c:
𝒄 𝒛+𝒊𝝅
(a) |𝒛| = 𝟐𝝅, (𝒃)|𝒛| = 𝝅⁄𝟐 (𝒄)|𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟏
𝑒𝑧
→ Given ∮ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧+𝑖𝜋
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 & 𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒 (0, −𝜋 )
(a) |𝑧| = 2𝜋 is a circle of radius 2𝜋 & with centre at origin
⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 2𝜋

WKT ∮
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−0
∮ 𝑒𝑧
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−𝑖𝜋)
𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (−𝑖𝜋) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋
⟹ 𝑓 (−𝑖𝜋) = −1
∮ 𝑒𝑧
∴ = −2𝜋𝑖
𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋
(b) |𝑧| = 𝜋⁄2 is a circle of radius 𝜋⁄2 & with centre at origin
21
⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies outside the circle |𝑧| = 𝜋⁄2

∮ 𝑓 (𝑧) ∮ 𝑒𝑧
𝑤𝑘𝑡 =0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐 𝑧−0 𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋
(𝑐 ) |𝑧 − 1| = 1 is a circle of radius 1 & centre at (1,0)

⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies outside the circle |𝑧 − 1| = 1
∮ 𝑓 (𝑧) ∮ 𝑒𝑧
𝑤𝑘𝑡 =0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐 𝑧−0 𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋
4) Evaluate using couchy’s integral formula ∮ (𝒛+𝟏)(𝒛−𝟏) 𝒅𝒛
𝒇(𝒛)
𝒄
Where c is the circle |𝑧| = 3
→ Given ∮ (𝑧+1)(𝑧−1) 𝑑𝑧
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑐
Where 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧
1 𝐴 𝐵 (𝑧−2)𝐴+(𝑧+1)𝐵
Consider (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) = + = (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
𝑍+1 𝑍−2
⟹ 1 = (𝑧 − 2)𝐴 + (𝑧 + 1)𝐵
Put 𝑧 = 2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(3 ) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄3

Put 𝑧 = −1` ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−3) + 𝐵 (0 ) ⟹ 𝐴 = −1⁄3
1 1⁄ 1⁄
∴ = 3 + 3 = 1[ 1 − 1 ]
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑧 + 1 𝑧−2 3 𝑧−2 𝑧+1
∮ 𝑒 2𝑧 1 ∫ ∫ 𝑒 2𝑧 ∮ 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2) 3 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐 𝑧+1
𝑒 2𝑧
𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ⟹ 𝑧 − 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = 2
𝑧−2
& |𝑧| = 3 is the circle of radius 3
⟹ 𝑧 = 2 lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
𝑓 (𝑧 )
∴ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
∮ 𝑒 2𝑧
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (2)
𝑐 𝑧−2
Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (2) = 𝑒 4

∮ 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 4
𝑧−2
𝑐
22
𝑒 2𝑧
Let ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ⟹ 𝑧 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = −1
𝑐 𝑧+1
& |𝑧| = 3 is the circle of radius 3
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
∮ 𝑓(𝑧) ∮ 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) ⟹ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−1)
Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (−1) = 𝑒 −2
𝑒 2𝑧
∴ ∮
1 2𝜋𝑖 1
𝑑𝑧 = {2𝜋𝑖𝑒 4 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑒 −2} = {𝑒 4 − }
𝑐 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) 3 3 𝑒2
5) Evaluate using couchy’s integral formula ∮

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅𝒛
𝒅𝒛 around the rectangle with
𝒄 𝒛𝟐 −𝟏
vertices 𝟐 ± 𝒊, −𝟐 ± 𝒊
→ Given ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧 2 −1 𝑐 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−1)
⟹ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 & 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = −1 are the points

Given c is a rectangle with the vertices 2 ± 𝑖, −2 ± 𝑖
i.e. (2, 1)(2, −1), (−2, 1)(−2, 1)
⟹ 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = −1 both lies inside the curve c
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑍−1)+𝐵(𝑍+1)
Consider (𝑧+1)(𝑧−1)
= + = (𝑍+1)(𝑍−1)
𝑍+1 𝑍−1
⟹ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 1) + 𝐵 (𝑧 + 1)
Put 𝑧 = 1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (2) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄2

Put 𝑧 = −1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−2) + 𝐵 (0) ⟹ 𝐵 = −1⁄2
23
1 −1⁄ −1⁄
∴ = 2 + 2=1 [ 1 − 1 ]
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 1) 𝑧 + 1 𝑧−1 2 𝑧−1 𝑧+1
∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋2 𝑑𝑧 = 1 {∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 𝑑𝑧}

𝑐 𝑧2 − 1 2 𝑐 𝑧−1 𝑐 𝑧+1
WKT ∮
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 1
∴ ∮ 2 𝑑𝑧 = {2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (1) − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−1)}
𝑐 𝑧 −1 2
Let 𝑓 (1) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1
𝑓 (−1) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜋) = −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋2 1
∴ ∮ 2 𝑑𝑧 = {−2𝜋𝑖 + 2𝜋𝑖} = 0
𝑐 𝑧 −1 2
𝟑𝒛𝟐 +𝒛
6) Evaluate ∮ 𝒅𝒛, where c is the circle |𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟏
𝒄 𝒛𝟐 −𝟏
3𝑧 2 +𝑧 3𝑧 2 +𝑧
→ Given ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧 2 −1 𝑐 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−1)
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 & (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − 1) = 0
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 & 𝑧 = 1
Given c is a circle |𝑧 − 1| = 1 ⟹ centre at (1, 0) & radius 1
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 Lies outside the curve |𝑧 − 1| = 1 & 𝑧 = 1 lies out side the circle c
|𝑧 − 1| = 1
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑧−1)+𝐵(𝑍+1)
= + = (𝑧+1)(𝑧−1)
𝑧+1 𝑧−1
⟹ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 1) + 𝐵 (𝑧 + 1)
At 𝑧 = 1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 2𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄2
At 𝑧 = −1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−2) + 𝐵 (0) ⟹ 𝐵 = −1⁄2
1 −1⁄ +1⁄
∴ = 2 + 2=1 [ 1 − 1 ]
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 1) 𝑧 + 1 𝑧−1 2 𝑧−1 𝑧+1
24
2 2 2
∮ 3𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 1 {∮ 3𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 3𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧}
𝑐 𝑧2 − 1 2 𝑐 𝑧−1 𝑐 𝑧+1
WKT ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) if 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies inside the c
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
& ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 0 if 𝑧 = 𝑎 lies outside the c
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
3𝑧 2 +𝑧
Hence ∮ 2 𝑑𝑧 = {2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (1) = 0}
1
𝑐 𝑧 −1 2
2
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 3𝑧 + 1
𝑓 (1) = 3(1)2 + 1 = 4
3𝑧 2 +𝑧
∴∮ 2 𝑑𝑧 = 4𝜋𝑖
𝑐 𝑧 −1
7) Evaluate ∮ 2 oven (i) 𝑐: |𝑧| = 1 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑐: |𝑧| = 3 & (𝑖𝑖𝑖 )|𝑧 + 2| = 1
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧 −4
→ Given ∮ 2 = ∮ (𝑧+2)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 1
𝑐 𝑧 −4 𝑐
Where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 & (𝑧 + 2) (𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = −2 & 𝑧 = 2

WKT ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) if 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies inside the c
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
& ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0 if 𝑧 = 𝑎 lies outside the c
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑧−2)+𝐵(𝑧+2)
= + = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−2)
𝑧+2 𝑧−2
⟹ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑧 + 2)
At 𝑧 = 2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 4𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄4
At 𝑧 = −2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−4) + 𝐵 (0) ⟹ 𝐵 = −1⁄4
1 −1⁄ +1⁄
∴ = 4 + 4 =1 [ 1 − 1 ]
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 + 2) (𝑧 − 2) 4 𝑧 − 2 𝑧 + 2
𝑑𝑧 1 1 1
⟹∮ 2 = {∮ 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑑𝑧}
𝑐 𝑧 −4 4 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐 𝑧+2
(i) Given |𝑧| = 1 is a circle, centre at origin & radius 1

⟹ 𝑧 = 2 & 𝑧 = −2 both lies outside the 𝑐: |𝑧| = 1
Hence ∮ 2 = 0
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧 −4
(ii) Given c |𝑧| = 3 ⟹ is a circle, centre at origin & radius 1

⟹ 𝑧 = 2 & 𝑧 = -2 both Lies inside the 𝑐: |𝑧| = 3
25
Hence ∮
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2)−2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−2)
={ }
𝑐 𝑧 2 −4 4
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 ⟹ 𝑓(2) = 1 & 𝑓 (−2) = 1
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 (1) − 2𝜋𝑖 (1) = 0

𝑐 𝑧2 − 4 4
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) |𝑧 + 2| = 1 is the circle, centre at (−2, 0) & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 1

⟹ 𝑧 = −2 Lies inside the circle & 𝑧 = 2 lies outside the circle
Hence ∮ 2 = {0 − 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(−2)}
𝑑𝑧 1
𝑐 𝑧 −4 4
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 ⟹ 𝑓 (−2) = 1
𝑑𝑧 −𝜋𝑖
∴ ∮ 2 =
𝑐 𝑧 −1 2
8) Evaluate ∮
𝒛−𝟒
𝒅𝒛, Where c: |𝒛| = 𝟏
𝒄 𝒛(𝒛𝟐 +𝟗) 𝑧−4
( 2 )
→ Given ∮ 𝑧−4
𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑧 +9
𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧 2 +9) 𝑐 𝑧
⟹ 𝑧 = 0 Lies inside |𝑧| = 1 & 𝑧 2 + 9 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = ±3𝑖 Lies outside |𝑧| = 1

𝑧−4
Where 𝑓(𝑧) = 2 &𝑧=0
𝑧 +9
Given |𝑧| = 1 is a circle with centre at origin & radius 1
𝑓(𝑧)
WKT 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧−4
⟹ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (0)
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)
𝑧−4 −4
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 2 ⟹ 𝑓 (0) =
𝑧 +9 9
𝑧 − 4 −4 −8𝜋𝑖
∴∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) =
𝑐 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9) 9 9
9) Evaluate ∮
𝒛
(𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛𝟐 −𝟗)
𝒅𝒛 in 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒔 where c is the circle
𝒄
(i) |𝒛| = 𝟐 (𝒊𝒊)|𝒛 − 𝟐| = 𝟐
→ Given ∮
𝑧
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9)
𝑑𝑧
𝑐
Let (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 9) = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = ±𝑖 &𝑧 = ±3

i) |𝑧| = 2
26
⟹ 𝑧 = ±𝑖 Lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 2 & 𝑧 = ±3 Lies outside the circle |𝑧| = 2
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑧−𝑖)+𝐵(𝑧+𝑖)
Consider (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧−𝑖)
= (𝑧+𝑖) + = (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧−𝑖)
𝑧−𝑖
1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 𝑖) + 𝐵 (𝑧 + 𝑖)
1
Put 𝑧 = 𝑖 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (2𝑖 ) ⟹ 𝐵 =
2𝑖
Put 𝑧 = −𝑖 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−2𝑖) + 𝐵 (0 ) ⟹ 𝐴 = −1⁄2𝑖
−1 1
1 2𝑖 2𝑖 1 1 1
∴ = + = [ − ]
(𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖) (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖) 2𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
( ) 1 ( 2 ) ( 2 )
⟹ ∮ − 9𝑧2𝑑𝑧 = { ∮ 𝑧 − 9 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑧 − 9 𝑑𝑧 }
𝑐 (𝑧 2 + 1) 2𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑖) 𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝑖 )
WKT ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑎) 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies inside the circle
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
𝑧 1
∴∮ 𝑑𝑧 = {2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (𝑖) − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−𝑖)}
𝑐 (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 9) 2𝑖
𝑧
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑧 2 −9
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖
𝑓 (𝑖 ) = = = & 𝑓(−𝑖) = (−𝑖)2 = =
𝑖 2 −9 −1−9 10 −9 −1−9 10
∴∮
𝑧 1 −𝑖 𝑖
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9)
𝑑𝑧 = {2𝜋𝑖 ( ) − 2𝜋𝑖 ( )}
𝑐 2𝑖 10 10
1 −4𝜋(𝑖)2
= { }
2𝑖 10
−𝜋𝑖
=
5
(ii) |𝑧 − 2| = 2 is a circle with centre (2, 0) & radius 2
⟹ 𝑧 = ±𝑖, − 3 lies outside the circle & 𝑧 = 3 Lies inside the circle
27
𝑧
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) =
(𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 + 3)
𝑧⁄(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧+3)
Hence ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (3)
𝑐 𝑧−3
3 1
& 𝑓(3) = (9+1)(3+3) =
20
𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 𝜋𝑖
∴∮ 𝑑𝑧 = =
𝑐 (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 9) 20 10
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝅𝒛𝟐 +𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅𝒛𝟐
10)Evaluate ∮ (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) 𝒅𝒛 Where c is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟑 using cauchy’s integral
𝒄
formula
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
→ Given ∮ (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 & |𝑧| = 3 is the circle at origin & radius 3
𝑐
Hence (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2
⟹ 𝑧 = 1& 2 Lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 & 𝑤𝑘𝑡 ∮

𝑓(𝑧)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑧−2)+𝐵(𝑧−1)
Consider (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) = (𝑧−1) + (𝑧−2) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
⟹ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑧 − 1)
Put 𝑧 = 1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(−1) + 𝐵 (0) ⟹ 𝐴 = −1
Put 𝑧 = 2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (1) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1
1 −1 1
∴ = +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 − 2)
28
∮ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 ∮ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 ∮ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2

∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑐 (𝑧 − 2) 𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)
= 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (2) − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (1)
Consider 𝑓 (2) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋 = 0 + 1 = 1

𝑓 (1) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = 0 − 1 = −1
∮ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 (1) − 2𝜋𝑖 (−1) = 4𝜋𝑖
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)
𝒆𝟑𝒛
11) Evaluate ∮ 𝟐 𝒅𝒛 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒄: |𝒛| = 𝟏
𝒄 𝒛
3𝑧 33𝑧
→ Given∮ 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ (𝑧−0)2 𝑑𝑧
𝑒
𝑐 𝑧 𝑐
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 3𝑧 & 𝑧 = 0 is the point
|𝑧| = 1 is a circle with centre at origin & radius 1
From Generalized cauchy’s integral formula

∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1 𝑛!
3𝑧
𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 ′
∴∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (0)
𝑐 (𝑧 − 0)1+1 1!
Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 3𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 3𝑒 3𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 3𝑒 0 = 3

∮ 𝑒 3𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 6𝜋𝑖
𝑐 𝑧2
Residue Theorem :-
Residue theorem is a very powerful and elegant theorem in complex integration using the
residue theorem many complex problems can be evaluated. It is also used to sum a real
convergent & and to find the inverse Loplace transform.
Singular Points : A point 𝑧 = 0 at which 𝑓 (𝑧)is not analytic is called singular point (or)
singularity of 𝑓 (𝑧)
Examples :
1
(i) For the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = ; 𝑧 = 0 is a singular point
𝑧
1
(ii) For the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = ; 𝑧 = 2 is a singular point
𝑧−2
29
1
(iii) For the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = ; 𝑧 = −1 is a singular point
𝑧+1
Isolated Singular points : A singular point 𝑧 = 0 of a function 𝑓 (𝑧) is called isolated

singular point if there exists a circle with centre at ‘0’ which contains no other singular
point of 𝑓(𝑧)
Examples :-
𝑧
(1) 𝑧 = −1, 1 are two isolated singular points of 𝑓 (𝑧) = 2
𝑧 −1
(2) 𝑧 = ±1, ±2, … .,are the infinite number of isolated singular points of 𝑓 (𝑧) =
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧
Conformal mapping (or) Conformal Transformation :

Transformation :- 𝒖 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦 ), 𝑣 = 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦 ) → (1)
Between the points in the z-plane and w-plane is called a mapping (or) transformation
of point in the z-plane in to points of the w-plane by function.
Conformal :- If the transformation is such that the angle in between 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 at (𝑥0, 𝑦0 )
is equal both in magnitude and sense to the angle between 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 at (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) .The
transformation (or) mapping is said to be conformal at (𝑥0, 𝑦0 )
Isogonal : If the transformation preserves the magnitude at the angles but not neceessarity
the sense then the transformation is said to be isogonal.
30
Discuss the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛𝟐

or
Find the images in the w-plane corresponding to the straight lines
𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒃 under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛𝟐 indicate the region with sketches
𝑑𝑤
→ Let 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 ⟹ = 2𝑧 ≠ 0 except at 𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑧
Hence the transformation is conformal except at the origin
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) 2

⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 → (1). & 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 → (2)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1 ) & (2)
Case(i) :- When 𝑥 =constant , say 𝑥 = 𝑎 > 0 ⟹

𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑛(1)& (2)

𝑣
We get 𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 20𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 =
20
Eliminating y between these equations
𝑣2
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑎 − 2 (𝑜𝑟)4𝑎2 𝑢 = 4𝑎4 − 𝑣 2
2
4𝑎
⟹ 𝑣 2 = 4𝑎2 (𝑎2 − 𝑢) ⟹ 𝑣 2 = −4𝑎2 (𝑢 − 𝑎2 ) → (3)
This represents a family of parabolas with axis along the negative directions of 𝑢 =
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in the w-plane
Case (ii) :- Let 𝑦 = 𝑏, where b is a constant, 𝑦 = 𝑏 > 0

This represents a family of straight line parallel to 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in the z plane.
Replacing 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑖𝑛 (1)& (2)
𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝑢 = ( ) − 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑏2
2
2𝑏 4𝑏
31
𝑣 2 − 4𝑏4
⟹𝑢= 2
⟹ 𝑣 2 = 4𝑏2 𝑢 − 4𝑏4
4𝑏
⟹ 𝑣 2 = 4𝑏 2 (𝑢 + 𝑏2 )
This represents a family of parabolas with axis along the +Ve directions of 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in the
w-plane
The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 transforms straight lines parallel to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to the parabolas

having –ve 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 as their 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and the straight lines parallel to the axis to parabolas
having positive 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 as their 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
Discuss the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛

𝑑𝑤
Let 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 ⟹ ≠ 0 for any z
𝑑𝑧
∴ The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 is conformal for all z
let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 & 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)
⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 & 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 → (1)
Case (i) :- Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 ,where a is constant
This represent a family of straight lines parallel to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in the z- plane from equation
(1) ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑎 sin 𝑦
⟹ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑦 + 𝑒 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑦
= 𝑒 2𝑎 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑦]
⟹ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑎
This represents a family of cirlces with centre at origin and radius 𝑒 𝑎 in the w- plane
32
Case (ii):- Let 𝑦 = 𝑏 where b is a constant

This represents a family of straight lines parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in the z- plane
From equation (1)
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 , 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑏
𝑢 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 𝑢
⟹ = 𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑏 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑏
𝑣 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏 𝑣
This represents a family of straight lines passing through the origin in the w-plane with
slope 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑏
Case (iii) :- Let 𝑥 = 0 , This represents on imaginory axis in the z-pane

Then equation (1) becomes 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 & 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
⟹ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑦 = 1
This represents an unit circle with centre at origin in the w-plane
33
Case (iv):- Let 𝑦 = 0, this represents real axis in the z-plane

equation (1) ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑜 , 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑜
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 & 𝑣 = 0
𝑣 = 0 represents o real axis in the w-plane
Thus the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 transforms straight lines parallel to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to circles

with centre at origin and radius 𝑒 𝑎 and straight lines parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to the straight
line passing through the origin
1
Discuss the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 +
𝑧
1 𝑑𝑤 1 𝑑𝑤
→ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑧 + ⟹ =1− ⟹ = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = ± 1
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑧2 𝑑𝑧
1
⟹ Transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + is not conformal at 𝑧 = ± 1
𝑧
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 & 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
1
⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑟
1
= 𝑟[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] + [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]
𝑟
1 1
⟹ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
1 1
⟹ 𝑢 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → (1)
𝑟 𝑟
Case (i) :- Eliminating 𝜃 between these equations,

𝑢2 𝑣2
⟹ 1 2
+ 1 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 → (2)
(𝑟+ ) (𝑟− )
𝑟 𝑟
Let 𝑟 = 𝑎 (≠ 1) where a is constant. This represents a circle centred at origin in the
z-plane
𝑢2 𝑣2
(2) ⟹ 1 2
+ 1 2
=1
(𝑎+ ) (𝑎− )
𝑎 𝑎
34
This represents an ellipse having centre at origin in the w-plane
Case (ii) :- Eliminating ‘r’ terms from relation (1)

𝑢2 𝑣2 1 2 1 2
⟹ - = (𝑟 + ) − (𝑟 − ) = 4 → (3)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑟 𝑟
Let 𝜃 = 𝑏, where b is a constant

This represents a raidal line in z-plane
𝑢2 𝑣2
(3) ⟹ − =4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑏
This represents a hyperbola having centre at origin in the w-plane
1
The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + transforms circles with centre origin to ellipse having centre
𝑧
at origin and the radial lines to hyperbola having centre at origin
35
Bilinear transformation (or) Mobius transformation :

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The transformation 𝑤 = where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 & 𝑑 are constants 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is called a
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
bilinear transformation.
If a point z maps on to itself under the bilinear transformation then the point is called an
invariant (or ) a fixed point of Bilinear transformation .(i.e. 𝑤 = 𝑧)
(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )(𝑧3 −𝑧4 )
Cross Ratio : If 𝑧1, 𝑧2 , 𝑧3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 are four distinct points then the ratio (𝑧1 −𝑧4 )(𝑧3 −𝑧2 )
is
called the cross ratio of the points and is denoted by (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 )
Working Rule:
1) Given 𝑧1, 𝑧2, 𝑧3 on to 𝑤1, 𝑤, 𝑤3
2) Substitute the given set of points in
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)
=
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
3) Solving this equation for w interms of z

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
4) 𝑤 = is the required bilinear transformation that transforms from 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 on to
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
𝑤1, 𝑤, 𝑤3
Problems :-
(i) Find the bilinear transformation that maps the point 1,0,-1 on to the points i, 0, -i
→ WKT (𝒛𝟏 , 𝒛𝟐 , 𝒛𝟑 ) maps on to (𝒘𝟏 , 𝒘, 𝒘𝟑 )
Given (1, 0, −1) on to (𝑖, 0, −𝑖)
⟹ 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 0 , 𝑧3 = 1 & 𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤𝑖 = −𝑖
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 𝑖)(0 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 1)(0 + 1)
⟹ =
(𝑖 − 0)(−𝑖 − 𝑤 ) (1 − 0)(−1 − 𝑧)
𝑖(𝑤 − 𝑖) (𝑧 − 1)
⟹ =
−𝑖 (𝑖 + 𝑤 ) −(1 + 𝑧)
𝑤𝑖 + 1 𝑧−1
⟹ =
𝑤𝑖 − 1 𝑧+1
⟹ (𝑤𝑖 + 1)(𝑧 + 1) = (𝑤𝑖 − 1)(𝑧 − 1)

⟹ 𝑧𝑤𝑖 + 𝑤𝑖 + 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑧𝑤𝑖 − 𝑧 − 𝑤𝑖 + 1
⟹ 𝑧𝑤𝑖 − 𝑧𝑤𝑖 + 𝑤𝑖 + 𝑤𝑖 = −𝑧 − 𝑧 + 1 − 1
⟹ 2𝑤𝑖 = −2𝑧
⟹ 𝑤𝑖 = −𝑧
36
−𝑧 1
⟹𝑤= & = −𝑖
𝑖 𝑖
⟹ 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑖
Is the required bilinear transformation
2) Find the bilinear transformation which map the points (1, i, -1) to (i, 0, -i)
⟹ 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1 & 𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = −𝑖
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 𝑖)(0 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
⟹ =
(𝑖 − 0)(−𝑖 − 𝑤 ) (1 − 𝑖)(−1 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 𝑖)𝑖 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
⟹ =
−𝑖 (𝑤 + 𝑖) −(1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑧)
⟹ (𝑤 − 𝑖)(1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑧) = (𝑤 + 𝑖 )(𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)

⟹ 𝑤 + 𝑧𝑤 − 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑖𝑧𝑤 − 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑧 − 1 − 𝑧 = 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤 − 𝑧 ∓ 𝑖𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖
⟹ 2𝑤 − 2𝑤𝑧𝑖 = 2𝑧𝑖 + 2
⟹ 2𝑤 (1 − 𝑧𝑖) = 2(1 + 𝑧𝑖)
𝑖𝑧+1
⟹𝑤=
−𝑖𝑧+1
Is the required bilinear transformation.
(3) Find the bilinear transformation which map the points 𝒛 = 𝟏, 𝒊, −𝟏 on to

𝒘 = 𝟐, 𝒊, −𝟐. Also find its invariant points of the transformation.
→ Given 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 & 𝑤 = 2, 𝑖, −2
⟹ 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1 & 𝑤1 = 2, 𝑤2 = 𝑖 &𝑤 = −2
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 2)(𝑖 + 2) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
⟹ =
(2 − 𝑖)(−2 − 𝑤 ) (1 − 𝑖)(−1 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 2)(𝑖 + 2) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)
⟹ =
(𝑤 + 2)(2 − 𝑖) (𝑧 + 1)(1 − 𝑖)
(𝑤 − 2) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 1)(2 − 𝑖)
⟹ =
(𝑤 + 2) (𝑧 + 1)(1 − 𝑖)(𝑖 + 2)
37
(𝑤 − 2) (𝑧 − 1)[2𝑖 + 1 + 2 − 𝑖] (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 3)
⟹ = =
(𝑤 + 2) (𝑧 + 1)[𝑖 + 2 + 1 − 2𝑖] (𝑧 + 1)(3 − 𝑖)
⟹ (𝑤 − 2) (𝑧 + 1)(3 − 𝑖) = (𝑤 + 2)(𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 3)
⟹ 3𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 3𝑤 − 𝑤𝑖 − 6𝑧 + 2𝑧𝑖 − 6 + 2𝑖

= 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 3𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤𝑖 − 3𝑤 + 2𝑧𝑖 + 6𝑧 − 2𝑖 − 6
⟹ 6𝑤 − 2𝑤𝑧𝑖 = 12𝑧 − 4𝑖
⟹ 2𝑤 (3 − 𝑧𝑖) = 2(6𝑧 − 2𝑖)
6𝑧 − 2𝑖
⟹𝑤= → (1)
−𝑖𝑧 + 3
Is the required bilinear transformation

To find the invariant points,
6𝑧−2𝑖
Put 𝑤 = 𝑧 in (1) ⟹ 𝑧 =
−𝑖𝑧+3
2
⟹ −𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑧 − 6𝑧 + 2𝑖 = 0
⟹ −𝑖𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 = 0 + 2𝑖
3 ± √9 − 8
⟹𝑧=
−2𝑖
3±1 4 2 1
⟹𝑧= ⟹𝑧= (𝑜𝑟) 𝑧 = & = −𝑖
−2𝑖 2𝑖 −2𝑖 𝑖
⟹ 𝑧 = 2𝑖 (or) 𝑧 = 𝑖 are the invariant points
4) Find the bilinear transformation which maps

𝒛𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝒛𝟑 = 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝟏 = 𝟎 , 𝒘𝟐 = 𝒊, 𝒘𝟑= 𝟑𝒊
→ Given 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 0, 𝑧3 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑤1 = 0 , 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3= 3𝑖
(𝑤 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤−0)(𝑖−3𝑖) (𝑧+1)(0−1)
⟹ (0−𝑖)(3𝑖−𝑤)
= (−1−0)(1−𝑧)
𝑤 (−2𝑖) −(𝑧 + 1)
⟹ =
(−𝑖)(3𝑖 − 𝑤 ) −(1 − 𝑧)
2𝑤 𝑧+1
⟹ =
(3𝑖 − 𝑤 ) 1 − 𝑧
⟹ 2𝑤 (1 − 𝑧) = (3𝑖 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧 + 1)
⟹ 2𝑤 − 2𝑤𝑧 = 3𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑖 − 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤
38
⟹ 3𝑤 − 𝑤𝑧 = 3𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑖
⟹ 𝑤 (3 − 𝑧) = 3𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑖
3𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑖
⟹𝑤=
−𝑧 + 3
5) Find the bilinear transformation at the points 𝒊, 𝟏, 𝟎 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝟎, −𝒊, −𝟏
→ Given 𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = −𝑖, 𝑤3 = −1 & 𝑧1 = 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 1, 𝑧3 = 0
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 0)(−𝑖 + 1) (𝑧 − 𝑖)(1 − 0)
⟹ =
(0 + 𝑖)(−1 − 𝑤 ) (𝑖 − 1)(0 − 𝑧)
𝑤 (1 − 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)
⟹ =
−𝑖(𝑤 + 1) −𝑧(𝑖 − 1)
⟹ 𝑤𝑧 (1 − 𝑖)(𝑖 − 1) = 𝑖(𝑤 + 1)(𝑧 − 𝑖)

⟹ 𝑤𝑧𝑖 − 𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤𝑧𝑖 = 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 𝑤 + 𝑧𝑖 + 1
⟹ 𝑤𝑧𝑖 − 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑖 + 1
⟹ 𝑤 (𝑧𝑖 − 1) = 𝑧𝑖 + 1
𝑖𝑧 + 1
⟹𝑤=
𝑖𝑧 − 1
𝟔) Find the bilinear transformation which maps 𝒛 = ∞, 𝒊, 𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒘 = −𝟏, −𝒊, 𝟏. Also
find the fixed points of the transformation.
→ Given 𝑧1 = ∞, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 0 & 𝑤1 = −1, 𝑤2 = −𝑖, 𝑤3 = 1
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) 𝑧1 (𝑧𝑧 −𝑧1 )(𝑧2 −𝑧3 )

1
⟹ (𝑤 =
1 −𝑤2 )((𝑤3 −𝑤)) 𝑧1 (1−𝑧𝑧2 )(𝑧3 −𝑧)
1
𝑧
(𝑤 + 1)(−𝑖 − 1) 𝑧1(∞ − 1)(𝑖 − 0)
⟹ =
(−1 + 𝑖)((1 − 𝑤 )) 𝑧1(1 − ∞𝑖 )(0 − 𝑧)
(w+1)(i+1) −i
⟹ - (1−w)(i−1) =
−z
⟹ −(𝑤 + 1)(𝑖 + 1)𝑧 = 𝑖(1 − 𝑤 )(𝑖 − 1)

⟹ −𝑤𝑧𝑖 − 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖 + 𝑤 + 𝑖𝑤
39
⟹ 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤 + 𝑖𝑤 = −𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖
⟹ 𝑤 [(𝑖 + 1)𝑧 + (𝑖 + 1)] = −(𝑖 + 1)𝑧 + (𝑖 + 1)
−(𝑖 + 1)𝑧 + (𝑖 + 1) (𝑖 + 1)[−𝑧 + 1] 1−𝑧
⟹𝑤= = ⟹𝑤= → (1)
(𝑖 + 1)𝑧 + (𝑖 + 1) (𝑖 + 1)[𝑧 + 1] 1+𝑧
To find fixed points :- Put 𝑤 = 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖)

−𝑧 + 1
⟹𝑧= ⟹ 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 = −𝑧 + 1
𝑧+1
⟹ 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 − 1 = 0
−2 ± √4 + 4 −2 ± √8
⟹𝑧= =
2 2
⟹ 𝑧 = −1 ± √2
∴ The fixed points are −1 + √2 & -1- √2
7) Find the bilinear transformation which maps 𝒛 = ∞, 𝒊, 𝟎 on to 𝒘 = 𝟎, 𝒊, ∞
→ Given 𝑧1 = ∞, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 0 & 𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3 = ∞
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 0)(𝑖⁄∞ − 1) (𝑧⁄∞ − 1)(𝑖 − 0)
⟹ 𝑤 = (𝑖 − 𝑖⁄∞)(0 − 𝑧)
(𝑜 − 𝑖) (1 − )
∞
𝑤(−1) (−1)(𝑖)
⟹ (−𝑖)(1)
=
1(−𝑧)
𝑤 𝑖
⟹ =
𝑖 𝑧
1
⟹ 𝑤 = − is the required Bilinear transformation
𝑧
8) Find the bilinear transformation which maps 𝒛 = 𝟎, 𝒊, ∞ 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘 = 𝟏, −𝒊, −𝟏.
→ Given 𝑧1 = 0, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = ∞, & 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3 = −1
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 ) 𝑧3 (𝑧𝑧2 −1)

3
⟹ (𝑤 =
1 −𝑤2 )(𝑤3 −𝑤) (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑧3 (1−𝑧𝑧 )
3
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 0)(𝑖⁄∞ − 1)
⟹ =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑜 − 𝑖)(1 − 𝑧⁄∞)
40
(𝑤 − 1)(𝑖 + 1) (𝑧)(−1)
⟹ =
(1 − 𝑖)(−1 − 𝑤 ) (−𝑖)(1)
(𝑤 − 1) (𝑧)(−1)(−1 + 𝑖)
⟹ =
𝑤+1 (−𝑖)(1)(𝑖 + 1)
(𝑤 − 1) 𝑧(1 + 𝑖) 𝑧(1 + 𝑖)
⟹ = =
(𝑤 + 1) −𝑖 − 1 −1(1 + 𝑖)
(𝑤 − 1)
⟹ = −𝑧
(𝑤 + 1)
⟹ 𝑤 − 1 = −𝑧(𝑤 + 1)
⟹ 𝑤 − 1 = −𝑧𝑤 − 𝑧
⟹ 𝑤 + 𝑧𝑤 = −𝑧 + 1
⟹ 𝑤 (1 + 𝑧 ) = 1 − 𝑧
1−𝑧
∴𝑤= is the required Bilinear transformation
1+𝑧
9) Find the Bilinear transformation which maps 𝒛𝟏 = 𝒊, 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟏, 𝒛𝟑 = −𝟏 on to 𝒘𝟏 =

𝟏, 𝒘𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝒘𝟑 = ∞
→ Given 𝑧1 = 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 1, 𝑧3 = −1 on to 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = ∞
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 𝑤1 )𝑤3 (𝑤2⁄𝑤3 − 1) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
⟹ =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)𝑤3 (1 − 𝑤⁄𝑤3 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 1)(0⁄∞ − 1) (𝑧 − 𝑖)(1 + 1)
⟹ =
(1 − 0)(1 − 𝑤⁄∞) (𝑖 − 1)(−1 − 𝑧)
(𝑤 − 1)(−1) 2(𝑧 − 𝑖)
⟹ =
(1)(1) (𝑖 − 1)(𝑧 + 1)
⟹ 𝑤𝑧𝑖 + 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑧 − 𝑤 − 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑖 + 𝑧 + 1 = 2𝑧 − 2𝑖
⟹ 𝑤 [(𝑖 − 1)𝑧 + (𝑖 − 1)] = 2𝑧 − 2𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑧 − 1
⟹ 𝑤 [(𝑖 − 1). (𝑧 + 1)] = 𝑧 − 𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 − 1
= (𝑖 + 1)𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖)
⟹ 𝑤 (𝑧 + 1)(𝑖 − 1) = (𝑖 + 1)(𝑧 − 1)
41
(𝑖 + 1)(𝑧 − 1)
⟹𝑤=
(𝑖 − 1) (𝑧 + 1)
(𝑖 + 1)(𝑖 − 1)(𝑧 − 1)
⟹𝑤=
(𝑖 − 1)2 (𝑧 + 1)
(𝑖 2 − 1)(𝑧 − 1)
=
(−1 + 1 − 2𝑖)(𝑧 + 1)
−2(𝑧 − 1)
=
−2𝑖 (𝑧 + 1)
(𝑧 − 1) −𝑖(𝑧 − 1)
⟹𝑤= =
𝑖(𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 + 1)
𝑖 (1 − 𝑧)
∴𝑤=
(1 + 𝑧)
10) Find the bilinear transformation that map the points 𝒛𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒊, 𝒛𝟑 = 𝟐𝒊 on
to 𝒘𝟏 = 𝟓𝒊, 𝒘𝟐 = ∞, 𝒘𝟑 = −𝟏⁄𝟑
& Also find the invariant points of the transformation

→ 𝑧1 = 0, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 2𝑖 on to 𝑤1 = 5𝑖, 𝑤2 = ∞, 𝑤3 = −1⁄3
(𝑤 − 𝑤1)(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧1)(𝑧2 − 𝑧3)
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2)(𝑤3 − 𝑤 ) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧)
𝑖⁄3
(𝑤−5𝑖)[1−(− )] (𝑧−0)((−𝑖−2𝑖))
∞
⟹ 1 = (0+𝑖)(2𝑖−𝑧)
(5𝑖⁄∞−1)(− −𝑤)
3
(𝑤−5𝑖) −3𝑧𝑖
⟹ =
−1(−1)(𝑖+3𝑤) 𝑖(2𝑖−𝑧)
3(𝑤 − 5𝑖) −3𝑧

⟹ =
(𝑖 + 3𝑤 ) (2𝑖 − 𝑧)
⟹ (𝑤 − 5𝑖)(2𝑖 − 𝑧) = −𝑧(𝑖 + 3𝑤 )
⟹ 2𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑧 + 10 + 5𝑧𝑖 = −𝑧𝑖 − 3𝑤𝑧
⟹ 2𝑤𝑖 + 2𝑤𝑧 = −𝑧𝑖 − 5𝑧𝑖 − 10
⟹ 2𝑤 [𝑧 + 𝑖] = −6𝑧𝑖 − 10 = 2[−3𝑖𝑧 − 5]
−3𝑖𝑧−5
⟹𝑤= is the required bilinear transformation
𝑧+1
To find invariant points :- put 𝑤 = 𝑧
42
−3𝑖𝑧 − 5
∴𝑧= ⟹ 𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 + 3𝑖𝑧 + 5 = 0
𝑧+𝑖
𝑧 2 + 4𝑖𝑧 + 5 = 0
−4𝑖 ± √−16 − 20
∴𝑧=
2
−4𝑖 ± √−36
=
2
4𝑖 ± 6𝑖 −10𝑖 2𝑖
= = ( 𝑜𝑟 )
2 2 2
⟹ 𝑧 = 5𝑖 & 𝑧 = 𝑖 are the invarint points
43

Module 2 - Complex Integration

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Module 2 - Complex Integration

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Complex Analysis Probability and Statistical

Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Methods-18MAT41

CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION AND COMPLEX

Let 𝑃 = 𝑝0 (𝑧0 ), 𝑝1(𝑧1), 𝑝2 (𝑧2 ) … … … . . 𝑝𝑘 (𝑧𝑘 ) … … … . . 𝑝𝑛 (𝑧𝑛 )

Properties of complex integral:-

1) If −𝐶 denotes the curve traversed from Q to P, then

∫ {𝑎𝑓 (𝑧) + 𝑏𝑓 (𝑧)}𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + 𝑏 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

= ∫ ⌊𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦⌋ + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 )

Along 𝑃𝑄 ∶ 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑜 ⟹ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = (1 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖𝑑𝑦

Along 𝑄𝑅 ∶ 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑜 ⟹ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥

Along RO: 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 ⟹ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑦 2 (𝑖𝑑𝑦)

∴ ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫(1 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 + ∫(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

→ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 (𝑧̅)2 = (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 & 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) varies from (0,0) 𝑡𝑜 (2, 1)

∴ ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑖2𝑥𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

∴ ∫ (𝑧̅)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧 + ∫ (𝑧̅)2𝑑𝑧

a) Straight line equation is

⟹ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 0) 𝑡𝑜 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3, 0) & 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖

b) The straight line equation for (0, 3) (2, 4)

∴ ∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

At the points (1, −1) & (2, 1)

∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫[2𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) + 1] [𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑑𝑥 ]

6) If 𝑐 is a circle with centre ′0′ and radius ′𝑟 ′ then show that

Solution:→ On the given circle |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟,

WKT 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 with centre at the origin

But 𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)2𝜋 = cos(𝑛 + 1)2𝜋 + 𝑖 sin(𝑛 + 1)2𝜋

∴ ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑥 )

Along parallel to imaginary 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

Along OP : 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 varies from 0 to 1

∴ ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(1 − 𝑦 + 𝑖) 𝑖𝑑𝑦

(iii) Along Imaginary 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝑖

Along parallel to real 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

Green’s Theorm in a plane :

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 → Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic

From Green’s theorem we have

Consequences of Couchy’s Theorem :-

Couchy’s Integral formula :-

Generalized couchy’s integral formula :-

→ we have couchy’s integral formula

differentiating partially w.r to ‘a’

Againing Differentiating partially w.r to ‘a’

similaraly continuing like this, Differentiating n times

Now along the curve [ square OABC] & 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2

WKT 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 & 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

∴ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

Along OA:- 𝑌 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1

Along AB: 𝑥 = 1 𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1

Along BC: 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 & 𝑥 varies from 1 to 0

∴ ∫ 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑖𝑦) 2 (𝑖𝑑𝑦) = −𝑖 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

Hence couchy’s theorem is verified.

Solution:→ Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 , where c is the circle |𝑧| = 1 i.e 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

(3) Given ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 − 1 where c is the square having Vertices

Solution→ According to cauchy’s theorem we must have ∫ |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 = 0

i.e. 𝑓 (𝑧)should be analytic.

Hence C-R equations 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 & 𝑢𝑦 ≠ −𝑣𝑥

Problems on cauchy integral formula :-

Case (ii): If 𝑧 = 𝑎 Lies inside the curve c

(i) |𝑧| = 2 is a circle of radius 2 & with centre at origin

⟹ 𝑧 = −1 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 |𝑧| = 2

(ii)|𝑧| = 1⁄2 is a circle of radius 1⁄2 & with centre at origin

⟹ 𝑧 = −1 lies outside the circle |𝑧| = 2

⟹ 𝑧 = 2 Lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3

(a) |𝑧| = 2𝜋 is a circle of radius 2𝜋 & with centre at origin

⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 2𝜋

Consider 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (−𝑖𝜋) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋

⟹ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies outside the circle |𝑧| = 𝜋⁄2

(𝑐 ) |𝑧 − 1| = 1 is a circle of radius 1 & centre at (1,0)

Put 𝑧 = 2 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(3 ) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄3

Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (2) = 𝑒 4

Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧 ⟹ 𝑓 (−1) = 𝑒 −2

5) Evaluate using couchy’s integral formula ∮

⟹ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 & 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = −1 are the points

⟹ 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = −1 both lies inside the curve c

Put 𝑧 = 1 ⟹ 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 (2) ⟹ 𝐵 = 1⁄2

∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋2 𝑑𝑧 = 1 {∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 𝑑𝑧}