Embedded Systems: PECEC701B

Practice Question Set for Concept Building

1. Briefly describe embedded systems based on the classification of generation.

Ans: Based on Performance and Functional Requirements it is divided into 4 types as follows :
1. Real-Time Embedded Systems :
A Real-Time Embedded System is strictly time specific which means these embedded
systems provides output in a particular/defined time interval. These type of embedded
systems provide quick response in critical situations which gives most priority to time
based task performance and generation of output. That’s why real time embedded
systems are used in defense sector, medical and health care sector, and some other
industrial applications where output in the right time is given more importance.
2. Stand Alone Embedded Systems :
Stand Alone Embedded Systems are independent systems which can work by themselves
they don’t depend on a host system. It takes input in digital or analog form and provides the
output.
Examples :
1. MP3 players
2. Microwave ovens
3. calculator
3. Networked Embedded Systems :
Networked Embedded Systems are connected to a network which may be wired or wireless
to provide output to the attached device. They communicate with embedded web server
through network.
Examples :
1. Home security systems
2. ATM machine
3. Card swipe machine
Mobile Embedded Systems :
Mobile embedded systems are small and easy to use and requires less resources. They are the
most preferred embedded systems. In portability point of view mobile embedded systems are
also best.
1. Examples :
• MP3 player
• Mobile phones
• Digital Camera

2. What is an actuator? Give a brief description of the working principle of the Microphone.How
it can convert sound energy to electrical energy?

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a

mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve

Microphones work as transducers, converting sound waves (mechanical wave energy) into audio
signals (electrical energy). The microphone diaphragm vibrates as it's subjected to sound waves
and creates a coinciding audio signal via electromagnetic or electrostatic principles that will be
outputted.
Sound energy is converted to electrical energy by the application of electromagnetic induction.

The sound waves impose pressure on the conductor that pinches the conductor to generate electric
current. The vibration produced by the sound waves oscillates the molecules back and forth and the
mobility of charges generated electricity.

3. Explain the steps in building an embedded control system.

Ideation and purpose of product

The possible need for the embedded product may come from the manufacturer, or even
customers, in how they think the larger product should work. Engineers will want to brainstorm
how the embedded product could work and the benefits it would bring. They will also want to get a
sense of the price customers or manufacturers will pay for the embedded product.

Determine overall requirements

Engineers will determine everything the product needs to work as intended. Questions they’ll ask
include: What functions does it need to complete? What are size, weight, and cost limits? They will
also need to decide the specific hardware the product will use.

Document detailed technical specifications

Engineers should create a document detailing the technical specifications for the product. Those will
include functions the product must complete, environmental conditions and manufacturing
requirements, among other things.

Decide if the product needs a user display

Some embedded products require simple displays to give users information about it's operation. As
part of assessing a product's specifications, engineers will want to determine whether the product
needs a user display. If required, you'll need to design a graphical user interface.

Develop a prototype

At this point, it’s useful to build a basic prototype to assess the hardware, identify necessary
components, and how they might work together.

Design system architecture

During this step, engineers design the overall architecture on which the product will work. Questions
they’ll address include:

Select the operating system (OS)

Engineers decide if the product needs a real-time operating system, meaning a system that processes
input on a set time constraint, often extremely fast. If so, they will choose the best real-time OS for the
product. If not, they can select the best non-real-time OS.

4. What are the challenges or risks associated with embedded systems?

Irregular security updates

 Most of the embedded systems are not upgraded regularly for security updates. Once the
embedded device is deployed, it keeps running on the software that it came with for years and
even decades. If the device needs a remote software update, a capability needs to be designed into
the device to allow security updates since the embedded operating system may not have
automated capabilities to allow easy firmware updates that ensure embedded security.

Attack replication

As embedded devices are mass produced, the same version of devices have the same design and
built as other devices in the lot. Considering this, there will be millions of identical embedded
devices. If someone is able to successfully hack any of the devices from the lot, the attack can be
easily replicated across the rest of the devices.

Dependability

Many critical aspects such as utility grids, transportation infrastructure, and communication
systems are controlled by embedded systems. The modern society relies upon several facilities,
many of them, in turn, rely on embedded devices. Cyberattacks would lead to an interruption in
the functioning of embedded systems, which may have some catastrophic consequences.

Device life cycle

Embedded devices have a much longer lifespan as compared to PCs. One can easily spot embedded
devices in the field that are a decade old, still running on the same system. So, when a
manufacturer plans to develop an embedded system, they need to consider the potential threats
that may arise in the next two decades. On top of developing a system that is secure against
current threats, manufacturers need to match the security requirements of the future, which is a
great challenge in itself.

Industrial protocols

Embedded systems follow some set of industrial protocols that are not protected or recognized by
enterprise security tools. Enterprise intrusion detection system and firewalls can save the
organizations from enterprise specific threats, but are not capable of providing security against
industrial protocol attacks.
 Remote deployment

Numerous embedded devices are deployed in the field, outside the enterprise security perimeter.
Therefore, these remote or mobile devices may be directly connected to the internet, without the
security layers provided in the corporate environment.

All the above-mentioned challenges need to be addressed during the embedded device design and
development, considering both hardware and firmware aspects. Only if the embedded device is
secure, it will be able to run the intended tasks.

Wrapping Up

The question isn’t if an embedded device is secure, the question is if an embedded device is secure
enough. Different embedded devices require a different level of security, depending on the function it
carries out.

The level of embedded security needs to be considered in the early phase of device design. Instead of
relying on the enterprise security tools, embedded devices should come with a security system, so they
can stand up against threats even outside the enterprise security perimeter.

eInfochips has a vast experience in creating secure and robust embedded devices. For developing a
secure embedded system for your business, contact our team.

5. Discuss Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products in embedded-based systems.

Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) is a term that references non-developmental items (NDI) sold in
the commercial marketplace and used or obtained through government contracts. The set of rules
for COTS is defined by the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR).

A COTS product is usually a computer hardware or software product tailored for specific uses and
made available to the general public. Such products are designed to be readily available and user
friendly. A typical example of a COTS product is Microsoft Office or antivirus software. A COTS
product is generally any product available off-the-shelf and not requiring custom development
before installation.

Compared to COTS, a custom designed product is typically more expensive and not as dependable.
This is because the product is industrialized from scratch in minimal time with a limited budget.
COTS that is modified by a purchaser, vendor or other party to meet customer requirements
become modified off-the-shelf (MOTS). Generally once a COT is modified, it is the responsibility of
the consumer to manage changes to the product.
6. Classify different embedded systems.

7. Briefly describe with examples small-scale, medium scale and large-scale embedded
systems.

1. Small Scale Embedded Systems :

Small Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 8-bit or 16-bit micro-controller.
They can be powered by a battery. The processor uses very less/limited resources of
memory and processing speed. Mainly these systems does not act as an independent
system they act as any component of computer system but they did not compute and
dedicated for a specific task.

2. Medium Scale Embedded Systems :

Medium Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 16-bit or 32-bit micro-
controller. These medium Scale Embedded Systems are faster than that of small Scale
Embedded Systems. Integration of hardware and software is complex in these
systems. Java, C, C++ are the programming languages are used to develop medium scale
embedded systems. Different type of software tools like compiler, debugger, simulator
etc are used to develop these type of systems.

3. Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems :

Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems are designed using multiple 32-bit or 64-
bit micro-controller. These systems are developed to perform large scale complex
functions. These systems have high hardware and software complexities. We use both
hardware and software components to design final systems or hardware products

8. Describe the different steps involved in designing an embedded control system.

9. What are the characteristics of an embedded system?
Single Functioned - The embedded system generally performs a specialized operation and it
repeats the same. For example, a paper always functions as a pager.
Tightly Constrained - All computing system having a constraint in design metrics, but those on the
embedded system will especially tight. Design metrics are a measure of an implementation's
features like size, power, cost and also performance. This performance is fast enough to the
processor data in real time and also consumes the minimum power to extend battery life.
Reactive and Real-Time - There are so many embedded systems that continually react to changes
in the system's environment and must compute certain results in real time without any delay.
Memory - It is having a memory and that is the software usually embeds in the ROM. It does not
require any secondary memories on the computer.
Connected - It connects peripherals to connect input and output devices.
HW-SW System - Especially, software testing is utilizing for more flexibility and features. The
hardware is utilized for both security and performance.

10. Describe the various hardware units of a typical embedded system.

1. Embedded processor: It is the heart of the embedded system. It has two essential units :
control unit and execution unit. Control unit fetches instructions from memory and execution
unit includes ALU and circuits to perform execution of the instructions for a program control
task
2. Power supply, reset & oscillator circuit:
• Most of the systems have their own power supply. Some embedded systems do not have their
own power supply. These embedded systems are powered by external power supply e.g. USB
based embedded system, network interface card, Graphics Accelerator etc. are powered by PC
power supply.
• Reset means that processor begins processing of instructions from starting address set by
default in program counter on power up.
• The clock circuit controls execution time of instructions, CPU machine cycles.
1. Timers: Timer circuit is suitably configured as system clock or RTC (Real time clock). To
schedule various tasks and for real time programming an RTC (Real Time Clock), or system
clock is needed.
2. Program & data memory: In embedded system, secondary memory like disk is avoided. Most
of the embedded processors have internal memory such as ROM, RAM, flash/EEPROM,
EPROM/PROM for storing program and data.
3. Interrupt controller: It is an interrupt handling mechanism which must exist in embedded
system to handle interrupts from various processes and for handling multiple interrupts
simultaneously pending for service.
4. I/O ports: I/O ports are used to interface external devices like sensors, key buttons,
transducers, LEDs, LCD actuators, alarms, motors, values, printer etc. There are two types of
ports, parallel and serial port. The parallel ports are used in short distance communication
while serial ports are used in long distance communication.
5. Input& output device interfacing/driver circuits: Some I/O devices like motors, actuators,
valves, sensors are not compatible with the processor. Hence the I/O interface circuits are
designed to drive such input and output devices interfaced to the embedded processor
 6. System Application specific circuits: These are the circuits that can control specific target
circuits. They consist of ADC, DAC, relays, sensors etc.

11. Within the domain of an embedded system, they have many functionalities. Explain with
examples.
12. What are the different data communication methods used in embedded systems?
Briefly describe.
13. Explain the current trends and challenges in the field of
embedded systems.
16 . With a neat diagram explain the architecture of 8051.

CPU (Central Processing Unit): CPU act as a mind of any processing machine. It synchronizes and
manages all processes that are carried out in microcontroller. User has no power to control the
functioning of CPU. It interprets the program stored in ROM and carries out from storage and then
performs it projected duty. CPU manage the different types of registers available in 8051
microcontroller.

Interrupts: Interrupts is a sub-routine call that given by the microcontroller when some other program
with high priority is request for acquiring the system buses the n interrupts occur in current running
program.

Memory: For operation Micro-controller required a program. This program guides the microcontroller
to perform the specific tasks. This program installed in microcontroller required some on chip memory
for the storage of the program.

Microcontroller also required memory for storage of data and operands for the short duration. In
microcontroller 8051 there is code or program memory of 4 KB that is it has 4 KB ROM and it also
comprise of data memory (RAM) of 128 bytes.

Bus : Bus is a group of wires which uses as a communication canal or acts as means of data transfer.
The different bus configuration includes 8, 16 or more cables. Therefore, a bus can bear 8 bits, 16 bits
all together.

o Timer 0 overflow interrupt - TF0

o Timer 1 overflow interrupt - TF1
 o External hardware interrupt - INT0
o External hardware interrupt - INT1
o Serial communication interrupt - RI/TI

17. 3. Write short notes on (any two)

a) Dual slope method of ADC

The working of a dual slope ADC is as follows −

• The control logic resets the counter and enables the clock signal generator in order to
send the clock pulses to the counter, when it is received the start commanding signal.
• Control logic pushes the switch sw to connect to the external analog input
voltage ViVi, when it is received the start commanding signal. This input voltage is
applied to an integrator.
• The output of the integrator is connected to one of the two inputs of the comparator
and the other input of comparator is connected to ground.
• Comparator compares the output of the integrator with zero volts (ground) and
produces an output, which is applied to the control logic.
• The counter gets incremented by one for every clock pulse and its value will be in
binary (digital) format. It produces an overflow signal to the control logic, when it is
incremented after reaching the maximum count value. At this instant, all the bits of
counter will be having zeros only.
• Now, the control logic pushes the switch sw to connect to the negative
reference voltage −Vref−Vref. This negative reference voltage is applied to an integrator. It
removes the charge stored in the capacitor until it becomes zero.
• At this instant, both the inputs of a comparator are having zero volts. So, comparator sends a
signal to the control logic. Now, the control logic disables the clock signal generator and retains
(holds) the counter value. The counter value is proportional to the external analog input
voltage.
• At this instant, the output of the counter will be displayed as the digital output. It is almost
equivalent to the corresponding external analog input value Vi
 b) CCD devices
Charge Coupled Devices can be defined in different ways according to the application for which
they are used or based on the design of the device.
It is a device used for the movement of electrical charge within it for the charge manipulation, which is
done by changing the signals through stages within the device one at a time.

It can be treated as CCD sensor, which is used in the digital and video cameras for taking images and
recording videos through photoelectric effect. It is used for converting the captured light into digital
data, which is recorded by the camera.
It can be defined as a light-sensitive integrated circuit imprinted on a silicon surface to form light-
sensitive elements called pixels, and each pixel is converted into an electrical charge.
It is termed as a discrete-time device used for continuous or analog signal sampling at discrete
times.
c) Cache memory and Cache controller
d) Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and synchronizing
with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but
economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a
buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
e) Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory. The
cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used main
memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which store
instructions and data.

f) FPGA

e)UART

f) JTAG
18. What are the types of Embedded Systems?
19. What is an actuator? Give a brief description of the working principle of the Microphone.How it
can convert sound energy to electrical energy?
20.Write short notes on RFID and RTC.
 21. How does DSP differ from a general processor?

22. How does a watchdog timer different from a normal timer?

As the name implies, a watchdog timer essentially ensures the embedded system does not perpetually
remain in state of software or hardware fault.

It accomplishes this task by requiring it be serviced/reset periodically, before its timer expires,
otherwise known as "kicking the dog."

If the watchdog timer does expire, the entire system is then reset, which in turn, at least momentarily,
removes the system from the state of software or hardware fault.

On the other hand, a standard hardware timer is typically employed to accomplish a myriad of other
system tasks.

It too can be loaded with a predetermined value which when incremented by a predetermined clock
source, eventual rolls over to zero, raising a flag.

The flag can in turn be polled or configured to trigger an interrupt which in turn can run an interrupt
service routine (ISR) to perform a specific periodic task.

A standard hardware timer can often be utilized to count the occurrence of a specific event or record
the duration of time between the occurrence of events.
23. Define embedded systems.
As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. An embedded
system can be thought of as a computer hardware system having software embedded in it. An
embedded system can be an independent system or it can be a part of a large system. An embedded
system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to perform a specific
task. For example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense only smoke.
An embedded system has three components −
• It has hardware.
• It has application software.
• It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application software and
provide mechanism to let the processor run a process as per scheduling by following a
plan to control the latencies. RTOS defines the way the system works. It sets the rules
 during the execution of application program. A small scale embedded system may not
have RTOS.
So we can define an embedded system as a Microcontroller based, software driven, reliable, real-time
control system.
Characteristics of an Embedded System
• Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs a specialized operation and
does the same repeatedly. For example: A pager always functions as a pager.
• Tightly constrained − All computing systems have constraints on design metrics, but
those on an embedded system can be especially tight. Design metrics is a measure of
an implementation's features such as its cost, size, power, and performance. It must be
of a size to fit on a single chip, must perform fast enough to process data in real time
and consume minimum power to extend battery life.
• Reactive and Real time − Many embedded systems must continually react to changes
in the system's environment and must compute certain results in real time without any
delay. Consider an example of a car cruise controller; it continually monitors and reacts
to speed and brake sensors. It must compute acceleration or de-accelerations
repeatedly within a limited time; a delayed computation can result in failure to control
of the car.
• Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or microcontroller based.
• Memory − It must have a memory, as its software usually embeds in ROM. It does not
need any secondary memories in the computer.
• Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect input and output devices.
• HW-SW systems − Software is used for more features and flexibility. Hardware is used
for performance and security.

Advantages
• Easily Customizable
• Low power consumption
• Low cost
• Enhanced performance
Disadvantages
• High development effort
• Larger time to market
Basic Structure of an Embedded System
The following illustration shows the basic structure of an embedded system −
 • Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to an electrical signal which
can be read by an observer or by any electronic instrument like an A2D converter. A
sensor stores the measured quantity to the memory.
• A-D Converter − An analog-to-digital converter converts the analog signal sent by the
sensor into a digital signal.
• Processor & ASICs − Processors process the data to measure the output and store it to
the memory.
• D-A Converter − A digital-to-analog converter converts the digital data fed by the
processor to analog data
• Actuator − An actuator compares the output given by the D-A Converter to the actual
(expected) output stored in it and stores the approved output.

24. Compare Von-Neumann and Harvard architecture of the processor-based system.

Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture :

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

It is ancient computer architecture based on It is modern computer architecture based on

stored program computer concept. Harvard Mark I relay based model.

Same physical memory address is used for Separate physical memory address is used for
instructions and data. instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and instruction Separate buses are used for transferring data and
transfer. instruction.

Two clock cycles are required to execute single

instruction. An instruction is executed in a single cycle.

It is cheaper in cost. It is costly than Von Neumann Architecture.

CPU can not access instructions and read/write at CPU can access instructions and read/write at the
the same time. same time.

It is used in personal computers and small It is used in micro controllers and signal
computers. processing.
 25. Explain FPGA architecture with a proper diagram.
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit that consists of internal
hardware blocks with user-programmable interconnects to customize operation for a specific
application. The interconnects can readily be reprogrammed, allowing an FPGA to
accommodate changes to a design or even support a new application during the lifetime of
the part.

FPGA Architecture

A basic FPGA architecture (Figure 1) consists of thousands of fundamental elements called

configurable logic blocks (CLBs) surrounded by a system of programmable interconnects, called
a fabric, that routes signals between CLBs. Input/output (I/O) blocks interface between the
FPGA and external devices.

Depending on the manufacturer, the CLB may also be referred to as a logic block (LB), a logic
element (LE) or a logic cell (LC).

Figure 1: The fundamental FPGA architecture (Image Source: National Instruments)

An individual CLB (Figure 2) is made up of several logic blocks. A lookup table (LUT) is a
characteristic feature of an FPGA. An LUT stores a predefined list of logic outputs for any
combination of inputs: LUTs with four to six input bits are widely used. Standard logic functions
such as multiplexers (mux), full adders (FAs) and flip-flops are also common.
 Figure 2: A simplified CLB: The four-input LUT is formed from two three-input units. (Image
source: Wikipedia)

The number and arrangement of components in the CLB varies by device; the simplified
example in Figure 2 contains two three-input LUTs (1), an FA (3) and a D-type flip-flop (5), plus
a standard mux (2) and two muxes, (4) and (6), that are configured during FPGA programming.

This simplified CLB has two modes of operation. In normal mode, the LUTs are combined with
Mux 2 to form a four-input LUT; in arithmetic mode, the LUT outputs are fed as inputs to the FA
together with a carry input from another CLB. Mux 4 selects between the FA output or the LUT
output. Mux 6 determines whether the operation is asynchronous or synchronized to the FPGA
clock via the D flip-flop.

Current-generation FPGAs include more complex CLBs capable of multiple operations with a
single block; CLBs can combine for more complex operations such as multipliers, registers,
counters and even digital signal processing (DSP) functions.

26. Write short notes on USB and Flash memory.

A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface that allows the connection between devices
and host controllers including a personal computer (PC). It connects peripheral devices including
digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices, external hard drives, and
flash drives.
There are various advantages of USB which are as follows −
Single Interface for multiple devices− The versatile feature of USB eliminates the complexity of
several connector types and hardware needed for each peripheral.
Compact Size − USB sockets are small in dimensions as compared to RS232 or parallel ports. There is
no external power required. The USB interface was established from the first day to double duty as a
DC power supply. Several host devices through its USB port can supply 5V DC delivering 500mA (USB
1.0 and 2.0) to 900 mA (USB 3.0) to the peripheral.
Speed − USB offers multiple speed modes which create it more effective and swift compared to RS232
and parallel ports. It provides speed ranges from 1.5Mbit/s to 5Gbit/s. With the introduction of USB
3.1 in 2013, the speed has been raised to 10Gbit/s.
Reliability − The USB protocol can hook errors during data transfer and inform the transmitter to
retransmit the information. The generic USB driver and unique driver software provide error-free data
communication

27. Explain the functionalities of RS232 and RS485 standard serial interfaces.
 28. Explain sensors and actuators with examples.
Ans:-
Sensor:-
Embedded sensors are actually part of embedded computers placed in the physical real world that
interact with the surrounding environment. With modern hardware advances in sensors and
software components, embedded sensors are an active and growing area of embedded
computing, and one can witness their expanding applications in many areas.
For example, embedded sensor module MICA2 Mote is a popular wireless measurement system
used for enabling low-power, wireless sensor networks. It supports 868/916MHz, 433/315MHz
multi-channel transceivers with extended range. It can be interfaced to measure light,
temperature, RH, barometric pressure, acceleration/seismic, acoustic, magnetic and other
parameters.
Actuators:-
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An
actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) and a source of energy.
29. Write short notes on USB and SOC ( System on chip).
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry-standard that establishes specifications for connectors,
cables, and protocols for communication, connection, and power supply between personal
computers and their peripheral devices. There have been 3 generations of USB specifications:
1. USB 1.x
2. USB 2.0
3. USB 3.x
USB 2.0 has multiple updates and additions. The USB Implementer Forum (USB IF) currently
maintains the USB standard and it was released in 1996.
USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals like pointing devices, keyboards,
digital still, and video cameras. But soon devices such as printers, portable media players, disk
drives, and network adaptors to personal computers used USB to communicate and to supply
electric power. It is commonplace to many devices and has largely replaced interfaces such as serial
ports and parallel ports. USB connectors have replaced other types of battery chargers of portable
devices with themselves.
Advantages of USB –
The Universal Serial Bus was designed to simplify and improve the interface between personal
computers and peripheral devices when compared with previously existing standard or ad-hoc
proprietary interfaces.
 1. The USB interface is self-configuring. This means that the user need not adjust settings
on the device and interface for speed or data format, or configure interrupts,
input/output addresses, or direct memory access channels.
2. USB connectors are standardized at the host, so any peripheral can use any available
receptacle. USB takes full advantage of the additional processing power that can be
economically put into peripheral devices so that they can manage themselves. USB
devices mostly do not have user-adjustable interface settings.
3. The USB interface is hot pluggable or plug and plays, meaning devices can be exchanged
without rebooting the host computer. Small devices can be powered directly from the
USB interface thus removing extra power supply cables.
4. The USB interface defines protocols for improving reliability over previous interfaces and
recovery from common errors.
5. Installation of a device relying on the USB standard minimal operator action is required.
Disadvantages of USB –
1. USB cables are limited in length.
2. USB has a strict “tree” topology and “master-slave” protocol for addressing peripheral
devices. Peripheral devices cannot interact with one another except via the host, and
two hosts cannot communicate over their USB ports directly.
3. Some very high-speed peripheral devices require sustained speeds not available in the
USB standard.
4. For a product developer, the use of USB requires the implementation of a complex
protocol and implies an intelligent controller in the peripheral device.
5. Use of the USB logos on the product requires annual fees and membership in the
organization.

SoC stands for System on Chip it is a small integrated chip that contains all required components and
circuits of a particular system. However, SBC stands for Single Board Computer it is a whole
computer constructed on a single printed circuit board that contains Memory, Microprocessor, I/O
devices, and other functions which are required for a functional computer. In this article, we are
going to see the basic difference between SoC and SBC.
System on chip (SoC)
The Blocks of SoC contain memory, oscillator, voltage regulator, ADC, DAC, processor, power
management unit, USB, and UART. Here is the block diagram of SoC:

The processor is the heart of SoC, usually, SoC has multiple co-processors. It can be a
microcontroller, microprocessor, or DSP. SoC contains memory for storage. It may have RAM, ROM,
EEPROM, or Flash memory. SoC also has GPU. Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)
is included in SoC which is used to transmit or receive serial data. voltage regulators, oscillators,
clocks, and ADC/DAC are also part of SoC.
Advantages of SoC
• It is small in size and includes many features and functions.
• It consumes low power.
• SoC is flexible in terms of size, and power factor.
• It is cost-effective.
Disadvantages of SoC
• Time-consuming designing process. usually, the designing process of SoC takes six to
twelve months.
• Visibility of SoC is limited.
Applications of SoC
• Used in smartphones, smartwatches, tablets, and computers.
• Internet of Things applications such as home automation.
• Embedded systems applications especially where the microcontroller is used.

30. Write short notes on Bluetooth and RFID.

It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data over
smaller distances. This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed,
industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can
be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates up to
1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version. The spreading technique that it uses is FHSS
(Frequency-hopping spread spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of
interconnected piconets is called scatternet.

Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

Piconet:

Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master node
and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8
active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the primary
and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is only between
the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these
are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets converted to the
active state.

Scatternet:

It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master or we
can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a master in one
piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a slave. This
type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.

Bluetooth protocol stack:

1. Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It

defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of
physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.

2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment
within a piconet.

3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established
links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for
creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon
command or failure.

4. Logical Link Control and Adaption Protocol layer: It is also known as the heart of the
Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower layers
of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers
into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and multiplexing.
 5. SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows discovering the services
available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.

6. RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface
with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports over the logical link
control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS
07.10.

7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange objects

between 2 devices.

8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.

9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The basic
function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for gateway
serving multiple devices.

10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Advantage:

• Low cost.
• Easy to use.
• It can also penetrate through walls.
• It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
• It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:

• It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

• It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
• It has a small range: 10 meters.
• Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
• The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:

• Used in laptops, and in wireless PCs.

• In printers.
• In wireless headsets.
• Connecting digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
• Data transfer from one cell phone to other cell phone or computer.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio
transmission uses over the web. Data digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the
reader. This device work as a tag or label during which data read from tags that are stored in the
database through the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read
outside the road of sight either passive or active RFID.
Kinds of RFID :
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most fascinating
aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery. Instead,
all of the energy needed to operate them is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID readers. This
technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it from the(less common) active RFID in which there
is a power source on the tag.
UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some driver’s licenses.
Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at distances of several meters by
changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the reader is able to pick up these reflections. This
way of operating is called backscatter.
HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your passport, credit
cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a short-range, typically a meter or less
because the physical mechanism is based on induction rather than backscatter.
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency RFID),
which was developed before HF RFID and used for animal tracking
There are two types of RFID :
1. Passive RFID –
In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF tag stored their
power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are used specific
frequency like 125-134MHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and
856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.

2. Active RFID –
In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there is an
antenna which receives the data.

Working Principle of RFID :

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic Identification
and Data Capture technology which performs object identification and collection and mapping of the
data.
An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for communication
between reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag
and reads or writes the data into the tag. It may include one processor, package, storage and
transmitter and receiver unit.

Features of RFID :
• An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.
• This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer
environment effect.
• This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.
Application of RFID :
• It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.
• It uses in Asset tracking.
• It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
• It uses in Personnel tracking.
• Controlling access to restricted areas.
• It uses ID badging.
• Supply chain management.
• Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).
Advantages of RFID :
• It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
• RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
• The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
• It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
• In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.
Disadvantages of RFID :
• It takes longer to program RFID Devices.
• RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
• In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the
radio wave.
• There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about
anything.
• Active RFID can costlier due to battery.
12. What are the specific features of an embedded system processor?
A microcontroller is a single-chip VLSI unit (also called microcomputer) which, although having limited
computational capabilities, possesses enhanced input/output capability and a number of on-chip
functional units.

CPU RAM ROM

I/O Port Timer Serial COM Port

Microcontrollers are particularly used in embedded systems for real-time control applications with
on-chip program memory and devices.
Features:
Single task oriented. For example, a washing machine is designed for washing clothes only.
RAM, ROM, I/O Ports, and Timers cannot be added externally. These components are to be
embedded together on a chip and are fixed in numbers.
Fixed number for memory or I/O makes a microcontroller ideal for a limited but specific task.
Microcontrollers are lightweight and cheaper than a microprocessor.
A microcontroller-based system consumes less power and takes less space.

13. How does a microprocessor differ from a microcontroller?

14. Write short notes on JTAG and Flash memory.

JTAG
The Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) is an electronics industry association formed in 1985 for
developing a method of verifying designs and testing printed circuit boards after manufacture.
 The Boundary-scan method (also known as JTAG boundary-scan) is a method of testing modern
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) after assembly. Using the dedicated test logic built into many of
today’s integrated circuits (ICs), boundary-scan checks if each device is correctly inserted and
soldered onto the PCB.
Typical devices that incorporate boundary-scan technology include CPLDs, FPGAs, microprocessors,
DSPs, ASICs, bus logic, etc. A number of device manufacturers embracing boundary-scan
technology are Intel, Analog Devices, ARM, Freescale, NXP, PLX, ST, TI, Renesas, Xilinx, Altera,
Lattice, Broadcom and Actel among others.
A JTAG interface is a special interface added to a chip. Depending on the version of JTAG, two,
four, or five pins are added. Boundary-scan enabled devices feature dedicated test access port
(TAP) signals: TCK (Test Clock), TMS (Test Mode Select), TDI (Test Data In), TDO (Test Data Out).
TRST (Test Logic Reset) (optional)
A test probe need only connect to a single "JTAG port" to have access to all chips on a circuit
board. To simplify the test infrastructure within a PCB it is common to connect the devices in a
serial (daisy chain) formation so that the first device's TDO connects to the next device’s TDI (and
so on) to form a so-called scan chain.
JTAG boundary scan technology provides access to many logic signals of a complex integrated
circuit, including the device pins. The signals are represented in the boundary scan register (BSR)
accessible via the TAP. This permits testing as well as controlling the states of the signals for testing
and debugging. Therefore, both software and hardware (manufacturing) faults may be located and
an operating device may be monitored.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is an evolving technology that’s finding its way into our lives on an increasing scale.
Flash-memory technology is ubiquitous. Like most things associated with computers, non-volatile
storage sticks have a specific set of benefits and drawbacks. Having a basic idea of those parameters
allows the buyer to form a more informed choice about which is best for his or her needs.
Flash memory may be a quite Erasable Read Only Memory (EEROM) which has the potential to clear
and rewrite data. It’s non-volatile meaning it can hold data even without the presence of power,
supported the way of addressing read/write data, non-volatile storage is of two types. Those are the
NAND non-volatile storage and NOR non-volatile storage.
Non-volatile storage is made using solid-state chips. Each of those chips contains an array of non-
volatile storage cells. Rather than a traditional electrochemical method, non-volatile storage uses
semiconductors for storing data. Non-volatile storage is one and the only sort of semiconductor
memory making it one of the important sorts of data-storage medium. While non-volatile storage
has gained immense popularity there are some drawbacks that limit its universal adoption. These
factors must be considered before using this data-storage medium.
Advantages of non-volatile storage :
1. Speed –
Non-volatile storage posses high transferring speeds. Compared to a standard hard disc
drive, non-volatile storage does read/write function at a quick rate.

2. Drives –
Still tops in terms of performance.

3. Durability –
Non-volatile storage doesn’t contain any moving parts. It solely depends on
electrochemical processes, having no moving parts means it’s more durable also.

4. Form Factor –
Most of the flash memories come in several forms. More or same capacity are often
 packed in smaller units, making it require less space to accommodate data storage.

5. Reliability –
Over the span of the last 70 years, hard disc drives are continually improved in terms of
reliability. Still, flash memories outrank them. This is often again due to the very fact that
it lacks moving parts. The reliability of flash memories makes it recommended to be
utilized in mobile devices.

6. Efficiency –
Non-volatile storage requires no physical parts for its operations. Hence, there’s a very
less number of energy required for its functioning. And also thanks to this fact there’s no
noise produced also.

7. Portability –
Another advantage of flash memories is that it’s highly portable. Therefore, they’re
mostly utilized in devices that are small and lightweight weighted. Examples like USB
memory sticks and camera flash cards.
Disadvantages of non-volatile storage :
1. Cost –
Supported the value per gigabyte basis, flash memories are always expensive than
traditional hard disc drives. This is often because hard disc drives are less costly to
manufacture and have been for a very while. Therefore, usually business of small
budgets prefer HDDs over other sorts of flash memories.

2. Effectiveness –
Many NAND drives make efficient use of the process of Program/Erase to storing data.,
this process eventually wears and tears down the flash drives. As a result flash memories
don’t have the potential to carry up heavy write loads.

3. Lifetime –
Although flash memories are more durable than a standard hard disc drive, it doesn’t
possess an infinite lifetime. It goes on decreasing when applied high voltages across
transistors. However, most flash memories won’t affect until completing a minimum of
10000 rewrites.

4. Capacity –
Generally, most or all of the flash memories do have a drag reaching higher capacity as
hard disc drives. Only Solid State Drives which are of flash memories comes with higher
capacities. But that too under rare circumstances. SSDs also have a drag reaching 1TB in
size. Besides this, all the flash memories with greater capacities tend to urge
performance issues. Therefore, capacity is usually a priority in flash memories.

5. Editing –
Works Another drawback of flash memories is that it rewrites data in block units. If it’s
done one by one for every byte, it can take a considerably long amount of your time.
Thanks to this the editing time has been hampering significantly. However, this process
doesn’t make sure that each block is often edited specifically.

6. Physical Damages –
Flash memories especially those are by memory cards are susceptible to damages. They
will be easily smashed or lost. Sometimes electronic corruption can make the cardboard
unreadable. Likewise, the difficulty is often addressed to SSDs too. They will be damaged
if handled improperly.
 15.Compare CISC and RISC.

RISC CISC

Focus on software Focus on hardware

Uses both hardwired and microprogrammed control

Uses only Hardwired control unit unit

Transistors are used for storing complex

Transistors are used for more registers Instructions

Fixed sized instructions Variable sized instructions

Can perform only Register to Register Can perform REG to REG or REG to MEM or MEM to
Arithmetic operations MEM

Requires more number of registers Requires less number of registers

Code size is large Code size is small

An instruction executed in a single clock

cycle Instruction takes more than one clock cycle

An instruction fit in one word Instructions are larger than the size of one word

A large number of instructions are present in Very few instructions are present. The number of
the architecture. instructions is generally less than 100.

Some instructions with long execution times. No instruction with a long execution time due to a
These include instructions that copy an very simple instruction set. Some early RISC
entire block from one part of memory to machines did not even have an integer multiply
another and others that copy multiple instruction, requiring compilers to implement
registers to and from memory. multiplication as a sequence of additions.

Variable-length encodings of the

instructions. Fixed-length encodings of the instructions are used.
Example: IA32 instruction size can range Example: In IA32, generally all instructions are
from 1 to 15 bytes. encoded as 4 bytes.

Multiple formats are supported for

specifying operands. A memory operand
specifier can have many different
combinations of displacement, base, and Simple addressing formats are supported. Only base
index register. and displacement addressing is allowed.
RISC CISC

CISC supports array. RISC does not support an array.

Arithmetic and logical operations only use register

operands. Memory referencing is only allowed by
Arithmetic and logical operations can be loading and storing instructions, i.e. reading from
applied to both memory and register memory into a register and writing from a register
operands. to memory respectively.

Implementation programs are hidden from

machine-level programs. The ISA provides a Implementation programs exposed to machine-level
clean abstraction between programs and programs. Few RISC machines do not allow specific
how they get executed. instruction sequences.

Condition codes are used. No condition codes are used.

Registers are being used for procedure arguments

The stack is being used for procedure and return addresses. Memory references can be
arguments and returns addresses. avoided by some procedures.

16. What do you mean by pipeline processing

Pipelining is the process of accumulating instruction from the processor through a pipeline. It allows
storing and executing instructions in an orderly process. It is also known as pipeline processing.

Before moving forward with pipelining, check these topics out to understand the concept better :

• Memory Organization
• Memory Mapping and Virtual Memory
• Parallel Processing

Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during execution. Pipeline is
divided into stages and these stages are connected with one another to form a pipe like structure.
Instructions enter from one end and exit from another end.

Pipelining increases the overall instruction throughput.

In pipeline system, each segment consists of an input register followed by a combinational circuit. The
register is used to hold data and combinational circuit performs operations on it. The output of
combinational circuit is applied to the input register of the next segment.
Pipeline system is like the modern day assembly line setup in factories. For example in a car
manufacturing industry, huge assembly lines are setup and at each point, there are robotic arms to
perform a certain task, and then the car moves on ahead to the next arm.

Types of Pipeline

It is divided into 2 categories:

1. Arithmetic Pipeline

2. Instruction Pipeline

Arithmetic Pipeline

Arithmetic pipelines are usually found in most of the computers. They are used for floating point
operations, multiplication of fixed point numbers etc. For example: The input to the Floating Point
Adder pipeline is:

X = A*2^a

Y = B*2^b

Here A and B are mantissas (significant digit of floating point numbers), while a and b are exponents.

The floating point addition and subtraction is done in 4 parts:

1. Compare the exponents.

2. Align the mantissas.

3. Add or subtract mantissas

 4. Produce the result.

Registers are used for storing the intermediate results between the above operations.

Instruction Pipeline

In this a stream of instructions can be executed by overlapping fetch, decode and execute phases of an
instruction cycle. This type of technique is used to increase the throughput of the computer system.

An instruction pipeline reads instruction from the memory while previous instructions are being
executed in other segments of the pipeline. Thus we can execute multiple instructions simultaneously.
The pipeline will be more efficient if the instruction cycle is divided into segments of equal duration.

17. Write short notes on IDE tools and the CCD sensor.
Ans:- IDE Tools:-
Integrated development environments (IDE) are applications that facilitates the development of
other applications. Designed to encompass all programming tasks in one application, one of the
main benefits of an IDE is that they offer a central interface with all the tools a developer needs,
including:
Code editor: Designed for writing and editing source code, these editors are distinguished from
text editors because work to either simplify or enhance the process of writing and editing of code
for developers
Compiler: Compilers transform source code that is written in a human readable/writable language
in a form that computers can execute.
Debugger: Debuggers are used during testing and can help developers debug their application
programs.
Build automation tools: These can help automate developer tasks that are more common to save
time.
CCD Sensor:-
CCDs are utilized for diverse applications, including single-cell imaging, detection of molecules in
cells and real samples, and the development of point-of-care testing, and are highly specific and
provide ultra-sensitive detection. The signal collection is the last step in developing an ideal ECL
system.
18. Why embedded systems are termed real-time systems? Explain the concept with thehelp
of examples.
Real-time System is a system which is used for performing some specific tasks. It is a computational
system which is used for various hard and soft real-time tasks. These specific tasks are related with
time constraints. The tasks assigned to real-time systems need to be completed in given time
interval. Embedded Systems are integrated systems which are formed by the combination of
computer hardware and software for a specific function. It can be said as a dedicated computer
system which has been developed for some particular reason. But it is not our traditional computer
system or general purpose computers, these are the Embedded systems which may work
independently or attached to a larger system to work on few specific functions. These embedded
systems can work without human intervention or with a little human intervention. The embedded
systems which are designed to perform real-time tasks are known as Embedded Real-time Systems
or Real-time Embedded Systems. Types of Embedded Real-time System : There are two types of
Embedded real-time systems :
• Hard Embedded Real-time System – These are embedded real-time systems which are
used to perform hard real-time tasks. These systems are designed in a very complicated
way. These are accurate systems.
 • Soft Embedded Real-time System – These are embedded real-time systems which are
used to perform soft real-time tasks. These are simple designed systems and there are
chances of inaccuracy.
Structure of Embedded Real-time System : In an embedded real-time system, different components
of system are naturally widely distributed. Hard and soft both real-time embedded systems have
same structure. The structure of a real-time system includes various hardware and software devices
embedded in such way that specific tasks can be performed in time constraints allowed. Following
diagram represents the structure of Embedded Real-time System
:

1. Actuator – Actuator is the device which is reverse of sensor. The actuator is used to
convert electrical events into physical signals while the sensor is used to do the reverse
job. It may convert electrical signals into physical events or characteristics according to
the requirement of the user. It takes input from the system and gives output to the
environment. The output obtained from actuator may be in form of any physical action.
Some of commonly used actuators are heaters and motors.
2. Sensor – Sensor is the exact reverse of actuator. Sensor is used to sense environment
from time to time. It is used to convert physical events or characteristics into electrical
signals. This is a hardware device that takes input from environment and gives output to
system. The sensed data from environment is processed to determine corrective actions
necessary.

19. State the main function of RTOS.

Task management: In Real Time Applications the Process is called as Task which takes execution time
and occupies memory. The task management is the process of managing tasks through its life cycle.
Task will have different states. The states of task are Pended, Ready, Delayed, Suspended, and Run.
Scheduling in RTOS: In order to schedule task, information about the task must be known. The
information of task are the number of tasks, resource requirements, execution time and deadlines.
Based on the system, if it is deterministic, better scheduling algorithms can be devised.
Resource Allocation in RTOS: Resource allocation is necessary for any application to be run on the
system. when an application is running, it requires the OS to allocate certain resources for it to be able
to run. Such resources could have access to a section of the computer's memory, data in a device
interface buffer, one or more files, or the required amount of processing power. In RTOS, the
scheduling algorithms discussed above are used for the resource allocation. The resources are
allocated based on the weighted round robin and priority based scheduling policies.
20. Discuss different characteristics of DSP Processor.
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) are microprocessors with the following characteristics:
a) Real-time digital signal processing capabilities. DSPs typically have to process data in real time, i.e.,
the correctness of the operation depends heavily on the time when the data processing is completed.
b) High throughput. DSPs can sustain processing of high-speed streaming data, such as audio and
multimedia data processing.
c) Deterministic operation. The execution time of DSP programs can be foreseen accurately, thus
guaranteeing a repeatable, desired performance.
d) Re-programmability by software. Different system behaviour might be obtained by re-coding the
algorithm executed by the DSP instead of by hardware modifications.

20. What is the watchdog timer?

Watchdog timer is a piece of hardware in micro-controller. Watchdog timer is used to generates
system reset if system gets stuck somewhere i.e. if system goes into endless loop of execution
watchdog timer will reset the system to come out of endless loop. Watchdog is safety mechanism
in embedded system which makes your system reliable, but it depends on how you make use of
watchdog timer.

How does watchdog works :

Watchdog is basically a counter, which starts from counting zero and reaches to a certain value. If
counter reaches to certain value then watchdog hardware will generates a watchdog reset. To avoid
system reset, software needs to kick the watchdog i.e. need to reset the counter to zero. In case
software stuck into endless loop it system will not able to kick the watchdog hence counter reaches to
certain value and resets the system.

Watchdog is initially loaded with certain value. This value is calculated based on timeout time of
watchdog (Further section it is been shown how to calculate counter value based on timeout value).
Before timeout time, system should reset the counter.

e.g. If your system if performing 3 tasks periodically and to perform 3 tasks is takes 500 ms. Then
timeout time is considered as 600 ms (considering worst case scenario), counter value is calculated
with respect to 600 ms and loaded into watchdog.

Following figures shows watchdog hardware. Input to watchdog hardware is clock. Based on every
clock tick watchdog internal counter increments. Then there is comparator which compares count
value with loaded count value (timeout value) and if count matches watchdog hardware generates and
reset signal.
 21. What are the advantages offered by an FPGA for designing an embedded system?
The main advantage of an FPGA, over the equivalent discrete circuit or an Application Specific IC
(ASIC) is the ability to easily change its functionality after a product has been designed.

In addition FPGA require a smaller board space and can be more energy efficient than the
equivalent discrete circuit.

FPGA are more flexible than a Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD) as they, generally,
include a greater amount of both logic blocks and programmable interconnects.

FPGA have a lower associated development cost than an ASIC. Whilst an ASIC can perform the
same operations as an FPGA and are specific to the application, they cannot be reprogrammed.

FPGA will have a lower time-to-market than an ASIC and also will have a lower non-recurring
engineering (NRE) cost.

22. What do you mean by SoC?

SoC stands for System On Chip. It is a small integrated chip that contains all the required
components and circuits of a particular system. The components of SoC include CPU, GPU, Memory,
I/O devices, etc. SoC is used in various devices such as smartphones, Internet of Things appliances,
tablets, and embedded system applications.
23. How will the definition of embedded system change with SoC?
24. Real time video processing needs sophisticated embedded systems with hard real time
constraints. Why? Explain.
25. I2C bus stands for?
Inter-Integrated Circuit
26. Cache is made of which type of memory?
high-speed static random access memory (SRAM).
27. UART stands for what?
universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter, is one of the most used device-to-device communication
protocols. This article shows how to use UART as a hardware communication protocol by following the
standard procedure.
28. Does a microphone diaphragm behave like an inductive or a capacitive device?
- Capacitive device
29. How an embedded system communicates with the outside world?
The system communicates with the outside world through peripherals.
30. Why embedded system is useful?
Advantages of Embedded System :
• Simple to deliver higher creation.
• Less costs for per bit of resultant.
• It has not many interconnections.
• It has Better steady and Higher speed.
• It has Higher dependable
• To use for one errand.
• Versatile because of little in size.
• It has Low force utilization and Better exactness in outcome.
• To upgrade assets, for example, memory and chip.
• It assists with developing item quality.
• It can bear a wide assortment of climate.
• Less inclined to reprise mistakes.
• To deliver constant reaction.
• It has no UI and Lesser repetition.
• No much information stockpiling.
• To run pre arranged program for client application.
• As an installed framework ordinarily plays out a basic job that doesn’t change, the
necessities for the working framework are less difficult.

31. Explain what are real-time embedded systems.

Real time systems are those systems that work within strict time constraints and provide a worst case
time estimate for critical situations. Embedded systems provide a specific function in a much larger
system. When there is an embedded component in a real time system, it is known as a real time
embedded system.
Types of Real Time Embedded Systems
There are primarily two types of real time embedded systems i.e. hard and soft. An illustration to
explain this further is −
Hard Real Time Embedded System
This type of system makes sure that all critical processes are completed within the given time frame.
This means that all the delays in the system are strictly time bound. Also, there is little to no
secondary memory and data is stored in short term memory or read only memory. Hard real time
systems are used in various areas such as missiles, airplanes etc.
Soft Real Time Embedded System
These are much less constrictive than hard real time systems but the basic premise is the same i.e
critical processes need to be completed within the given time frame. However, this time frame can be
a little flexible. Soft real time systems are used in various areas such as multimedia, scientific projects
etc.
Applications of Real Time Embedded Systems
There are various applications of real time embedded systems. Some of these are −

• Vehicle control systems for automobiles, ships, railways, airplanes etc.

• Telephones, radio and satellite communications.
• Medical systems for radiation therapy, heart treatments, patient monitoring etc.
• Military operations such as firing of missiles, military control bases etc.
• Systems with artificial intelligence and robotics.
• Multimedia systems that provides graphic, video, audio and text interfaces.
• Building control systems that manage heat,doors, elevators etc.
• Space operations such as spaceship launch and monitoring, space station control etc.

32.What is a RISC architecture?

A Reduced Instruction Set Computer is a type of microprocessor architecture that utilizes a
small, highly-optimized set of instructions rather than the highly-specialized set of instructions
typically found in other architectures. RISC is an alternative to the Complex Instruction Set
Computing (CISC) architecture and is often considered the most efficient CPU architecture
technology available today.

With RISC, a central processing unit (CPU) implements the processor design principle of
simplified instructions that can do less but can execute more rapidly. The result is improved
performance. A key RISC feature is that it allows developers to increase the register set and
increase internal parallelism by increasing the number of parallel threads executed by the CPU
and increasing the speed of the CPU's executing instructions. ARM, or “Advanced RISC
Machine” is a specific family of instruction set architecture that’s based on reduced
instruction set architecture developed by Arm Ltd. Processors bas ed on this architecture are
common in smartphones, tablets, laptops, gaming consoles and desktops, as well as a growing
number of other intelligent devices.

33. What are some real-time applications of embedded processors?

Vehicle control systems for automobiles, ships, railways, airplanes etc.
Telephones, radio and satellite communications.
Medical systems for radiation therapy, heart treatments, patient monitoring etc.
Military operations such as firing of missiles, military control bases etc.
Systems with artificial intelligence and robotics.
Multimedia systems that provides graphic, video, audio and text interfaces.
Building control systems that manage heat,doors, elevators etc.
Space operations such as spaceship launch and monitoring, space station control etc.

34. There are different types of memory storage devices like EEPROM, Flash memory, SRAM,
and DRAM. Which memory storage is widely used in PCs and Embedded Systems?
Ans:- DRAM is used in PCs and Embedded systems because of its low cost. SRAM, flash memory
and EEPROM are more costly than DRAM.

35. Total power dissipation is reduced by (i) reducing operating voltages, (ii) operating at lower
clock frequency if processes meet the deadlines (iii) use of wait and stop instructionswhen the
system is inactive or idle (iv) use of cache disabling instructions (v) optimizing theamount and
type of hardware required for the system
(a) all except v (b) i, ii and iii (c) all except iv (d) all
ans : D all
36. Which is the heart of an embedded system?
a) Interrupt controller b) Processor c) I/O devices d) Power supply
Ans : B processor
37. List two live examples of embedded systems use.
Digital cameras.
Digital wristwatches.
MP3 players.
Appliances, such as refrigerators, washing machines, and microwave ovens.
Temperature measurement systems.
Calculators.

38. List two Embedded Systems which Includes Medical Equipment.

Examples of applications of embedded systems in the medical field include imaging systems such as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT), defibrillators, blood pressure
monitoring devices, digital flow sensors, foetal heart monitoring machines, and wearable devices.
39. Mention what is the difference between a microprocessor and a microcontroller.

40. Mention what are buses used for communication in embedded system.
A field bus is a part of a system which provides the communication between several components in
that system (for example an actuator or a sensor).
41. Explain what is the need for an infinite loop in embedded systems.

One of the most fundamental differences between programs developed for embedded systems and
those written for other computer platforms is that the embedded programs almost always end with an
infinite loop. Typically, this loop surrounds a significant portion of the program’s functionality—as it
does in the Blinking LED program. The infinite loop is necessary because the embedded software’s job
is never done. It is intended to be run until either the world comes to an end or the board is reset,
whichever happens first.

In addition, most embedded systems have just one piece of software running on them. And
although the hardware is important, it is not a digital watch or a cellular phone or a microwave
oven without that embedded software. If the software stops running, the hardware is rendered
useless. So the functional parts of an embedded program are almost always surrounded by an
infinite loop that ensures that they will run forever.

This behavior is so common that it’s almost not worth mentioning. And I wouldn’t, except that
I’ve seen quite a few first-time embedded programmers get confused by this subtle difference. So
if your first program appears to run, but instead of blinking the LED simply changes its state once,
it could be that you forgot to wrap the calls to toggleLed and delay in an infinite loop.

42. What are real-time embedded systems?

A real-time embedded system is a particular version of an embedded system that works on the basis
of real-time computing represented by a dedicated type of operating system — RTOS.
Its working principles are as follows:
• Quick response to external factors: an embedded system must work within fixed time
constraints.
• Predictability: an embedded system must be deterministic or predictable, meaning that no
deviations are allowed.
• The deadline is above all: meeting the deadline is more important than other performance
characteristics.
• Operational failures may lead to catastrophe: if a task does not meet time limits, it
negatively affects users and may even lead to fatal results.
43. What are the major components of an embedded system?
Ans: 1. Power supply:-
For the embedded system the power supply is the key component to provide the power to the
embedded system circuit. Usually, the embedded system requires 5 V supply or can be range
from 1.8 to 3.3. V. The power supply source can be battery or can be provided by a wall adaptor.
The power supply is selected as per user requirements and application requirements.
2.Processor:-
For any embedded system the processor acts as the brain of the system. The processor is
responsible for deciding the performance of the embedded system. In the market there are
multiple types of processors available and can be selected as per user requirement. The
embedded system can act as a microcontroller and microprocessor.
3.Memory:-
As there are different microcontrollers is used in the embedded system the memory is present
in the microcontroller itself. There are basically two types of memory RAM(Random access
memory) and ROM (Read-only memory).
4.Timers counters:-
In some of the applications there is always a requirement of delay that needed to provide in the
application.
5.Communication ports:-
The communication port is the type of interface that is used to communicate with other types of
embedded systems.
6. Output and Input:-
When the embedded system is used the input is needed to interact with the system. The input
to the embedded system can be provided by the sensor or by the user itself. The processor used
in the embedded system can be based on input and output.
7. Circuits used in application:-
The selection of the circuit is completely dependent on the application used for the embedded
systems.

44. Discuss some options for wireless communication between embedded devices.

45. What is a digital signal controller?

Ans:- A Digital Signal Controller (DSC) is a single-chip, embedded controller that

seamiessly integrates the control attributes of a Microcontroller (MCU) with
the computation and throughput capabilities of a Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
in a single core.
Microchip's dsPIC" DSC offers everything you would expect from a powerful
16-bit MCU: fast, sophisticated and flexible interrupt handling; a wide array of
digital and analog peripheral functions; power management; flexible clocking
options; power-on-reset; brown-out protection; watchdog timer; code security;
full-speed real-time emulation; and full-speed in-circuit debug solutions.

46. What is a thread?

Ans:- For embedded software developers working with microcontrollers, a process is essentially
the entire application that runs on the system. A thread is then a small program that has a specific
function and purpose within the overall application. Threads tend to be lower level than tasks and
have minimal overhead.
47. Define critical section of a task.
Ans:- A critical section in embedded systems is the same thing as in any multi-threaded system. It is a
(usually short) bit of code that must execute in at most one thread at a time.
More precisely, it relates to a set of shared variables that must always be updated atomically in
order to remain consistent. Any code that updates variables in that set is a critical section. If more
than one piece of code updates the same variables, at most one of them can execute at a time.
This rule is usually satisfied by appropriate use of a semaphore or mutex. In some embedded
applications, interrupts are disabled during execution of each critical section. The C++
programming language also includes atomic variables where the method used is hidden and
sometimes uses special hardware if it is available.

48. What is an exception?

Ans:- Exceptions and interrupts are unexpected events which will disrupt the normal flow of
execution of instruction(that is currently executing by processor). An exception is an unexpected
event from within the processor. Interrupt is an unexpected event from outside the process.

49. What is meant by a pipe?

Ans:- A pipe is simply a set of storage locations, each big enough to hold a single data item of
user-defined byte length, access to which is controlled so that it may be safely utilized by
multiple tasks. Tasks can write to a pipe repeatedly until all the locations are full.

50. What is a thread?

51. Define critical section of a task.
52. What is an exception?
53. What is meant by a pipe?
54. How does a pipe differ from a queue?
Ans:- The main difference between queues and pipes is the message size. Queues carry messages
comprising a single ADDR – these would commonly be pointers. A pipe carries messages which
are an arbitrary number of bytes long; the size is fixed for each pipe in the application and set at
configuration time.

55. What is the importance of device management in an OS for an embedded system?

Ans:- The operating system (OS) handles communication with the devices via their drivers. The OS
component gives a uniform interface for accessing devices with various physical features. There
are various functions of device management in the operating system. Some of them are as
follows:
• It keeps track of data, status, location, uses, etc. The file system is a term used to define a
group of facilities.
• It enforces the pre-determined policies and decides which process receives the device when
and for how long.
• It improves the performance of specific devices.
• It monitors the status of every device, including printers, storage drivers, and other devices.
• It allocates and effectively deallocates the device. De-allocating differentiates the devices at
two levels: first, when an I/O command is issued and temporarily freed. Second, when the job
is completed, and the device is permanently release.

56. When is a message used and when does a system call for seeking access to system
resources?