Operating Systems - its nature, types

and examples
Introduction
An operating system is a set of programs that enables a user to operate and interact with a
computer. Examples of operating systems are Linux distributions, windows, mac os, FreeBSD,
etc. There are many types of operating systems. In this article, we will discuss various
classifications of operating systems.

Scope
In this article we will:

● Have a look at the various types of operating systems.

● Contrast the various classes of operating systems.
● Look at some examples, use cases, benefits, and disadvantages of each type.
● Draw parallels between:
○ Linux, Windows, macOS
○ 64-bit OS and 32-bit OS
○ Batch OS, Time-Sharing OS, Distributed OS, Real-Time OS, Networking OS

Types of Operating System

Batch Operating Systems

A batch operating system grabs all programs and data in the batch form and then processes them.
The main aim of using a batch processing system is to decrease the setup time while submitting
similar jobs to the CPU. Batch processing techniques were implemented in the hard disk and
card readers as well. In this case, all jobs are saved on the hard disk for making the pool of jobs
for their execution as a batch form.

A batch monitor is started for executing all pooled jobs, after reading them. These jobs are
divided into groups, and finally, precede the same jobs in a similar batch. Now all batched jobs
are ready for execution one by one, and due to this system enhances the system utilization while
decreasing the turnaround time.

Advantages
 ● In a batch system, all jobs are performed in repeating form without the user’s permission.
● Can be feed input data in the batch processing system without using extra hardware
components.
● Small scale businesses can use batch processing systems for executing small tasks to their
benefit.
● Forgiving rest to the system’s processors, your batch system is capable to work in off-line
mode.
● Batch processing system consumes less time for executing all jobs.
● Sharing of the batch system for multiple users is possible.
● The idle time of the batch system is very less.
● You can assign a specific time for the batch jobs so when the computer is idle it starts
processing the batch jobs.
● The batch systems can manage large repeated work easily.

Disadvantages

● `Batch processing system's online sensors are often not available.

● Time-varying process characteristics.
● If anyone's job halts, then increase the workload for predicting time.
● Due to any mistake, any job can enter into an infinite loop.
● If your protection system is not well then, anyone's job can affect pending jobs.
● Computer operators must be trained for using batch systems.
● It is difficult to debug batch systems.
● Batch systems are sometimes costly.
● If some job takes too much time i.e. if an error occurs in the job then other jobs will wait
for an unknown time.

Examples

● Payroll System
● Bank Invoice System
● Transactions Process
● Daily Report
● Research Segment
● Billing System
Time-sharing Operating Systems
Time-sharing is a logical extension of multiprogramming. The CPU executes multiple jobs by
switching, among them, but the switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each
program while it is running. An interactive computer provides direct communication between the
user and the system. The user gives instructions to the OS or a program directly, using hardware,
and waits for results.

A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time-shared computer. Each user has at least one separate program
in memory. When a process executes, it executes for only a short time before it either finishes or
needs to perform input/output. In time-sharing operating systems several jobs must be kept
simultaneously in memory, so the system must have memory management and protection.
Advantages

● Each task gets an equal opportunity.

● Fewer chances of duplication of software.
● CPU idle time can be reduced.

Disadvantages

● Reliability problem.
● One must have to take of security and integrity of user programs and data.
● Data communication problem.

Examples

● Windows 2000 server

● Windows NT server
● Unix
● Linux
Distributed operating system
A distributed operating system allows the distribution of entire systems on the couples of center
processors, and it serves on multiple real-time products as well as multiple users. All processors
are connected by valid communication mediums such as high-speed buses and telephone lines,
and in which every processor contains its local memory along with other local processors.

The Distributed operating systems are also known as loosely coupled systems. They involve
multiple computers, nodes, and sites. These components are linked to each other with
LAN/WAN lines. A distributed OS is capable of sharing its computational capacity and I/O files
while allowing virtual machine abstraction to users.

Advantages

● A distributed operating system may share all resources from one site to another,
increasing data availability across the entire system.
● It reduces the probability of data corruption because all data is replicated across all sites.
● The entire system operates independently of one another, and as a result, if one site
crashes, the entire system does not halt.
● A distributed operating system is an open system since it may be accessed from both
local and remote locations.
● It helps in the reduction of data processing time.
● Most distributed systems are made up of several nodes that interact to make them
fault-tolerant. If a single machine fails, the system remains operational.

Disadvantages

● The system must decide which jobs must be executed when they must be executed, and
where they must be executed. A scheduler has limitations, which can lead to
underutilized hardware and unpredictable runtimes.
● It is hard to implement adequate security in a distributed operating system since the nodes
and connections must be secured.
● The database connected to a DOS is relatively complicated and hard to manage in
contrast to a single-user system.
● The underlying software is extremely complex and is not understood very well compared
to other systems.
● The more widely distributed a system is, the more communication latency can be
expected. As a result, teams and developers must choose between availability,
consistency, and latency.
● Gathering, processing, presenting, and monitoring hardware use metrics for big clusters
can be a real issue.
Examples

● Solaris
● OSF/1
● Micros
● DYNIX
● Locus
● Mach

Network operating systems

Network Operating System is an operating system that has special functions for connecting
computers and devices into a local-area network or Inter-network. Some popular network
operating systems are Windows NT/2000, Novell Netware, Linux, UNIX, Sun Solaris, and IBM
OS/2. The network operating system which was first developed is Novell Netware, in 1983.

An operating system that provides connectivity among several autonomous computers is called a
network operating system. A configuration for a network operating system is a collection of
personal computers along with a common printer, server, and file server for archival storage, all
tied together by a local network. There are two basic types of network operating systems,
discussed as follows:
 1. Peer-to-Peer Network Operating Systems: allow users to share network resources saved
in a common, accessible network location. In this architecture, all devices are treated
equally in terms of functionality. Peer-to-peer usually works best for small to medium
LANs and is cheaper.
2. Client/Server Network Operating Systems: provide users with access to resources
through a server. All functions and applications are unified under one file server that can
be used to execute individual client actions regardless of physical location.

Advantages

● Highly stable centralized servers

● Security concerns are handled through servers
● New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
● Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages

● Servers are costly

● User has to depend on a central location for most operations
● Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Real-time Operating Systems
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system that runs multi-threaded
applications and can meet real-time deadlines. Most RTOSes include a scheduler, resource
management, and device drivers. Note that when we talk about “deadlines”, we do not
necessarily mean “fast”. Instead, meaning we can determine when certain tasks will execute
before runtime.

An RTOS can be a powerful tool if you’re creating complex embedded programs. They help
isolate tasks and give you the ability to run them concurrently. You can set prioritization levels of
tasks in most RTOSes, which allow some tasks to interrupt and run before other tasks. This is
known as “preemption.” If you need concurrency or are getting into deeper embedded concepts
like IoT or machine learning, it's wise to add RTOSes and multi-threaded programming to your
toolkit.

Advantages

● Priority-Based Scheduling.
● Abstracting Timing Information.
● Maintainability/Extensibility.
● Modularity.
● Promotes Team Development.
● Easier Testing.
● Code Reuse.
● Improved Efficiency.
● Idle Processing.

Disadvantages

● Limited Tasks.
● Use Heavy System resources.
● Complex Algorithms.
● Device driver and interrupt signals.
● Thread Priority.

Examples

● Airline traffic control systems.

● Command Control Systems.
● Airlines reservation system.
● Heart Peacemaker.
● Network Multimedia Systems.
● Robotics.
Embedded Operating Systems
An embedded operating system is a specialized OS for embedded systems. It aims to perform
with certainty specific tasks regularly that help the device operate. An embedded operating
system often has limited features and functions. The OS may perform only a single action that
allows the device to work, but it must execute that action consistently and timely.

Embedded operating systems are built into Internet of Things devices. They are also part of
many other devices and systems. In most cases, embedded hardware doesn't have much capacity
and has fewer resources. So, the amount of processing power and memory is limited.

Advantages

● The OS is often low-cost.

● The OS tends to use few resources, including minimal power.
● The performance is generally trouble-free.
Disadvantages

● The OS can usually only run a single or very few applications.

● It is difficult to modify the OS once you establish a framework and build it into the
device.
● Trouble-shooting the OS when there are issues can be difficult.

Examples

● Windows Mobile/CE (handheld Personal Data Assistants)

● Symbian (cell phones)
● Linux-based OSes.

Multiprogramming Operating System

A multiprogramming operating system runs multiple programs on a single processor computer. If
a program waits for an I/O transfer, the other programs are ready to use the CPU. As a result,
various jobs may share CPU time. However, the execution of their jobs is not defined to be in the
same period. A multiprogramming OS is of the following two types:

1. Multitasking OS: Enables execution of multiple programs at the same time. The
operating system accomplishes this by swapping each program in and out of memory one
 at a time. When a program is switched out of memory, it is temporarily saved on disk
until it is required again.
2. Multiuser Operating System: This allows many users to share processing time on a
powerful central computer from different terminals. The operating system accomplishes
this by rapidly switching between terminals, each of which receives a limited amount of
processor time on the central computer.

Advantages

● It may help to run various jobs in a single application simultaneously.

● It helps to optimize the total job throughput of the computer.
● Various users may use the multiprogramming system at once.
● Short-time jobs are done quickly in comparison to long-time jobs.
● It may help to improve turnaround time for short-time tasks.
● It helps in improving CPU utilization and never gets idle.
● The resources are utilized smartly.

Disadvantages

● It is highly complicated and sophisticated.

● The CPU scheduling is required.
● Memory management is needed in the operating system because all types of tasks are
stored in the main memory.
● The harder task is to handle all processes and tasks.
● If it has a large number of jobs, then long-term jobs will require a long wait.

Examples

● Apps like office, chrome, etc.

● Microcomputers like MP/M, XENIX, and ESQview.
● Windows O/S
● UNIX O/S
Multiprocessor Operating System
Multiprocessor operating system utilizes multiple processors, which are connected with physical
memory, computer buses, clocks, and peripheral devices (touchpad, joystick, etc). The main
objective of using a multiprocessor OS is to consume high computing power and increase the
execution speed of the system.

Following are four major components, used in the Multiprocessor Operating System:

1. CPU – capable to access memories as well as controlling the entire I/O tasks.
2. Input Output Processor – I/P processor can access direct memories, and every I/O
processors have to be responsible for controlling all input and output tasks.
3. Input/Output Devices – These devices are used for inserting the input commands, and
producing output after processing.
4. Memory Unit – Multiprocessor system uses the two types of memory modules - shared
memory and distributed shared memory.
Advantages

● Great Reliability.
● Improve Throughput.
● Cost-Effective System.
● Parallel Processing.

Disadvantages

● It is more expensive due to its large architecture.

● Its speed can get degraded due to failing any one processor.
● It has more time delay when the processor receives the message and takes appropriate
action.
● It has big challenges related to skew and determinism.
● It needs context switching which can be impacted its performance.

Desktop Operating System

The control program which operates in the machine of a user is referred to as a desktop system.
It is also called a Client Operating System. The client can be said as a computer in a network
where the user performs some task or activity over the network. Such operating systems do not
have complete control over the resources but use the network to access them.
These computer systems only use the network to execute tasks such as downloading a file from
the network or browsing the internet. Desktop systems usually operate with a server computer
that has complete control over the resources. The processing power remains in the hands of the
server OS, which is developed in such a way that it can fulfill all the requirements of the client or
the desktop operating system.

Advantages

● Centralization of resources as all the resources are present at a common location.

● Better management of resources as the files are stored in a single place. This also avoids
the redundancy of resources such as printers and scanners.
● Remote access to the server gives processing power to every user.
● High security as only the server needs to be secured from threats and attacks.
● The server can play different roles for the different

Disadvantages

● Network congestion as multiple requests from the clients can block the network traffic.
● The architecture of request and response is not robust enough for heavy processing.
● If the server fails, all the desktop systems connected over the network fail.
● If the service interrupts, the task has to be started from scratch. For instance, if a desktop
system requests a file download that gets interrupted, the file becomes corrupt, and the
entire process needs to be carried out from the start.
● The operating system architecture is highly costly.
● A professional IT personnel is needed to manage and maintain such an operating
environment.

Examples

● Windows
● Linux
● Unix
● MAC OS
● MS-DOS
● Solaris
● Ubuntu
● Fedora
● QNX
Mobile Operating System
A mobile operating system is an operating system that helps run application software on mobile
devices. It is the same kind of software as the famous computer operating systems Linux and
Windows, but they are light and simple to some extent. The operating systems found on
smartphones include Symbian OS, IOS, BlackBerryOS, Windows Mobile, Palm WebOS,
Android, and Maemo.

Android, WebOS, and Maemo are all derived from Linux. The iPhone OS originated from BSD
and NeXTSTEP, which are related to Unix. It combines the power of a computer and the
experience of a hand-held device. It typically contains a cellular built-in modem and SIM tray for
telephony and internet connections.

Advantages

● Convenience inoperability.
● It also includes open-source platforms.
● Gives notification ease.

Disadvantages
 ● Instability.
● It also includes poor battery quality.
● Not sufficient computational power.

Examples

● Android
● IOS
● HarmonyOS
● PalmOS

Clustered Operating System

Cluster systems are similar to parallel systems. Both use multiple CPUs. The primary difference
is that clustered systems are made up of two or more independent systems linked together. They
have independent computer systems and shared storage media, and all systems work together to
complete all tasks. All cluster nodes use two different approaches to interact with one another,
like a message passing interface and a parallel virtual machine.

There are two clusters available to make a more efficient cluster. These are as follows:

● Software Cluster: Allows all the systems to work together.

● Hardware Cluster: Facilitates high-performance disk sharing among systems.

Advantages
 ● High Availability
● Cost Efficiency
● Additional Scalability
● Fault Tolerance
● Performance
● Processing Speed

Disadvantages

● Cost-Effective
● Required Resources
● Maintenance

Examples

Oracle provides a Linux-based operating system that is clustered.

Handheld Operating Systems
Handheld systems include Personal Digital Assistants, and connectivity to a network such as the
Internet. They are usually of limited size due to which most handheld devices have a small
amount of memory, include slow processors, and feature small display screens.

Many handheld devices have a memory in a range of

512

512 KB to

8
8 MB. As a result, the operating system and applications must manage memory efficiently. This
includes returning all allocated memory to the memory manager once the memory is no longer
being used. Not many handheld devices use virtual memory techniques, thus forcing program
developers to work within the confinements of restricted physical memory.

Another issue programmers deal with while developing software for handheld devices is their
small display screens. One approach for displaying the content in web pages is web clipping,
where only a small subset of a web page is delivered and displayed on the handheld device.
Some handheld devices may use wireless technology such as Bluetooth, Wifi, NFC.

Advantages

● Portability.
● Pricing.

Disadvantages

● Less computational power.

● Instability.
● Inefficient battery.

Examples

● Android
● Symbian
● PalmOS
● IOS
Linux vs Windows vs MacOS

● Security

Microsoft established AI models that scan for possible threats continuously. It also features the
biggest malware signature database for its OS to ensure its users are guarded against cyber scams
and attacks and keeps your data well-protected.

Mac OS is known for its security provisions. Many of the newer Mac models even come
embedded with the Apple T2 Security Chip. This chip fits is capable of securing the system even
for the lowest levels of software. Its Secure Enclave coprocessor is the basis for secure booting,
encrypted storage capabilities, Touch ID, etc.
Since it’s open-source, Linux distributions could be the most secure operating system. When you
have hundreds of users analyzing the source code, vulnerabilities are easily tackled. Linux
correctly estimates the benefits of having security policies that complement each other. This
could be why a growing number of users and analysts are switching to Linux.

● Software

There's a miriad of application software choices in Windows. However, the lack of a unified
store combined with the abundance of options can make some users feel overwhelmed,
especially since there’s no guidance or support to walk them through it. PC gamers, as well as
gaming developers and publishers, are also favoring Windows.

The macOS is dependent on Apple’s mesh of integrated software. Everything within the Apple
enterprise is exclusive to this ecosystem.

Linux comes with a unified install setup system. Its smaller user base means fewer options. Yet,
its open-source nature is opening up new possibilities. One of these is in the gaming industry.

● Cons

Windows suffers more from security breaches and hackings. More people use Windows
worldwide than any other operating system, which provides hackers with a massive pool of
targets. With more users, there’s a wider collection of marks to choose from.

There are vulnerabilities in the MacOS that arise from time to time. Now since over 10% of the
market share is Mac users. This is making cybercriminals take notice of this system.

Being open-source is both good as well as evil. Having that joint effort and cooperation makes
some people feel their data might be exposed. Because anyone can access the Linux source code,
some organizations are wary and a bit skeptical of its level of security.

64-bit OS vs 32-bit OS
A 64-bit processor is more capable than a 32-bit processor because it can handle more data at
once. It can store more computational values, including memory addresses, which means it can
access over 4 billion times the physical memory of a 32-bit processor.

A key difference is, 32-bit processors are perfectly capable of handling a limited amount of
RAM (in Windows, 4GB or less), and 64-bit processors utilize relatively more. A major
difference between 32-bit processors and 64-bit processors is the number of computations per
second they perform, which affects the speed at which they can complete tasks.

Batch OS vs Time-sharing OS vs Distributed OS vs Network OS vs RTOS

● Batch OS

A batch OS fetches all programs and data in the batch form then performs processing. The main
goal of using a batch processing system is to decrease the setup time while submitting similar
jobs to the CPU. Batch processing techniques were implemented in the hard disk and card
readers as well. In this case, all jobs are saved on the hard disk for making the pool of jobs for
their execution as a batch form. A batch monitor is started for executing all pooled jobs, after
reading them. These jobs are divided into groups, and finally, precede the same jobs in a similar
batch. Now all batched jobs are ready for execution one by one without wasting more time, and
this system enhances the system utilization while reducing the turnaround time.

● Time Sharing OS

Time-sharing is a logical extension of multiprogramming. The CPU executes multiple jobs by

switching, among them, but the switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each
program while it is running. An interactive system provides direct communication between the
user and the system. The user gives instructions to the OS/program directly, using a hardware
device, and waits for results. Accordingly, the response time should be short. A time-shared
operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time-shared computer. Each user has at least one separate program in memory. When
a process executes, it typically executes for only a short time before it either finishes or needs to
perform input/output.

● Distributed OS

A distributed system allows the distribution of entire systems on the couples of center
processors, and it serves multiple real-time products as well as multiple users. All processors are
connected by valid communication mediums such as high-speed buses and telephone lines, and
in which every processor contains its local memory along with other local processors.
Distributed operating systems are also known as loosely coupled systems. They involve multiple
computers, nodes, and sites, and these components are linked to each other with LAN/WAN
lines. A distributed os is capable of sharing its computational capacity and I/O files while
allowing virtual machine abstraction to users.

● Network OS
Network Operating System has special functions for connecting computers and devices into a
local-area network or Inter-network. Some popular network operating systems are Novell
Netware, Linux, IBM OS/2, etc. The network operating system which was first developed is
Novell Netware. There are two basic types of network operating systems, discussed as follows:

1. Peer-to-Peer Network Operating Systems: allow users to share network resources saved
in a common, accessible network location.
2. Client/Server Network Operating Systems: provide users with access to resources
through a server.
● Real time OS

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (often a lightweight OS) that runs
multi-threaded applications and can meet real-time deadlines.

Most RTOSes include a scheduler, resource management, and device drivers. When talking
about “deadlines”, “fast” is not the necessary implication. An RTOS can be a powerful tool if
you’re creating complex embedded programs. They help you isolate tasks and give you the
ability to run them concurrently. You can set prioritization levels of tasks in most RTOSes, which
allow some tasks to interrupt and run before other tasks.

Conclusion

● An operating system is a set of programs that enables a user to operate and interact with a
computer.
● Examples of operating systems are Linux distros (ubuntu, arch, open use, etc), Windows,
Mac OS, FreeBSD), Android, IOS, etc.
● Operating systems based on their use cases are categorized as being of the following
types:
1. Batch OS
2. Time-Sharing OS
3. Distributed OS
4. Network OS
5. Real-Time OS
6. Embedded OS
7. Multiprogramming OS
8. Multiprocessing OS
9. Desktop OS
10. Mobile OS
11. Clustered OS
What is an Operating System?

An operating system (OS) manages all other applications and programs in a computer, and it is
loaded into the computer by a boot program. It enables applications to interact with a computer’s
hardware. Through a designated application programme interface, the application programmes
request services from the operating system (API). The kernel is the software that contains the
operating system’s core components. To run other programmes, every computer has to have at
least one operating system installed.

Operating System
Windows, Linux, and Android are examples of operating systems that enable the user to use
programs like MS Office, Notepad, and games on the computer or mobile phone. It is necessary
to have at least one operating system installed in the computer to run basic programs like
browsers.

Know More About Operating System

 Operating System Linux

History of Operating Systems

● The first computer, Z1, was made in 1936 – 1938. Unfortunately, this computer
ran without an operating system.
● Twenty years later, the first-ever operating system was made in 1956.
● In the 1960s, bell labs started working on building UNIX, the first multitasking
operating system.
● In 1977 the apple series came into existence. Apple Dos 3.3 was the first disk
operating system.
● In 1981, Microsoft built the first operating system called DOS by purchasing 86 –
DOS software from a Seattle company.
● The most famous Microsoft windows came into existence in 1985 when MS-DOS
was paired with GUI, a graphics environment.

Functions of Operating System

● Processor Management: An operating system manages the processor’s work by

allocating various jobs to it and ensuring that each process receives enough time
from the processor to function properly.
● Memory Management: An operating system manages the allocation and
deallocation of the memory to various processes and ensures that the other process
does not consume the memory allocated to one process.
● Device Management: There are various input and output devices. An OS controls
the working of these input-output devices. It receives the requests from these
devices, performs a specific task, and communicates back to the requesting
process.
● File Management: An operating system keeps track of information regarding the
creation, deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an organized way. It also
maintains the integrity of the data stored in these files, including the file directory
structure, by protecting against unauthorized access.
● Security: The operating system provides various techniques which assure the
integrity and confidentiality of user data. Following security measures are used to
protect user data:
○ Protection against unauthorized access through login.
○ Protection against intrusion by keeping Firefall active.
 ○ Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
○ Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
● Error Detection: From time to time, the operating system checks the system for
any external threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for
any type of damage. This process displays several alerts to the user so that the
appropriate action can be taken against any damage caused to the system.
● Job Scheduling: In a multitasking OS where multiple programs run
simultaneously, the operating system determines which applications should run in
which order and how time should be allocated to each application.

Features of Operating Systems

Here is a list of some important features of operating systems:

1. Provides a platform for running applications

2. Handles memory management and CPU scheduling
3. Provides file system abstraction
4. Provides networking support
 5. Provides security features
6. Provides user interface
7. Provides utilities and system services
8. Supports application development

Components of Operating System

Now to perform the functions mentioned above, the operating system has two components:

● Shell
● Kernel

Shell handles user interactions. It is the outermost layer of the OS and manages the interaction
between user and operating system by:

● Prompting the user to give input

● Interpreting the input for the operating system
● Handling the output from the operating system.

Shell provides a way to communicate with the OS by either taking the input from the user or the
shell script. A shell script is a sequence of system commands that are stored in a file.

For an in-depth understanding of this topic, check out this free operating system course.

What is Kernel?

The kernel is the core component of an operating system for a computer (OS). All other
components of the OS rely on the core to supply them with essential services. It serves as the
primary interface between the OS and the hardware and aids in the control of devices,
networking, file systems, and process and memory management.
KERNEL
Functions of kernel

The kernel is the core component of an operating system which acts as an interface between
applications, and the data is processed at the hardware level.

When an OS is loaded into memory, the kernel is loaded first and remains in memory until the
OS is shut down. After that, the kernel provides and manages the computer resources and allows
other programs to run and use these resources. The kernel also sets up the memory address space
for applications, loads the files with application code into memory, and sets up the execution
stack for programs.

The kernel is responsible for performing the following tasks:

● Input-Output management
● Memory Management
● Process Management for application execution.
● Device Management
● System calls control
Earlier, all the basic system services like process and memory management, interrupt handling,
etc., were packaged into a single module in the kernel space. This type of kernel was called the
Monolithic Kernel. The problem with this approach was that the whole kernel had to be
recompiled for even a small change.

In a modern-day approach to monolithic architecture, a microkernel contains different modules

like device management, file management, etc. It is dynamically loaded and unloaded. With this
modern-day approach, the kernel code size was reduced while its stability increased.

Types of Kernel

Linus Torvalds introduced the concept of a monolithic kernel in 1991 as a part of the Linux
kernel. A monolithic kernel is a single large program that contains all operating system
components. However, the Linux kernel evolved over the years and now consists of different
types of kernels, as listed below.

1. Monolithic Kernel As the name suggests, a monolithic kernel is a single large program that
contains all operating system components. The entire kernel executes in the processor’s
privileged mode and provides full access to the system’s hardware. Monolithic kernels are faster
than microkernels because they don’t have the overhead of message passing. This type of kernel
is generally used in embedded systems and real-time operating systems.

2. Microkernel A microkernel is a kernel that contains only the essential components required for
the basic functioning of the operating system. All other components are removed from the kernel
and implemented as user-space processes. The microkernel approach provides better modularity,
flexibility, and extensibility. It is also more stable and secure than monolithic kernels.

3. Hybrid Kernel A hybrid kernel is a kernel that combines the best features of both monolithic
kernels and microkernels. It contains a small microkernel that provides the essential components
for the basic functioning of the OS. The remaining components are implemented as user-space
processes or as loadable kernel modules. This approach provides the best of both worlds, namely,
the performance of monolithic kernels and the modularity of microkernels.

4. Exokernel An exokernel is a kernel that provides the bare minimum components required for
the basic functioning of the operating system. All other components are removed from the kernel
and implemented as user-space processes. The exokernel approach provides the best possible
performance because there is no kernel overhead. However, it is also the most difficult to
implement and is not widely used.
Now let’s look at the different types of operating systems.

Types of Operating System

There are several different types of operating systems present. In this section, we will discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of these types of OS.

● Batch OS
● Distributed OS
● Multitasking OS
● Network OS
● Real-OS
● Mobile OS

Batch OS

Batch OS is the first operating system for second-generation computers. This OS does not
directly interact with the computer. Instead, an operator takes up similar jobs and groups them
together into a batch, and then these batches are executed one by one based on the first-come,
first, serve principle.

Advantages of Batch OS

● Execution time taken for similar jobs is higher.

● Multiple users can share batch systems.
● Managing large works becomes easy in batch systems.
● The idle time for a single batch is very less.

Disadvantages of OS

● It is hard to debug batch systems.

● If a job fails, then the other jobs have to wait for an unknown time till the issue is
resolved.
● Batch systems are sometimes costly.

Examples of Batch OS: payroll system, bank statements, data entry, etc.
Distributed OS

A distributed OS is a recent advancement in the field of computer technology and is utilized all
over the world that too with great pace. In a distributed OS, various computers are connected
through a single communication channel. These independent computers have their memory unit
and CPU and are known as loosely coupled systems. The system processes can be of different
sizes and can perform different functions. The major benefit of such a type of operating system is
that a user can access files that are not present on his system but in another connected system. In
addition, remote access is available to the systems connected to this network.

Advantages of Distributed OS

● Failure of one system will not affect the other systems because all the computers
are independent of each other.
● The load on the host system is reduced.
● The size of the network is easily scalable as many computers can be added to the
network.
● As the workload and resources are shared therefore the calculations are performed
at a higher speed.
● Data exchange speed is increased with the help of electronic mail.

Disadvantages of Distributed OS

● The setup cost is high.

● Software used for such systems is highly complex.
● Failure of the main network will lead to the failure of the whole system.

Examples of Distributed OS: LOCUS, etc.

Multitasking OS

The multitasking OS is also known as the time-sharing operating system as each task is given
some time so that all the tasks work efficiently. This system provides access to a large number of
users, and each user gets the time of CPU as they get in a single system. The tasks performed are
given by a single user or by different users. The time allotted to execute one task is called a
quantum, and as soon as the time to execute one task is completed, the system switches over to
another task.
Advantages of Multitasking OS

● Each task gets equal time for execution.

● The idle time for the CPU will be the lowest.
● There are very few chances for the duplication of the software.

Disadvantages of Multitasking OS

● Processes with higher priority cannot be executed first as equal priority is given to
each process or task.
● Various user data is needed to be taken care of from unauthorized access.
● Sometimes there is a data communication problem.

Examples of Multitasking OS: UNIX, etc.

Network OS

Network operating systems are the systems that run on a server and manage all the networking
functions. They allow sharing of various files, applications, printers, security, and other
networking functions over a small network of computers like LAN or any other private network.
In the network OS, all the users are aware of the configurations of every other user within the
network, which is why network operating systems are also known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network OS

● New technologies and hardware can easily upgrade the systems.

● Security of the system is managed over servers.
● Servers can be accessed remotely from different locations and systems.
● The centralized servers are stable.

Disadvantages of Network OS

● Server costs are high.

● Regular updates and maintenance are required.
● Users are dependent on the central location for the maximum number of
operations.
Examples of Network OS: Microsoft Windows server 2008, LINUX, etc.

Real-Time OS

Real-Time operating systems serve real-time systems. These operating systems are useful when
many events occur in a short time or within certain deadlines, such as real-time simulations.

Types of the real-time OS are:

● Hard real-time OS

The hard real-time OS is the operating system for mainly the applications in which the slightest
delay is also unacceptable. The time constraints of such applications are very strict. Such systems
are built for life-saving equipment like parachutes and airbags, which immediately need to be in
action if an accident happens.

● Soft real-time OS

The soft real-time OS is the operating system for applications where time constraint is not very
strict.

In a soft real-time system, an important task is prioritized over less important tasks, and this
priority remains active until the completion of the task. Furthermore, a time limit is always set
for a specific job, enabling short time delays for future tasks, which is acceptable. For Example,
virtual reality, reservation systems, etc.

Advantages of Real-Time OS

● It provides more output from all the resources as there is maximum utilization of
systems.
● It provides the best management of memory allocation.
● These systems are always error-free.
● These operating systems focus more on running applications than those in the
queue.
● Shifting from one task to another takes very little time.
Disadvantages of Real-Time OS

● System resources are extremely expensive and are not so good.

● The algorithms used are very complex.
● Only limited tasks can run at a single time.
● In such systems, we cannot set thread priority as these systems cannot switch
tasks easily.

Examples of Real-Time OS: Medical imaging systems, robots, etc.

Mobile OS

A mobile OS is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, and PDA’s. It is a platform on

which other applications can run on mobile devices.

Advantages of Mobile OS

● It provides ease to users.

Disadvantages of Mobile OS

● Some of mobile operating systems give poor battery quality to users.

● Some of the mobile operating systems are not user-friendly.

Examples of Mobile OS: Android OS, ios, Symbian OS, and Windows mobile OS.

32-bit OS versus 64-bit OS

Parameter 32-Bit OS 64-Bit OS

 Data and The 32 bit OS can store and manage In contrast, the 64 bit OS has a larger
Storage less data than the 64 bit OS, as its data handling capacity than the 32 bit
name would imply. It addresses a OS. It indicates that a total of 264
maximum of 4,294,967,296 bytes (4 memory addresses, or 18 quintillion
GB) of RAM in more detail. gigabytes of RAM, can be addressed.

Compatibility A 32-bit processor system will run A 64-bit processor system can run
of System only on 32-bit OS and not on 64 bit either a 32-bit or 64-bit OS
OS.

Application The 32-bit OS support applications The 64-bit OS do not support

Support with no hassle. applications.

Performance Performance of 32- bit OS is less Higher performance than the 32-bit
efficient. processor.

Systems These support Windows 7, Windows These support Windows XP

Available XP, Windows Vista, Windows 8, and Professional, Windows 7, Windows
Linux. 8, Windows 10, Windows Vista,
Linux, and Mac OS X.

Operating Systems Market Share

Source: https://netmarketshare.com/
Source: https://netmarketshare.com/
Examples of Operating System

Following are some examples of Operating Systems:

1. Microsoft Windows
It is a series of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by
Microsoft. The first version of Windows was released in 1985 as a GUI add-on to
MS-DOS. The first version of Windows sold as a standalone operating system
was Windows 95.
2. macOS

It is a series of graphical operating systems developed by Apple Inc. It is the successor to Mac
OS X, and it is the operating system that powers Apple’s Mac family of computers.

3. Linux

Linux is built around the Linux kernel and is a free and open-source software OS. It is one of the
most popular operating systems for servers and embedded devices. It is also used by millions of
desktop users around the world.

To learn more, check out this free Linux course.

4. Android
It is a mobile OS developed by Google. It is based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily
for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.

5. iOS

Another example of a mobile OS developed by Apple Inc. iOs is the successor to iPhone OS. It
is an operating system that powers the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch products.

Advantages of Operating System

There are several advantages of operating systems. We have listed some of them below:

1. Ensuring correct and efficient use of the computer’s hardware.

2. Allowing different applications to run concurrently.
3. Managing files and folders.
4. Providing a user interface.
5. Managing security.
6. Managing resources.
7. Managing printing.
8. Providing a platform for software development.

Disadvantages of Operating System

There are several disadvantages of operating systems. We have listed some of them below:

● They can be complex and difficult to use.

● They can be expensive to purchase and maintain.
● They can be vulnerable to attacks from malicious users.

Real-Time Operating System

What is RTOS?

An operating system that can execute multi-threaded programmes and adhere to real-time
deadlines is known as a “RTOS.” The majority of RTOSes incorporate device drivers, resource
management, and schedulers. Remember that we don’t always mean “quick” when we talk about
“deadlines.” Instead, this means that we can foresee when specific jobs will run before runtime.

If you’re writing intricate embedded applications, an RTOS can be a great tool. They support
task isolation and enable concurrent operation.

Applications of Real-Time Operating System

● Defence application systems like RADAR.

● Airlines reservation system.
● Systems that provide immediate updating.
● Networked Multimedia Systems.
● Air traffic control system.
● Command Control Systems.

Conclusion

As the need for technology grows day by day in the coming days and as younger generations like
Gen Alpha grow up & join the workforce good & efficient operating system will be the topmost
priority of every business setting. If you are planning to get a degree in IT, now is the best time
to start.

Operating System FAQs

What is operating system in explain?

An operating system (OS) is the programme that controls all other application programmes in a
computer after being installed into the system first by a boot programme. The application
programmes seek services from the operating system (API) through a specified application
programme interface.

What is an operating system and example?

An operating system facilitates communication between a user and a system. Examples of
operating systems are Microsoft Office, Notepad, and gaming on a computer or mobile device
including Windows, Linux, and Android.

What are the 5 types of operating systems?

Types of an Operating System are
Batch Operating System.

Time-Sharing Operating System.

Distributed Operating System.

Embedded Operating System.

Real-time Operating System.

What is the importance of an operating system?

The most crucial piece of software that runs on a computer is the operating system. It controls
the memory, operations, software, and hardware of the computer. Using this method, you can
converse with the computer even if you don’t understand its language.

What is OS structure?
An operating system is a design that enables user application programmes to communicate with
the hardware of the machine. The operating system should be built with the utmost care because
it is such a complicated structure and should be simple to use and modify. Partially developing
the operating system is a simple approach to accomplish this.

What is a process in OS?

A process is an instance of a computer programme that is being run by one or more threads in
computing. It includes the programme code and all of its operations. A process may consist of
several concurrently running threads of execution, depending on the operating system (OS).

Networks - nature and types

What is a Network?

Network means linking two or more computers, and various peripheral devices for resource
sharing such as files, internet sharing, etc. The best example is the internet which connects
millions of people all over the world.

What is a Computer Network?

Computer Network links two or more computing devices and the computing hardware through
various communication channels (i.e. cables, telephone lines, radio waves, wifi, etc.) for data and
resource sharing. For example, Bluetooth connection to transfer files, a hotspot for sharing the
internet, etc.

A network could be small, inclusive of only one system, or as large as one may need.

Need for Computer Network

● Resource Sharing- One can use a single resource to be shared along with multiple
computers. i.e. In an organization, we can use a single printer for various
computers.
● Information Sharing- One can share information with the help of networking.
● Communication- Ease of messaging.

Types Of Computer Networks

There are various types of computer networks categorized by their size.

● Personal Area Network(PAN)

● Local Area Network (LAN)
● Wide Area Network (WAN)
● Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
● Storage Area Network (SAN)
● System-Area Network (SAN)
● Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
● Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
● Virtual Private Network (VPN)
● Home Area Network (HAN)

Personal Area Network(PAN)

It is the smallest and most basic type of computer network. The size of PAN varies from
centimeters to 30 meters. PAN network can be classified into two types

● Wired PAN Network

● Wireless PAN Network

Examples of PAN are – USB, Computer, Bluetooth, etc.

Advantages Of PAN are-

● Less Expensive
● Confined to a small space area
● Links to multiple devices concurrently

Disadvantages Of PAN are-

● Limited area
● Slow Data Transmission
● Interference with radio signal

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN can be defined as a cluster of computers connected at a single physical location such as an
office, building, etc. It is the most common type of network used. A LAN can also be formed
with two computers connected over a network. Hub, Switches, Cables, and Optical fibers are
used to connect various computers and devices to a network.

Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, college, office, etc.

Advantages Of LAN are-

 ● High data transfer rate
● Ease of setup
● Centralized Data
● Low Cost

Disadvantages Of LAN are-

● Covers small area

● The cables and connectors get damaged easily
● Requires administrative time

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a type of computer network that covers a large geographical area. WAN is also
defined as the connection of several LANs linked together to cover an entire city or country. The
WAN network is provided via several methods such as telephone lines, fiber optics cable, and
also through satellite links.

Advantages Of WAN are-

● Covers vast area

● Multiple users can share and access the internet at the same time
● High Bandwidth

Disadvantages Of WAN are-

● High initial investment cost

● Hard to handle as the network is vast and complex.
● Less secure
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN functions like WAN but without cables i.e, these are wireless. WLAN allows devices to
connect wireless and it follows a standard called IEEE 802.11. WLAN connects laptops,
smartphones, personal digital assistants, desktop computers, printers, etc. It is easy to install and
use.

Advantages Of WLAN are-

● Economical to use as it has smaller access to an area

● Easier to provide connectivity in areas where cable laying is not possible
● Easy to install as no cable layout is needed

Disadvantages Of WLAN are-

● Covers a limited area

● Can interfere with other devices as it uses radio waves
● Decrease in data transfer rate with increase in devices connected

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

This type of network is created by linking existing LAN networks to cover a large geographical
area. MAN is smaller than LAN but larger than WAN.

Examples of MAN are networking in government agencies, airports, libraries, etc.

Advantages Of MAN are-

● Offers Centralized data management

● Quick transfer of files
 ● Provides higher speed of internet as it uses fiber optics

Disadvantages Of MAN are-

● Difficult to handle due to large network size

● Risk of hacking
● High installation cost as it requires fiber optics

Storage Area Network(SAN)

This network is good for small businesses. SAN network comprises various switches, storage
devices, and storage elements that are interconnected with each other. SAN network does not
depend upon LAN or WAN networks.

Advantages Of SAN are-

● Improvised Data Security

● Reduces LAN bandwidth problems
● Dynamic failover protection

Disadvantages Of SAN are-

● Expensive
● High maintenance
● Complex in nature

System-Area Network (SAN)

SAN is a conglomeration of networks designed for high-speed interconnection in (server-server)

mode. It uses fiber optics to establish this fast connection.
Examples of SAN are Fiber channels, etc.

Advantages Of SAN are-

● Can handle large volumes of data

● Ideal for high-level network performance
● Has high bandwidth

Disadvantages Of SAN are-

● Hard to handle as the network is vast and complex.

● Complex in nature
● High initial cost

Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

POLAN functions in a similar way to LAN. It uses optical splitter instead of electrical powered
switches to separate and collect optical signals and is based on point to multipoint architecture.

Examples of POLAN are networking in medium-size companies, hospitals, hotels, etc.

Advantages Of POLAN are-

● It is flexible
● Economical and Environment Friendly
● Low requirement of energy
Disadvantages Of POLAN are-

● Difficult to detect the failure in splitters

● Includes Expensive components
● Difficult in installation

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

This is a type of private network mostly owned by businesses who want to connect their various
branches to share computer resources.

Examples of EPN are communication between the head and remote offices, connecting various
branches of a parent company, etc.

Advantages Of EPN are-

● Safe and secure network

● Helps in centralizing the IT resources
● Cost-effective for big companies

Disadvantages Of EPN are-

● High services fees

● Coverage limitation
● Difficult to set up

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a private network that connects remote users or sites using a public network. A VPN
uses tunneling or virtual point-to-point connection technology to connect which creates a secure
connection between the users or sites having the same IP address.

Advantages Of VPN are-

● Helps in creating a virtual IP address

● Bypasses Geo-Restrictions
● Increases Online Privacy

Disadvantages Of VPN are-

● Dropped Connections
● Data logging
● Slow connection speeds

Home Area Network (HAN)

HAN is used to share various computers or peripheral devices used in the same home. There is
one device that acts as a centralized device for the function of Network Address
Translation(NAT).

Examples of HAN are printers, game systems, tablets, WiFi, etc.

Advantages Of HAN are-

● Resource Sharing
● Security
● MultiUser
Disadvantages Of HAN are-

● Slow Connectivity
● Expensive
● High Security

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) -

nature and samples
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents
in a standard electronic format between business partners.

By moving from a paper-based exchange of business document to one that is electronic,

businesses enjoy major benefits such as reduced cost, increased processing speed, reduced errors
and improved relationships with business partners. Learn more about the benefits of EDI here »

Each term in the definition is significant:

● Computer-to-computer– EDI replaces postal mail, fax and email. While email is
also an electronic approach, the documents exchanged via email must still be
handled by people rather than computers. Having people involved slows down the
processing of the documents and also introduces errors. Instead, EDI documents can
flow straight through to the appropriate application on the receiver’s computer (e.g.
the Order Management System) and processing can begin immediately.

A typical manual process looks like this, with lots of paper and people involvement:
The EDI process looks like this – no paper, no people involved:

● Business documents – These are any of the documents that are typically exchanged
between businesses. The most common documents exchanged via EDI are purchase
orders, invoices and Advance Ship Notices. But there are many, many others such as
bill of lading, customs documents, inventory documents, shipping status documents.
● Standard format– Because EDI documents must be processed by computers rather
than humans, a standard format must be used so that the computer will be able to
read and understand the documents. A standard format describes what each piece of
information is and in what format (e.g. integer, decimal, mmddyy). Without a
standard format, each company would send documents using its company-specific
format and, much as an English-speaking person probably doesn’t understand
Japanese, the receiver’s computer system doesn’t understand the company-specific
format of the sender’s format.There are several EDI standards in use today,
including ANSI, EDIFACT, TRADACOMS and XML. And, for each standard there
are many different versions, e.g. ANSI 5010 or EDIFACT version D12, Release A.
When two businesses decide to exchange EDI documents, they must agree on the
specific EDI standard and version. Businesses typically use an EDI translator –
either as in-house software or via an EDI service provider – to translate the EDI
 format so the data can be used by their internal applications and thus enable straight
through processing of documents.
● Business partners – The exchange of EDI documents is typically between two
different companies, referred to as business partners or trading partners. For
example, Company A may buy goods from Company B. Company A sends orders to
Company B. Company A and Company B are business partners.

A common business process is the exchange of purchase orders and invoices. So, let’s compare
how this is done using paper or EDI.

In the paper-based method, the following process typically occurs:

● The inventory system automatically notifies the buyer to place an order, or, after
querying the inventory system, the buyer determines that an order needs to be
created
● The buyer enters data onto the screen of a purchasing system to create the PO, prints
and mails it
● After several days, the vendor receives the PO and manually enters it into the sales
order system
● The vendor prints an invoice and encloses it with the shipment and/or sends it
separately by mail
● The buyer manually enters the invoice into the Accounts Payable system

The exchange of paper documents can add a week to the process. If there are errors caused by
manual data entry, the time can be greatly increased.

Now compare that with the EDI process:

● The buyer’s procurement system, which utilises EDI software, automatically

generates and sends an EDI-formatted PO when inventory reaches the critical level
● Within minutes the vendor’s sales order system, utilising EDI software, receives the
EDI PO, notifies the shipping department to ship the goods and generates an EDI
invoice to be transmitted directly to the buyer’s accounts payable system

The EDI process can be completed within hours.

According to research from GS1 UK, the grocery sector saves £650 million every year from its
use of EDI. The research also suggests that the grocery sector could save a further £200 million
each year from the automation of one single business document – the Advance Ship Notice.
From a financial perspective alone, there are impressive benefits from implementing EDI with
your trading partners and each additional document that you implement can increase that
savings. But cost savings is far from the only benefit of using EDI.

But let’s start with cost savings anyway:

● Research has consistently shown that EDI costs at most one third of its paper-based
equivalent
● One report put the cost at 70 times less. A major American company reported a
reduction in its order processing costs from $38/order to $1.35/order with EDI
● The EU has reported that by taking 10 minutes less to process electronic invoices it
saves 120 euro per invoice every year
● GS1 UK found that UK grocers saved £14 on every electronic order

The major benefits of EDI are often stated as speed and accuracy:

● Transactions that used to take 5 days by paper can be completed in under an hour.
An American automotive corporation reduced a key cycle time by 97% – a 30-day
process was reduced to 24 hours. And a major retailer reduced order cycle time by
75% from 24 days to 6 days
● Research has shown that with paper-based processes often as much as 5% of the data
on an invoice is inaccurate
● More accurate data means that the entire supply chain is more efficient. Some
estimates suggest that EDI can result in 30% faster delivery time to customers

However, the increase in business efficiency is also a major factor:

● Automating paper-based tasks frees staff to concentrate on higher-value tasks. It

provides them with the tools to be more productive. Research reports as much as a
50% savings on human resources from the use of EDI
● The prompt processing of accurate business documents leads to less re-working of
orders, fewer stock outs and fewer cancelled orders
● Buyers can take full advantage of better payment terms and discounts
● Sellers benefit from improved cash flow and reduced order-to-cash cycles
● Shortening the order processing and delivery times means that organisations can
reduce their inventory levels – research suggests by an average of 10%, a major
benefit when you consider that inventory often accounts for 90% of product costs
In many cases, the greatest EDI benefits come at the strategic business level:

● EDI enables real-time visibility into transaction status. This in turn enables faster
decision-making and improved responsiveness to changing customer and market
demands, and allows businesses to adopt a demand-driven business model rather
than a supply-driven one
● Shortens the lead times for product enhancements and new product delivery
● Streamlines your ability to enter new territories and markets. EDI provides a
common business language that facilitates business partner onboarding anywhere in
the world
● Promotes corporate social responsibility and sustainability by replacing paper-based
processes with electronic alternatives. This will both save you money and reduce
your CO2 emissions

EDI Frequently Asked Questions

Q: What is meant by EDI?

A: EDI means electronic data interchange. Electronic data interchange allows businesses to
send information electronically in a standard, structured format.

Q: What is EDI and an example?

A: EDI, also known as electronic data interchange, is exchange of business information in a

standard and structured format. An example of EDI is when a buyer sends an order to a supplier,
that order is known as an EDI 850. Buyers and trading partners, have specified EDI document
types suppliers comply with, for this instance, the supplier will respond back with an invoice also
known as EDI 810. All of this is exchanged securely via EDI ensuring data accuracy and
enhancing efficiency for all parties involved.

Q: Where is EDI used?

A: EDI is used across industries and market verticals such as retail, grocery, automotive,
manufacturing, healthcare, pharmaceutical, utility/energy and more.

Q: What is EDI and why is it important?

A: EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) enables companies to automate the exchange of business
transactions securely and enhances efficiency for all parties. EDI is important as it streamlines
the supply chain process, improves data accuracy, eliminates manual processing and errors and
strengthens communications and partnerships.

Q: What is an example of an EDI transaction?

A: An example of an EDI transaction is an EDI 850, also known as an electronic purchase order.
An EDI 850 Purchase Order is a fundamental EDI transaction used by business partners to
initiate the procurement cycle and is used across almost all market verticals.

Q: What are the 4 major components of EDI?

A: The 4 major components of EDI are: standard document format, translation and mapping,
preferred communication method and communication network to send and receive documents.

Q: What are the steps associated with EDI?

A: The steps associated with EDI are: data entered into business system, data translation into
EDI format, preparing EDI document, transmitting document via preferred communication
method to send to business partners.

Q: Is EDI a software?

A: EDI, also known as electronic data interchange, is a software that streamlines business
processes and improves operational efficiency. DataTrans Solutions provides cloud-based EDI
software that enables you to connect, integrate automate and expand your business.

PC-based Accounting Systems -

nature and samples

What Is a Computerized Accounting System?

How is your company doing? Being able to answer that question requires you to know how
much money you're making, which in turn requires accurate bookkeeping. Keeping accurate
financial records is crucial to the success of any business, so it's important to know your options.
While some firms still do their bookkeeping by hand, most firms generally have too many
transactions to sustain a manual accounting system. The more complicated the financial activities
of your business are, the more likely it is that you'll need a computerized accounting system to
ensure effective financial reporting. Computerized accounting systems are software programs
that are stored on a company's computer, network server, or remotely accessed via the Internet.

Computerized accounting systems allow you to set up income and expense accounts, such as
rental or sales income, salaries, advertising expenses, and material costs. They also can be used
to manage bank accounts, pay bills, and prepare budgets. Depending upon the program, some
accounting systems also allow you to prepare tax documents, handle payroll, and manage project
costing.

You can generally customize the software to meet the needs of your business. It's important to
make sure that your staff are trained and understand how to use the system correctly so that your
company can successfully use your accounting program.

The Different Types

As you start looking at computerized systems, you'll find that there are a lot of options! Basic
features tend to be consistent across most programs. It's helpful to compare several to see which
features and capabilities best match your business operations.

Generally, the least expensive computerized options are pre-developed, off-the-shelf accounting
software packages. These are software packages that typically offer common functions that
apply to most businesses, and usually have some flexibility to customize certain features to meet
the needs of a company. Most businesses, however, will find they may need to adapt their
processes to match how the software works.

Examples of accounting software packages designed for small businesses include QuickBooks,
Sage (or Peachtree), and Bookkeeper. Depending upon which version of these programs you buy,
you'll be able to set up income and expense accounts, track vendor billing, and manage payroll.
These off-the-shelf systems generally have you up and running fairly quickly, depending on the
complexity of your business. Most include basic report templates and you'll probably be able to
customize reports to get information in a way that is more fitting for your needs.
If your business has complicated, specific needs, you may want to consider having a customized
accounting system created. While it's not the cheapest or quickest option, it will allow you to
have a program that handles your business most effectively. Customized systems are tailored to
your specifications, meeting the unique needs of your company. They can offer functionality not
available in other systems, or can allow you to cut out parts of the mass-marketed programs you
don't need.

According to BIR’s Revenue Regulation (RR) No. 09-2009 issued last January 2010, all large
taxpayers of the Philippines are required to maintain electronic systems or Computerized
Accounting Systems (CAS) to document and maintain their records and book of accounts. Large
taxpayers are classified by a criterion consolidated in RR No. 17-2010 and are those directly
notified by the BIR. CAS are highly essential to corporations and enterprises who are
automatically classified as large taxpayers.

So, what are Computerized Accounting Systems exactly? Computerized Accounting Systems
(CAS) are information technology developments that aid complex accounting transaction
processes by automatically executing accounting procedures in a computer. Derived from the
manual management of accounting transactions, CAS has modernized and simplified people’s
work to data encoding. Other than practicality, CAS also enhance company management.
Accounting journals and books and even Excel spreadsheets have been made obsolete by CAS’
abilities to create and maintain reliable and standardized records as well as provide mobile and
high-speed reporting. Its technology also features improved accuracy and productivity, tighter
internal control system, and convenient records back up and restoration. Today, many companies
such as ABM Global Solutions have become providers of CAS and other related services.

Accounting Use case Starting Free Mobile Integra Bill pay

software price trial applications tion tools
period options
QuickBooks Small $15 per 30 days Yes Yes Yes
businesses month

FreshBooks Invoicing $6/per 30 days Yes Yes Yes

month

Oracle ERP tools Custom 14 days Yes Yes Yes

Netsuite

Zoho Books Microbusines $14/per 14 days Yes Yes Yes

ses month

Xero Growing $12 per 30 days Yes Yes Yes

businesses month

ZarMoney Transparent $15 per 15 days Yes Yes Yes

pricing month

Plooto Automating $25 per 30 days Yes Limited Yes

accounts month
payable

Wave Free option Free N/A Yes Yes Yes

Financial

Sage Freelancers/s $34.30 per 30 days Yes Yes Yes

Business elf employed month
 Melio Free Free N/A No Limited Yes
accounts
payable

Neat Receipt $16.66/ 14 days Yes Yes No

management month
(annual
prorated)

Data management
What is data management?

Data management is the practice of collecting, organizing, protecting, and storing an

organization’s data so it can be analyzed for business decisions. As organizations create and
consume data at unprecedented rates, data management solutions become essential for making
sense of the vast quantities of data. Today’s leading data management software ensures that
reliable, up-to-date data is always used to drive decisions. The software helps with everything
from data preparation to cataloging, search, and governance, allowing people to quickly find the
information they need for analysis.

Types of Data Management

Data management plays several roles in an organization’s data environment,

making essential functions easier and less time-intensive. These data
management techniques include the following:

● Data preparation is used to clean and transform raw data into the right shape and format
for analysis, including making corrections and combining data sets.
● Data pipelines enable the automated transfer of data from one system to another.
● ETLs (Extract, Transform, Load) are built to take the data from one system, transform
it, and load it into the organization’s data warehouse.
 ● Data catalogs help manage metadata to create a complete picture of the data, providing a
summary of its changes, locations, and quality while also making the data easy to find.
● Data warehouses are places to consolidate various data sources, contend with the many
data types businesses store, and provide a clear route for data analysis.
● Data governance defines standards, processes, and policies to maintain data security and
integrity.
● Data architecture provides a formal approach for creating and managing data flow.
● Data security protects data from unauthorized access and corruption.
● Data modeling documents the flow of data through an application or organization.

Why data management is important

Data management is a crucial first step to employing effective data analysis at scale, which leads
to important insights that add value to your customers and improve your bottom line. With
effective data management, people across an organization can find and access trusted data for
their queries. Some benefits of an effective data management solution include:

Visibility

Data management can increase the visibility of your organization’s data assets, making it easier
for people to quickly and confidently find the right data for their analysis. Data visibility allows
your company to be more organized and productive, allowing employees to find the data they
need to better do their jobs.

Reliability

Data management helps minimize potential errors by establishing processes and policies for
usage and building trust in the data being used to make decisions across your organization. With
reliable, up-to-date data, companies can respond more efficiently to market changes and
customer needs.

Security

Data management protects your organization and its employees from data losses, thefts, and
breaches with authentication and encryption tools. Strong data security ensures that vital
company information is backed up and retrievable should the primary source become
unavailable. Additionally, security becomes more and more important if your data contains any
personally identifiable information that needs to be carefully managed to comply with consumer
protection laws.

Scalability

Data management allows organizations to effectively scale data and usage occasions with
repeatable processes to keep data and metadata up to date. When processes are easy to repeat,
your organization can avoid the unnecessary costs of duplication, such as employees conducting
the same research over and over again or re-running costly queries unnecessarily