L-2

Overview of microprocessor

1 Introduction

- Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer,

fabricated on a small chip capable of performing ALU

(Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating with

the other devices connected to it.

- Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control

unit. ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the

data received from the memory or an input device. Register

array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H,

L and accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data

and instructions within the computer.

2 The internal Architecture of Microprocessor

Internally, the microprocessor as depicted in Fig.1 includes 3 main

units.

1. The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

2. An array of registers for holding data while it is being

manpulated.
3. The Control Unit.

Fig.2.1 The internal Architectural of the 8085 Microprocessor

3 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

• In addition to the arithmetic & logic circuits, the ALU

includes the accumulator, which is part of every arithmetic &

logic operation.

• Also, the ALU includes a temporary register used for holding

data temporarily during the execution of the operation. This

temporary register is not accessible by the programmer

3.1 The roles of the ALU unit

The function of the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) in any

microprocessor is to perform the following arithmetic

operations:
1) Addition/Subtraction

2) Multiplication/division

3) Mathematical operators as Absolute values (Modulus), ABS

4) Floating point and fixed numbers of operations

5) Logarithmic functions

6) Complex arithmetic

7) Logical operation

• The Addition and subtraction

Each microprocessor chip irrespective of its type includes an

essential module called the Accumulator. The accumulator is

known as a programmable register or a maskable register

which can be accessed and programmed by user. Each

accumulator includes a built in Full Adder module. The

instruction set includes some instructions (operation codes)

that mange the operation of the accumulator executes the

mathematical operations as:

• ADD/Sub

The addition/subtraction functions are executed by the

accumulator. • The assigned numbers are read by the

accumulator instructions , ADD/SUB. The result is stored in

the accumulator register. The output of the accumulator can be

 stored in the memory location or the internal registers or

outputting the assigned output ports. The accumulator can

perform the sum of the mathematical series. The word length

of the accumulator storage register is doubling the word length

of micro-processor word.

• MUL/DIV.

The ALU in the advanced series of the microprocessor may

include a built-in programmable hardware multiplier which

executes the multiplication/divisions using certain instructions

as MUL/DIV.

The multiplier or divisor includes storage register to deal with

the resulting values.

Moreover, the multiplier can execute the Mul/Add operations

which are useful in computing the digital signal processing

algorithms. The advanced architectures of the microprocessors

can perform the following arithmetic operations:

1. Mathematical operators as Absolute values (Modulus) ,ABS

2. Floating point and fixed numbers of operations

3. Logarithmic functions

4. Complex arithmetic
 3.2 The Logic Arithmetic operations

The Microprocessor module can do the logical functions

(Boolean algebra) Logical operators as:

• NOT, OR, NOR, AND, NAND, EXOR, EXNOR.

• Logical shifting left or right.

• Logical rotation left or right.

Examples:

The accumulator size is double the length of the data register

and data bus. It is divided into two parts High and Low. AL or

AH of 8 bits each.

The stack register can hold a number of words compatible with

length of the interrupt vector. The word size is the same of the

PC word. The stack pointer length can cover the number of

interrupts. It may one-byte length.

4 The array registers

Each Microprocessor architecture includes groups of

specialized registers. The storage size of each register depends

on the type and the purpose of that registers. The specialized

registers are classified as maskable or non-maskable.

The function of maskable registers is controlled using certain

programmable instructions and can be accessed during the

running of the assigned programs in machine codes.

 The function of non-maskable registers is not accessed directly

by the programmer. They are non-programmable registers. It

helps by initial design the other registers inside the

microprocessor to perform its functions.

4.1 The Maskable registers (Programmed registers)

The Maskable registers in each Micro- Processor are accessed

and possess some instructions (operation codes). The

followings are the famous types of the programmable registers.

They are:

1-The Accumulator

2- The multiplier

3- The program counter

4- The Status register (Flags)

5- The timer register

The size of each register (word length in bits) depends on the

type of the microprocessor and its purpose.

- The Program Counter (PC)

This is a register that is used to control the sequencing of the

execution of instructions. This register always holds the

address of the next instruction. Since it holds an address, it

must be the same length of the address lines (16 or 32 bits

wide).

- The Status register (Flags)

The status register manages and explain the status of the results

of the accumulator/the multiplier operations. Also, the interrupt

operation and other registers.

They are called Zero(Z), Carry (CY), Sign (S), Parity (P), and

Auxiliary Carry (AC) flags; The most used flags are Zero,

Carry, and Sign. The microprocessor uses these flags to test

data conditions.

For example, after an addition of two numbers, if the sum in

the accumulator id larger than eight bits, the flip-flop uses to

indicate a carry called the Carry flag (CY) is set to one. When

an arithmetic operation results in zero, the flip-flop called the

Zero(Z) flag is set to one. These flags have critical importance

in the decision-making process of the micro- processor. The

conditions (set or reset) of the flags are tested through the

software instructions. For example, the instruction JC (Jump on

Carry) is implemented to change the sequence of a program

 when CY flag is set. The thorough understanding of flag is

essential in writing assembly language programs. This will be

explained in detail in the next sections.

The Timer registers are useful in synchronizing of the timing

and delay programming for special applications.

-The Timer registers:

The Timer registers are useful in synchronizing of the timing

and delay programming for special applications.

4.2 The Non-Maskable registers

1- Memory address register

2- The instruction registers/Decoder

3- The stack pointer registers.

4- The Stack Register

- Memory address register

The memory address register, MAR is used to store the address

generated by the PC. It writes the captured address on the

address bus during the execution of the Fitch operation cycle

to fetch the required address of the executed instruction.

- Instruction Register & Decoder Registers

The instruction and decoder register stores the fetched

instruction from the program memory to be decoded in the

decoder register to identify the required operation.

The instruction registers/Decoder are responsible to store the

executed instructions from the program memory. It interprets

and decodes the required operations.

- The stack pointer registers.

It points out the address of the current interrupt and controls

the execution of interrupts and its return. The stack is usually

accessed in a Last In First Out (LIFO) fashion.

- The Stack Register

It stores the addresses of the interrupted instructions and

returns it as the interrupt subroutine is ended.

- The timer registers.

The Timer registers are useful in synchronizing of the timing

and delay programming for special applications.

2.5 The control unit (CU)

The CU is responsible to synchronize and manage the whole

operation of the microprocessor. It includes:

1. The timing circuits and clock generator

2. The reading and writing from and to the attached memories

and

input/output peripherals.

3. It executes the enabled interrupts

4. There is number of control lines that differ according to the

type and the generation of the Microprocessor.

6 The operation Cycle

Each instruction of the Microprocessor can be executed

performing three cycles:

1- Fetch

2- Decode.

3- Execute
- Fetch operation

The microprocessor during fetch cycle send the assigned

address determined by the program counter to the memory

address register, (MAR). The MAR write the dedicated address

related to location of the instruction in the program memory to

the external address bus. The assigned instruction is read by the

microprocessor through the data bus. The instruction registers,

IR store the captured instruction.

- Decode operation

The IR register interprets the type of the instruction according

to the type of the microprocessor. The required operation is

determined.

If the assigned instruction belongs to the arithmetic operations

and its types and it may need operands or single instruction.

Execute operation

The interpreted instruction is executed according to its types of

arithmetic or logical or decision control. Each operation cycle

is executing through the timing of clocks of the Microprocessor

type.
 The clock time is equivalent to the periodical time of the clock
1
generator. The clock time =
𝑓𝑐

7 The system Buses

Each Microprocessor design includes system of busses or lines

to enable read/write and control operations.

The system busses lines are:

1) The external Address Bus

2) The internal and the external Data Busses

3) The control Bus.

The Address Bus differs according to the type of the

microprocessor.

1- The Address Bus

The Address Bus lines (Unidirectional) is out of the

Microprocessor chip.

The number of the address bus lines, N determines the size of

the memory map locations that are directly attached and

accessed by the Microprocessor chip. Identifying peripheral or

memory location
 Some Microprocessor types assigns number of address lines as

input/output ports.

The advanced Microprocessor includes separate input/output

ports to interface with the input/output peripherals.

2- Data Bus

The function of the data bus is:

1. Bidirectional

2. Transferring data

The size of the word length inside the Microprocessor

determines the width or the number of lines assigned to the data

Bus. In some Microprocessor especially in the first generation

combines the data Bus line with the dedicated address lines to

form the requited Address Bus size.

The advanced generation of the Microprocessor isolates the

Address bus from the Data Bus lines.

3- Control Bus

The control Bus lines, carry out:

1. Synchronization signals

2. Timing signals.

3. Control signals

8 The Types of the Microprocessors

The Microprocessor Architecture as depicted in Fig.2 includes

two main types:

1- The Von Neumann Machine

2- The Harvard Machine

• The Von Neumann Machine executes the instructions

sequentially.

• The program counter starts initially by the address 00 and

ending by FF for 8 bits machine.

• The program counter starts initially by the address 0000 and

ending by FFFF for 16 bits machine.

Fig. 2 A Comparison between Types of Microprocessors
The address bus and the data bus are not separate inside the

Microprocessor. It means, the memory location inside memory

is accessed first and the data is read/write next.

• The Von Neumann Architecture represents the core of the

CPU of the desktop and mini-computers series.

• The Harvard Architecture

• includes two separate address bus and data bus inside the

Microprocessor.

• The Harvard Architecture can execute the instruction

concurrently

• The Harvard Architecture can access the data memory and the

program memory simultaneously.

• The Harvard Architecture represents the core the special

purpose and digital signal processors.

This course is concerned with the Von Neumann Machine 8 bits

and 16 bits Architecture and programming.

• 8- and 16-bits Microprocessor will be handled in the next

lectures.
• Fig.3 explains the internal /external structures of the 8 bits

Microprocessor.

• This 8-bit structure and its instruction sets will be explained

through the next chapters.

Exercise-2

1- What are the main internal components of the

microprocessor? 2- Explain the function of the ALU unit.

3- Illustrate the main task of the accumulator inside the ALU unit.

4- Demonstrate the types of the arithmetic operations done by the

advanced micro processors.

5- Compare between the maskable and non-maskable special

registers.

6- Clarify the main task of the Program counter special register.

7-List the types of the microprocessor architecture and clarify

the difference between them.